16.

Excretion & Osmoregulation

16. Highlights of this topic:
6. A. modes of excretion.
6. B. human excretory system
6. C. Composition and formation of urine
6. D. Role of kidney in osmoregulation
6. E. kidney failure, dialysis and kidney stone, transplantation
Que: comment o removal of metabolic waste is “cleanliness is next to guidelinesss”.
Ans:
1) In our body numerous metabolic activities are carried out continuously, round the clock
and throughout the life to remove metabolic waste.
2) Different constituents of food are ingested, digested and absorbed. Some substances are
utilized, some are stored and harmful substances if an excess are eliminated out of the
body. E. nitrogenous waste products.
3) The reasons behind these to say that “cleanliness is next to godliness. There are certain
byproducts of the metabolic activities which are harmful to the body .so they should be
eliminated out of the body.
Que: What is excretion? Explain formation & elimination excretory products & organs.
Ans:
1) Excretion is the elimination of metabolic waste across the cell membrane. Waste
products are formed due to catabolism of glucose, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids.
2) The waste products formed are CO2, H2O, bile pigments and nitrogenous wastes.
Excess of inorganic salts, hormones and vitamins are also considered wastes.
3) The lunges are excretory organs because CO, H2O, and other volatile substances are
eliminated through them.
4) Liver: The pigments biliverdins that are formed in the liver by breakdown of hemoglobin
are excretory substances which pass out through intestine.
5) Skin helps in elimination of urea, inorganic salts and water through sweat glands.
Que: What are major roles of kidney?
Ans: Kidney plays a major as an excretory organ in all vertebrates & performs three major
functions:
a) Excretion: eliminate nitrogenous waste in the form of urine.
b) Osmoregulation: maintain water balance of the body.
c) Iso - ionic: maintain concentration of hydrogen ions in the organism.
Que: What are non-volatile wastes?
Ans: Excess water, nitrogenous wastes, excess inorganic salts, hormones and vitamins are
called non-volatile wastes. So, excretory system is developed in animals to eliminate
these substances.
Note:
Que: What are waste products of carbohydrate & fat?
Ans: In body cells, on oxidation of glucose & fat CO2 & H2O are produced.
Que: What is source of nitrogen waste?
Ans: The main source of nitrogen wastes is formed from proteins, nucleic acid, purines &
pyrimidines. On oxidation of amino acids & nitrogen bases produce either Ammonia,
Urea Uric acid etc in liver.
Que: What is deamination? OR Que: What is first step of cell respiration.
1) Deamination is the first step of cell respiration in which amino acid used.
2) In liver, excess & uric acid & sends to kidney for excretion e. g Alanine can be
deaminated to give ammonia & pyruvic acid.
Que: What is ornithine cycle?
Ans: Formation of Uric acid (H2N-CO-NH2) in mitochondria of liver cells, here, ammonia is
converted in to urea by ornithine cycle.
Que: What is inosinic acid pathway?
1) Formation of Uric acid (C5H4O3H4): it is formed during metabolic of nucleic acid
(purine) it is synthesized in liver of uricotelic animals by inosinic acid pathway.
2) The synthesis of uric acid from ammonia is occurred by inosinic acid pathway described
by Buchanan (1961) in liver of pigeon. Uric acid is member of purines. (A&G).
Que: what is creatine? How & where is it produced?
Ans: Creatinine is a derivative of creatine formed during metabolism of muscular protein. It is
produced by catabolism (break down) of nucleic acid & Creatinine phosphate
 respectively; it is less toxic than ammonia & less in amount than urea. These wastes are
far harmless.
Que: Enlist different types of other nitrogen wastes in different animals.
Ans:
 Other types of nitrogenous wastes produced by animals are-
a) Allantoin: found in every young embryo of birds & reptiles.
b) Hippuric acid: in mammals, ornithuric acid-in birds.
c) Creatine: it is normally urine of children, pregnant lactating mothers. Its excretion
increases during catabolism of muscular tissue protein, during fever, starvation &
hyperthyroidism.
d) Trim ethylamine: formed in Mollusca & Crustaceasns.
e) Guanine: as we are studying in Guanotelism.
16. A mode of Excretion:
Que: What is excretion? Describe different mode of excretion in animals.
Que: Write notes on-a) Ammonotelism b) Ureotelism c) Uricotelism.
Que: Terrestrial animals are generally either ureotelic or uricotelic, not Ammonotelism,
why?
Que: Name the excretory product of fishes, birds & mammals.
Que: Why does in some animals detoxification of ammonia within the liver take place?
Que: Which is the most toxic excretory product formed in animals?
Que: Define osmoregulation.
Ans:
1) Excretion is the elimination of metabolic waste across the cell membrane. Waste
products are formed due to catabolism of glucose, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids.
2) Detoxification: in some animals detoxification of ammonia within the liver takes place
and less toxic urea, and uric acid are formed.
According to the nature of nitrogenous excretory end product, animals show three modes
of excretion.
3) Osmoregulation: regulation of water & salt balance in body is called osmoregulation.
A) Ammonotelism:
 Phenomenon of formation & elimination of excretory product in the form of ammonia is
called Ammonotelism.
The animals, which excrete ammonia as main excretory product, are ammonotelic.
1) Ammonia is highly soluble in water, highly toxic. It can be excreted by simple diffusion.
2) So, its concentration in the body is kept very low. It is harmful to surrounding tissues.
3) Hence, it cannot be retained in the body for long time. So, it is eliminated out as soon as
it is formed.
4) Large quantity of water is required for elimination of ammonia, about 300 and 500 ml of
water is required for elimination of one gm of ammonia.
5) Because of these reasons, Ammonotelism is seen in aquatic invertebrates.
e. g. they are bony fishes, aquatic amphibians like tadpole larva of frog & aquatic insects.
In these animals, ammonia diffuses out through skin, gills and kidneys.
B) Ureotelism:
The process of formation and elimination of urea as nitrogenous waste is known as
ureotelism.
The animals excreting urea area called as ureotelic animals.
1) Certain animals cannot get sufficient amount of water to excrete ammonia. As ammonia
is vary toxic, it must be converted to less toxic form.
2) In liver, in these animals, ammonia combines with carbon-di-oxide to form urea (H2N-
CO-NH2) with expenditure of energy in liver by ornithine cycle.
3) Urea can be stored for some time and can be excreted at a lower rate.
4) Urea is soluble in water and is stored in dissolved form called urine.
5) Elimination of urea require moderate amount of water i.e. 50 ml of water for one gm of
urea.
E. g. They are terrestrial animals like amphibians like frog, reptiles like turtles, mammals
and marine fishes.
C) Uricotelism:
The process of formation and elimination of uric acid as nitrogenous wastes is known as
Uricotelism.
The animal’s excreting uric acids as nitrogenous waste called as uricotelic animals.
1) Synthesis of uric acid from ammonia requires more energy.
 2) It takes place in liver by inosinic pathway.
3) It is advantageous for desert and terrestrial animals, which drink less water or do not
drink, as it is less toxic, harmless and insoluble in water.
4) Conservation of water: Uric acid is elimination in the form of solids pallets or thick
paste which require negligible amount of water for its elimination i.e about 10ml of water
for elimination of one gm uric acid. So, these animals can conserve water by Uricotelism.
E.g.
Animals like land snails, replies, birds, terrestrial insects, lizards, snakes, which
cannot afford to lose water. In human and other mammals, small quantity of uric acid is
formed in the body by breakdown of purine and pyrimidine nitrogen bases of nucleic
acid.
Que: What is gout?
Ans: Gout is one of the most painful forms of arthritis. In some person, when too much uric
acid builds up in the body. The buildup of uric acid can lead to sharp uric acid crystal
deposits in joints, often in the big toe. Later, these uric acid crystals form kidneys stones
in the kidneys.
Note:
Que: What is Guanotelism?
Ans: Guanotelism: Arachnids (spiders and scorpions, penguins) excrete mostly guanine and
hence are called guanotelic.
16. B Human excretory system.
Que: Describe the human excretory system. Add a note on V.S. of kidney.
Ans:
It consists:
A) A pair of kidneys
B) A pair of ureters
C) A single unpaired bladder
D) Urethra in males or vestibule in females
A) Kidneys:
1) The kidneys are pair, dark red, bean-shaped, about 10 cm long,5 cm wide, and 4cm
thick.
 2) The weight of kidneys is about 150 to 200 grams (near about 1% of the body weight).
3) Kidneys are attached to the dorsal body wall at the level of 12 th thoracic to 3rd number
vertebra in the abdominal cavity.
4) Kidneys have peritoneal covering only on anterior surface. So, they are described as
retro-peritoneal.
5) The right kidney is slightly lower in position than the left kidney due to right liver
lobe
6) Each kidney is convex on lateral margin and medial surface shows a notch called
hilus.
7) Blood vessels, nerves and ureters enter and leave the kidney through hilus.
8) On the top of each kidney, cap like Adrenal or supra renal gland. (endocrine gland)
Note: blood is supplied by renal arteries & drained by renal veins.

 Function of kidney:
Que: Give functions of kidney.
Ans:
1) Homeostasis: Kidney performs the function of maintaining internal environment
constant and delicately balanced.
2) Extraction of nitrogenous waste products.
3) Adjustment of Na+, K+ and CI – ion concentration.
4) pH: Regulation of acid base balance i.e. pH of body fluids.
 5) Osmoregulation: Regulation of composition of blood with respect to salt & water
content.
6) Removal of excess of foreign substance like drugs and pigments.
7) Kidney secretes hormones like vasodilators.
B) Ureters:
1) A pair of narrow ducts given out through hilus of kidneys and running particularly up
to urinary bladder where, they open by lateral angle or obliquely to prevent back flow
of urine.
2) It is about 40 cm long…
3) Ureters show three constrictions at the junction, where the pelvis narrows to form
ureters, where it crosses pelvis-brim and where it pierces into the bladder.
 Functions:
1) Ureters are obliquely placed in urinary bladder to prevent back flow of urine.
2) To carry urine from kidney bladder by peristalsis followed by hydrostatic pressure
and gravity.
C) Urinary Bladder:
1) It is a pear shaped structure having thick muscular wall & is innerly lined by
transitional epithelium that allow expansion.
2) It also shows thick layer of smooth muscles called detrusor muscle. It is a single,
large, muscles bag lying in the pelvic cavity. Valves prevent backward flow of urine
into ureters.
3) Bladder stores urine temporarily and expels it out at intervals through urethra (500 ml
to 1 liter of urine)
  Functions:
1) To receive urine from the kidney via ureters(six hours required to fill bladder).
2) It stores urine temporarily till it is discharged or expelled via the urethra.
Note:
Que: Explain terms rugae & trigon.
Ans:
1) Ureters & urinary bladders are made up of three layers, an outer layer is fibrous coat,
middle is smooth muscular layer and inner is mucus membrane or traditional epithelium
which is formed rugue.
2) Trigon: At the base of urinary bladder, a small triangular area, called trigon.the opening
of urethra is at the apex of triangle, while at the base of triangle two points, where ureters
open in to bladder.
D) Urethra:
1) The opening of urthra is guarded by sphincter muscle called urethral sphincter.
2) The opening of this sphincter is under voluntary micturation (urination) and emptying of
the bladder. Michturition is an act of avoiding & expelling urine.
3) In females, the urethra is relatively short (4cm) and opens in front of vaginal opening in
vestibule. In males, it is longer since it passes through the penis. (20cm).
 Blood supply to kidney:
Que: Explain in brief blood supply to kidney.
Ans:
1) Renal artery is a branch of dorsal aorta which enters at the hilus and supplies blood the
kidney.
2) A tributary of inferior a cave called renal vein collects blood from the kidney.
Note:
Que: What is micturation? Explain michturition.
Ans:
1. Micturition is controlled by combined reflex action of spinal cord and parasympathetic
nerves.
2. When bladder gets filled the nerve reflexes cause bladder muscles to contract and first
involuntary.
 3. Here are two sphincters. The external urethral sphincter is under voluntary control so,
human being through feels or desires for urination can control in voluntarily.
4. A person can voluntarily show micturition even when the bladder is not full.
5. In baby’s contraction of bladder & reaction of sphincter muscles are under reflex control
only after two years, the reaction is under voluntary control.
 L.S. or V.S. of kidney:
Que: Sketch and label V.S. of kidney.
Que: Explain in brief histological structure of kidney.
Ans: Each kidney is covered by semi-liquid fatty tissue called adipose capsule. Outer covering
of this is made up of tough fibrous connective tissue is called renal fascia.
In L.S. the kidney shows two unions within the capsule.
A) Outer, renal cortex & B) Renal medulla.

A) Renal cortex:
1) It is the outer region of kidney. It is dark red, soft and granular in appearance.
2) It consists of malpighian bodies & convoluted (coiled) part of Nephrons. So cortex
appears spotted or granular.
B) Renal medulla:
1) It is lighter in color and divided into number of pyramidal regions called renal pyramids
(6 to 20).
 2) Renal pyramid: each pyramid has a wide base attached to the cortex and narrow apex
directed towards an inner space called renal papillae.
3) Pyramids show striations that converge towards apex.
4) Columns of bertini: the renal column of Bertini is the part of the cortex continued inside
medulla between pyramids. (Renal or cortical column of Bertini).
 Renal sinus /pelvis:
1) The large funnel shaped space of the calyx is continued into pelvis situated near the
hilus.
2) The ureter is connected to the pelvis. This follow region of the kidney is filled with its
secretion i.e. the urine in the natural state.
3) Calyces: the edge of the pelvis contains cup like extensions called major and minor
calyces.
4) Duct of Bellini: Each minor calyx receives urine from collecting ducts and about 7-8
collecting ducts join of Bellini toward papilla of phramid.
Note:
Que: What are medullary rays?
Medullary rays: pyramid shows radialy striated brownish lines, due to presence of
uriniferous tubules and blood vessels parallel to them, called as medullary rays.
 Nephrons:

Que: What is nephron? Describe structure & functions of nephron.

Que: Define excretion. Describe the structure of nephron. Add a note on physiology of
urine formation.
Que: describe Malpighian body. Explain its role in urine formation.
Que: sketch & label Malpighian body.
Que: which is the structural and functional unit of kidney?
Ans:
1) Kidney produces urine by its microscopic functional units called Nephrons. A nephron is
essentially a long coiled duct in which the coiling takes a definite course.
2) Uriniferous tubule: A nephron along with the collecting tubule is also called as a
uriniferous tubule.
3) There is about 1 to 1.2 million Nephrons in each kidney.
 Structure of nephron:

1) A nephron is a thin walled, coiled, duct lined by a single layer of epithelial cells.
2) Its proximal end is blind i.e. has no opening anywhere while the distal end opens into a
collecting tubule.
3) The proximal and distal ends of nephron both lie in the cortex of the kidney while
middle region lies in the medulla.
4) Total length of each nephron is about 40 to 60 nm in mammals.
5) A nephron can be divided into two regions a) Bowman’s capsule & b) Renal tubule.
a) Bowman’s capsule:
1) It is the proximal blind end of the nephron. Its widest part of double walled and cup-
shaped.
2) Outer layer is called parietal layer and inner layer is visceral layer which continues along
the rim of the cup.
3) Each layer is formed of squamous epithelium
 4) The space enclosed by the two layers is called urinary space. It is continuous with the
space of the renal tubule, which originates from the base of Bowman’s capsule.
5) Glomerulus: within the cup shaped space formed by the visceral layer of the Bowman’s
capsule lies globular network of capillaries called glomerulus.
6) A thin wide branch of the renal artery is afferent arteriole which supplies blood to the
glomerulus while slightly thinner narrow efferent arteriole carries blood away from the
glomerulus.
7) The diameter of afferent arteriole is greater than efferent arteriole to create ultra pressure
in ultrafiltration.
8) There is an intimate connection between glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule. Two
together are referred as Renal corpuscles or Malpighian body or Pygmalion corpuscle.
b) Renal tubule.
Que: differentiate between 1) PCT & DCT 2) descending limb & ascending limb of Hencle
Ans: Renal tubule arises from the base of Bowman’s capsule. It extends from cortex to
medulla and then backs to cortex. Renal tubule is differentiated into:-
i) Neck ii) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) iii) loop of Hencle iv) Distal convoluted
tubule(DCT) & collecting tubule(CT)
i) Neck:
1. It consists from Bowman’s capsule and is short narrow tube.
2. It is innerly lined by ciliated, cuboidal epithelial cells having brush border. Neck is
present in cortex region.
ii) P.C.T (proximal convoluted tubule):
1. It is present in the cortex region and is showing many folds of proximal convolutions
2. P.C.T is wider, thin walled and connected to loop of Hencle.
3. PCT is internally lined by glandular, cuboidal epithelial cells with brush border
formed of microvilli and mitochondria.
iii) Loop of Hencle:
1. Loop of Hencle is ‘U’ shaped/ structure present in the medulla. It is meant for
concentration of urine.
2. It is formed by descending and ascending limbs.
 3. Descending limb is narrow, thin walled and internally lined by flattened squamous
epithelium & is permeable.
4. Ascending limb is also narrow but thick walled and internally lined by cuboidal
epithelium & is not permeable to H 2O.

iv) D.C.T (distal convoluted tubule):

1. D.C.T. is present in cortex. It is thrown into few convolutions & is involved in
absorption of Na+ & water.
2. It is wider, thin walled and is internally lined by cuboidal epithelium without brush
borders. Microvilli are absent in DCT.
3. The efferent arteriole which leaves the glomerulus breaks up into capillaries which
form a network all over called peritubular capillaries. The entire DCT is embedded
within the network of capillaries.
 4. These peritubular capillaries join to form a venule.Venules join to form a renal vein.
5. Juxta apparatus: D.C.T. is closed to glomerulus of same nephron to form complex
structure called Juxta apparatus, which secrete enzyme renin that controls blood
pressure inside kidney. D.C.T opens into CT.
 Collecting tubule (CT): D.C.T. opens into collecting tubule i.e; duct of Bellini which
opens into the calyx at the apex of the medullary pyramid.
Note:
Que: Explain in brief about duct of Bellini.
Ans:
1) Many collecting tubules united to form collecting duct. The many collecting ducts unite
to form larger duct, called duct of Bellini,
2) The duct of Bellini passes the through medulla, reaches renal papillae and finally enters
into renal pelvis. It is also internally lined by cuboidal epithelium.
3) It is mainly involved in formation of final composition & concentration of urine.
Que: what is role of renin?
Ans:
4) Renin releases angiotensin I & II, which maintain normal blood, supply of kidney &
regulate.
16. C.Composition & formation of urine:
Que: Define excretion. Explain mechanism of urine formation
Que: Describe process of physiological urine formation.
Que: Describe the process of ultrafiltration.
Ans:
Physiological urine formation takes place under three steps:
A) Ultrafiltration B) selective reabsorption C) tubular secretion.
A) Ultrafiltration :
1) Filtering unit: ultrafiltration takes place in Malpighian body. It is physical process.
Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule acts as filtering unit.
2) Capillaries are porous: capillaries of glomerulus are extremely porous or perforated.
These pores are 10 to 1000 times more permeable to water and small molecules than
other capillaries.
3) Unable to filter: the high molecules like blood cells, plasma proteins and large fat
molecules are unable to filter glomerular capillaries.
4) Glomerulus membrane is semipermeable. It allows only low molecular weight
substances along with water.
5) Hydrostatic pressure: the diameter of afferent arteriole is larger that of the efferent
arteriole. Blood enters the glomerulus at a faster rate than it leaves it. This creates a
hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus.
6) Podocytes: the inner visceral layer lined by squamous epithelium, which produces foot
like processes called pedicels of Podocytes.
 7) Filtration slits: Podocytes are connected to basement membrane of capillaries, wrapping
the glomerulus by several foot like processes & inter digitate with neighboring
Podocytes. The gaps between these processes are filtration slits.
8) Urinary space: the substances than can pass through the pores of endothelium can also
pass through these slits. The filtrate can reach the urinary space of the Bowman’s capsule.
Que: What is EFP? Explain it with example.
9) High pressure of blood in the glomerular capillaries actually forces certain substances to
get out. About 1/5 the of the volume or blood gets filtered. The force is called effective
filtration pressure (EFP). EFP is produced by
a) The glomerular hydrostatic pressure is the blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries
which is about 55 mmHg.
b) The osmotic pressure of blood which is 30 mmHg due to the presence of plasma
proteins it opposes a capillary hydrostatic pressure.
c) The hydrostatic pressure of glomerular capsule is caused by filtrate that reaches into
the Bowman’s capsule. It is about 15mm Hg.
The net filtration pressure is = capillary hydrostatic pressure- (osmotic pressure +
filtrate hydrostatic pressure) =55-(30+15) =10 mmHg.
Que: Define glomerular filtration Rate (GFR).
Ans:
GFR: the amount of the filtration formed by the kidneys per minute is called glomerular
filtration rate(GFR) .GFR in a healthy individual is approximately 125ml/minute, i.e.,180 liters
per day!
Note:
Que: Explain composition of globular filtrate.
Ans:
1) The composition of the glomerular filtrate is more or less similar to that of body fluid.
It is blood plasma except proteins (deproteinised plasma) glucose, amino acid; salts, urea
etc.are.
2) Glomerular filtrate: the substances of low molecular weight, like glucose, amino acid,
salts like Na+,K+,Ca++ phosphates, urea, Creatinine etc. are filtered, while the
 substances with high molecular weight like proteins, Blood cells retain back. So this
filtrate is called glomerular filtrate.
B) Selective reabsorption :
Que: Explain in brief selective absorption.
Que: Explain in brief selective absorption in PCT & DCT.
Que: What is diabetes mellitus or glucosurie?
Ans: As this glomerular filtrate passes through the renal tubule, the useful important substances
are reabsorbed by the cells of renal tubule and put back into blood capillaries around the
renal tubule is called as selective reabsorption. It is explained by forster1961 (first
studied by Richard).
1) This process is completed by tubular epithelium under two processes depending upon
concentration gradient.
a. Passive transport or osmosis: along the concentrate gradient.
b. Active transport: against the concentration gradient by using ATP molecules.
2) Exchange between blood and filtrate: As the filtrate moves through renal tubule, it
comes in contact with blood found in peritubular capillaries. So exchange occurs between
blood and filtrate is altered.
3) In PCT: high threshold substances like glucose, amino acids, ions like k+. Ca++.Na+&
chlorides are completely reabsorbed from the filtrate actively pumps in PCT
Low threshold substances are uric acid and urea smaller molecule reabsorbed by passively
by the tubule.
4) Water is reabsorbed by osmosis in PCT, DCT and descending limb of loop of Hencle,
everywhere except in ascending limb of loop Hencle. It is called obligatory absorption of
water.
5) The kidneys maximum capacity for reabsorption of a substance is transport maximum or
renal threshold. For e.g. 45 to 95 mg per 100ml of blood is the normal blood glucose level.
6) Diabetes mellitus: if the level of glucose rises above the transport maximum i.e. 160 mg
per 100ml. of blood, then glucose appears in the urine. This is called glucosurie, which
leads to diabetes mellitus.
7) Reabsorption in DCT: potassium, Na+ and chloride ions are reabsorbed in DCT. Urea is
reabsorbed because urea molecule is very small and tubules are partially permeable to it.
Note:
Que: explain how much reabsorption of glomerular filtrate per day?
Que: how much liters of blood pass through kidney per day to produce 1.5 liters of urine?
Ans:
1) It takes only four minutes for the entire blood to pass through glomeruli once. Amount of
blood passes through glomerulus varies from 600-650 ml to 1200 ml per minute.
2) About 1600 liters of blood pass through the kidney per day. 180 liters of filtrate is
produced per day, if it is excreted as such harmful to body.
3) So, it passes through nephron for selective absorption to release urine1000 ml to 1500 ml
(1.5 liters of) & suggest that nearly 99% of the filtrate has to be reabsorbed by the renal
tubules.
C) Tubular secretion:
Que: Write note on tubular secretion.
Ans:
1) The tubular cells do not synthesize & secrete any material and add to the filtrate of urine.
So, it is wrongly termed. It is the last process of urine formation & takes place in D.C.T.
2) Some of the substances are not filtered in glomerulus and escape into blood of efferent
arteriole & then pass peritubular capillaries.
3) The tubular cell merely let certain substances pass from the blood capillaries (peritubular)
to the lumen of the tubule against concentration gradient. The substances like Creatinine
and potassium and hydrogen ions are routinely secreted.
4) The secretion of hydrogen, which takes place in DCT and collecting tubule, is important
for homeostatic regulation of acidity of blood.
5) Hydrogen ions are actively transported by the tubular cells to the extent necessary to
bring down its concentration in blood to the regulation level.
6) Some abnormal substances found in the blood are also secreted into urine. The
antibiotics like penicillin, iodine containing compound idopyracet are secreted our into
urine.
7) Aldosterone from adrenal gland (cortex) maintains sodium ion concentration. Calcium
ion concentration is maintained by calcitonin and parathormone.
 Note: the fluid becomes hypertonic due to absorption of water by osmosis and is excreted as
urine.
 Composition of urine:
Que: Write note on composition of urine.
Ans:
1) Composition of urine produced depends upon the food and fluid consumed by the
individual.
2) About 1.2 to 1.5 liters of urine per day is produced.
3) It is yellow in colour due to presence of pigment called urochrome.
4) It shows presence of 95% of water, organic substances like urea (2.5%), uric acid,
Creatinine (formed in muscles).
16. D. Role of kidney in Osmoregulation:
Que: What is the effect of ADH on tubules?
Ans:
1) Water balance by reabsorption: reabsorption of water takes place in renal tubule.
Otherwise the body will get dehydrated. So during reabsorption water balance of blood
and body fluid is maintained.
2) Release of ADH: the hormones from pituitary called ADH or antidiuretic hormone or
vasopressin is released when the water content of the body fluid is less than normal.
3) Permeability of DCT: so the effect of the hormone is to increase the permeability for
water of DCT and collecting duct. Large amount of water is reabsorbed and is retained.
4) Suppresses ADH: on the other hand higher amount of water in blood suppresses ADH
production resulting in decreased permeadibilty for water. Therefore water is not
reabsorbed and body fluid tend to return to their regular level of concentration.
5) Facultative absorption: Thus, according to needs of body the urine produced may be
hypotonic or hypertonic comparison to the body fluids. This type of absorption is called
facultative absorption.
6) Diabetes insipidus: low secretion of ADH causes diabetes insipidus. Very dilute urine
is excreted out and person feels thirsty. Volume of urine increases i.e. poly area.
16. E. kidney failure, dialysis, kidney stone & transplantation:
Que: Write notes on kidney failure.
Que: what is kidney failure? Explain its types.
Ans:
 Renal failure or kidney failure (formerly called renal insufficiency) describes a
medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste
products from the blood.
 Causes or problems of renal failure:
1) Renal failure is described as a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate.
2) Biochemically, renal failure is typically detected by an elevated serum Creatinine
level.
3) Problems frequently encountered in kidney malfunction include abnormal fluid levels
in the body.
4) Deranged acid levels, abnormal levels of potassium, calcium, phosphate, and (in the
longer term) anemia.
5) Depending on the cause, hematuria (blood loss in the urine) and proteinuria (protein
loss in the urine) may occur.
6) Long – term kidney problems have significant repercussions (rebound) on other disease,
such as cardiovascular diseases.
 Types of kidney failure:
1) Renal failure can be divided into two categories: a) acute kidney injury or b) chronic
kidney disease. The type of renal failure is determined by the trend in the serum
Creatinine.
2) Other factors which may help differentiate acute kidney injury from chronic kidney
diseases generally leads to anemia and small kidney size.
a) Acute kidney injury (AKI):
1) It previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a rapidly progressive loss of renal
function, generally characterized by oliguria (decreased urine production, quantified
as less than 400ml per day in adults, less than 0.5mL/kg/h in children or less than
1ml/kg/h in infants); body water and body fluids disturbances; and electrolyte
derangement. (oliguria- decreases volume of urine)
2) AKI may result from a variety of causes, generally classified as prerenal, intrinsic, and
postrenal.
 3) An underlying cause must be identified and treated to arrest the progress, and dialysis
may be necessary to bridge the time gap required for treating these fundamental
causes.
b) Chronic kidney diseases(CKD):
1) Chronic kidney diseases (CKD) may develop slowly and initially, show few
symptoms.
2) CKD can be the long term consequences of irreversible acute diseases or part of a
disease progression.
 Dialysis or haemodialysis & artificial kidney:
Que: What is haemodialysis? Describe process of dialysis or haemodialysis & artificial
kidney. When is it used?
Que: who invented haemodialysis? Que: What is glomerulonephriris?
Ans:

In medicine, dialysis ( from Greek “dialusis”, meaning dissolution,’dia’ meaning through,

and “lysis”, meaning loosening) is primarily used to provide an artificial replacement for
lost kidney function in people with renal failure.
1) Uremia is the condition in which blood urea level rises abnormally. It is highly harmful
and may lead to kidney failure.
2) In such patients, accumulated waste like urea can be removed from blood by this process
called haemodialysis & the apparatus is called as artificial kidney.
3) In this process, blood is taken from main artery of patient & cooled O oC. Then
anticoagulant heparin is mixed with it& pumped in to the apparatus (artificial kidney).
4) In apparatus blood flows through channels or tubes bounded by cellophane membrane.
 5) This membrane is impermeable to plasma proteins but permeable only to small
molecules like urea, uric acid, creatine & mineral ions.
6) The cellophane membrane separates the blood flowing inside the channels or tubules
from dialyzing fluid flowing outside the membrane.
7) The dialyzing fluid is a salt solution which is isotonic to blood plasma, but metabolic
wastes like urea, uric acid creatine etc. diffuses out in the dialyzing fluid across the
cellophane membrane & the blood is cleared of the metabolic wastes. This process is
called dialysis.
8) The blood coming out of from the apparatus is warmed to body temperature & mixed
with antiheparin to restore its normal coagulabilty & pumped in the body of patient
through a vein & save the life of uremic patient.
9) Dr. Belding H. Scribner was the inventor of this device.
10) Glomerulonephriris: inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
11) dialysis may be used for those with an acute disturbance in kidney function (acute
kidney injury, previously acute renal failure) or for those with progressive but chronically
worsening kidney function-a state known as chronic kidney disease stage 5(previously
chronic renal failure or end –stage kidney diseases).
Que: Why dialysis is temporary holding measure or only supportive measure?
Que: How does kidney functions as endocrine gland?
Ans:
1) Dialysis is regarded as a “holding measure” until a renal transplant can be performed. Or
sometimes as the only supportive measure in those for whom a transplant would be
inappropriate.
2) The kidneys have important roles in maintaining health. When healthy, the kidneys
maintain the body’s internal equilibrium of water and minerals (sodium, potassium,
chloride, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, sulphate)
3) Those acidic metabolic end products that the body cannot get rid of via respiration are
also excreted through the kidneys.
4) The kidneys also function as a part of the endocrine system producing erythropoietin
and calcitriol.
 5) Erythropoietin is involved in the production of red blood cells and calcitriol plays a role
in bone formation.
6) Dialysis is an imperfect treatment to replace kidney function because it does not
correct the endocrine functions of the kidney.
7) Dialysis treatments replace some of these functions through diffusion
(Waste removal) and ultrafiltration (fluid removal).
 Kidney stones:
Que: Explain terms: nephrolithiasis, urolithiasis, and ureterolithiasis.
Que: Explain types of kidney stones.
Ans:
It is formed by the precipitation of uric acid or oxalate, blocks the kidney tubule & causes
severe pain (renal colic) in the back by spreading down to the front of the thigh on the side.
It results formation of stones or renal calculi ( from Latin ren, Renes,”kidney” and calculi.
“Pebbles”) in the ureter.
1) Nephrolithiasis: These kidney stones are solid concretions or calculi (crystal
aggregations) formed in the kidneys from dissolved urinary minerals. So, the condition
of having kidney stones refers nephrolithiasis.
2) Urolithiasis: It refers to the condition of having calculi(pebbles) in the urinary tract
(which also includes the kidneys), which may form or pass into the urinary bladder.
3) Ureterolithiasis is the condition a calculus in the ureter, the tube connecting the kidney
and the bladder.
4) Types of kidney stones: There are several types of kidney stones based on the type of
crystals of which they consist. They majority are calcium oxalate stones, followed by
calcium phosphate stones.
5) Struvite (strung) stones more rarely produced by urea-splitting bacteria in people with
urinary tract infections, and people with certain metabolic abnormalities may produce
uric acid stones or crytine stones.
 Kidney transplantation or renal transplantation:
Que: Explain in brief kidney transplantation or renal transplantation
Ans:
1) It is transplant of organ of a kidney into a patient with end-stage renal disease.
 2) Source of the donor organ: kidney transplantation is typically classified as decreased-
donor i.e. expired ( formarly known as cadaveric) or living-donor transplantation
depending on the source of the donor organ.
3) Biological relationship: living-donor renal transplants are further characterized as
genetically related(living- related) or non- related( living-unrelated) transplants,
depending on whether a biological relationship exists between the donor and recipient.
 Regulation of kidney functions:
Que: Explain in brief role ADH in regulation of kidney functions:
Ans:
1) Functioning of the kidney is regulated by hypothalamus, Juxtra glomerular apparatus
(JGA) and heart.
2) Osmorecepeters are present in hypothalamus. High concentration of body fluid activates
these Osmorecepeters to release antidiuretic hormone ( ADH) from neurohypophysis.
3) ADH increases permeadibilty of renal tubules for absorption of water. This prevents
excess loss of water from body.
4) Increased volume of body fluid suppresses these osmorecepeters and thus ADH secretion
is suppressed. ADH also constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure. This
results in increase in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
 Juxta glomerular apparatus(JGA):
Que: What is the significant of juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) in kidney function?
Que: Explain the autoregulatory mechanism of GFR.
Que: What is natriuresis? Explain in brief renin- angiotensin mechanism
Que: Explain role of atrial natriurectic factor (ANF).
Ans:
1) JGA is a special sensitive region formed by cellular modifications in the distal
convoluted tubule (DCT) and the afferent arteriole at the location at their contact.
2) A fall in GFR or glomerular blood pressure actives JG cells to release Renin. It converts
angiotensinogen of blood to angiotensin.
3) Angiotensin converting enzyme secreted by lungs, which converts Angiotensin I to
angiotensin II.
 4) Angiotensin II is vasoconstrictor and also stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete
aldosterone, which increases blood pressure and GFR(by secreting salt Na in blood)
5) Secretion of ANF: An increase in blood flow to atria of the heart can cause secretion of
the atrial natriurectic factor (ANF). ANF causes vasodilatation and decreases blood
pressure, so, checks Renin-angiotensin mechanism.
The renin-angiotensin actives the renal retention (absorption) of fluid so that a fall in
blood volume gets compensated.
6) Natriuresis: High blood volume is responsible for increase in water excretion which may
be due to increased excretion of NA+ in the urine. It is known as natriuresis.(water
excretion increased excretion of Na+ in the urine called natriuresis).
7) Atrial Natriurectic factor or hormone (ANF): increased Na+ excretion results in
decline in aldosterone secretion in blood. Hormone (AN factor) which stimulates
natriuresis (antagonistic to aldosterone) and promotes Na+ and water excretion in the
urine is Atrial Natriurectic Factor or hormone (ANF). Its secretion (Aldosterone) is in
response to rise in blood volume.
The atria of the heart have been shown to produce ANF hormone. It is responsible for
lowering of blood volume and blood pressure by promoting salt and water excretion in
the urine & increases blood pressure by stimulating aldosterone which secretes salt in
blood.
Que: Explain terms: Uremia, Nephritis & streptococcal glomerulonephriris.
Ans:
 Uremia: normal value of urea in blood is 0.01 to 0.03, but when the level rises to above
0.05% then it is called uremia. It is highly harmful; and it may lead to kidney failure.
 Nephritis or glomrulonehirtis or Bright’s diseases is the term used for disease that
primarily involve renal glomeruli like heamaturia, proteinuria, hypertension, oedema and
oligouria.
 Streptococcal glomerulonephriris is common form seen mostly in children of 6 to 16
years. It is due to infection of throat called streptococcal pharymgitis.
16. F Accessory excretory organ s:
Que: Describe the role of liver, lungs alimentary canal and skin in excretion.
Ans:
  Role of skin in excretion
Skin of many animals is thin and permeable. It helps in diffusion of ammonia. Human
skin is thick, impermeable, and acts as accessory excretory organ.
a) Sweat gland: these are distributed evenly over the body surface. They are abundant
on palm and facial part. These are simple unbranched tubular glands. The sweat is
aqueous fluid containing glucose, NaCl, water, urea and lactic acid. It also helps in
thermoregulation.
b) Sebaceous glands: they secrete oily substance called sebum. It mixes with the sweat
on the surface of the skin making the skin softer and lubricating the hair. It protects
from any injury and infection.
c) Ceruminous glands: these are modified sweat glands, which secrete ear wax in
external auditory canal.
 Role of lungs in excretion
1) Lungs are the respiratory organs of the body. They play an important role in excretion
of volatile substances like CO2 and water vapour during respiration.
2) CO2 and water are produced during the process of oxidation of glucose.
3) Most of the water is used for metabolic processes and excess is thrown out in the
form of water vapour and CO2 is removed along with expired air
 Liver and alimentary tract as Excretory Organ:
1) Liver secretes bile juice, which contains bile pigments like bilirubin and biliverdin
and bile salts like sodium glycocholate & taurocholate, which are eliminated along
with faecal matter.
2) Liver also synthesis urea by deamination and seeds it to kidney through blood where
it is expelled out as urine.
3) Faecal matter also contains undigested substances and some water thrown out by
alimentary canel. Hence liver and alimentary canal acts
as excretory organ.
Note:
Que: give a brief account of the counter current mechanism.
Ans:
 Counter current mechanism or osmoregulation in kidney:
 1) Human being is terrestrial animal water is absorbed throughout the length of the
nephron & loop of Hencle helps in excretion of hypertonic urine.
2) For water absorption counter current mechanism is developed. It is provided by V-
shaped loop of Hencle & U-shaped vasa rectae.
3) In two limbs of loop of Hencle urine flows in opposite (counter) direction while in
Vasa rectae blood flows in opposite direction hence it is named as counter current
mechanism.
 Hypertonic urine from cortex to medulla
Que: explain increasing osmolarity from cortex to medulla.
Ans:
1) The flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa recta is also in a counter current
pattern.
2) The proximity between the hencle’s loop and vasa recta, as well as the counter current
in them help in maintaining an increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary
interstitium, i.e,. From 300 mOsmolL-1 in the cortex to about 1200 mOsmolL-1 in the
inner medulla.
Questions:
A. Long answer Questions:
1) Describe the human excretory system. Add a note on V.S of kidney.
2) Define excretion. Describe the structure of nephron. Add a note on physiology of
urine formation.
3) Describe Malpighian body. Explain its role in urine formation.
4) Define excretion. Explain mechanism of urineformation.
B. Short answer questions.
1) Write notes on- a) Ammonotelism b) Ureotelism c) Uricotelism d) kidney failure e)
kidney stones.
2) Sketch and label Malpighian body.
3) Describe the process of ultrafiltration.
4) Sketch and label V.S of kidney.
C. Very short answer questions:
1) Which is the most toxic excretory product formed in animals?
 2) Which is the structural and functional unit of kidney?
3) What is gout?
4) Name the excretory product of fishes.
5) Define osmoregulation.
6) What is the effect of ADH on tubules?
7) Indicate whether the following statements are true or false.
a) Michturition is carried out by a reflex.
b) ADH helps in water elimination, making the urine hypotonic.
c) Protein-free fluid is filtered from blood plasma into the Bowman’s capsule.
d) Hencle‘s loop plays an important role in concentrating the urine.
e) Glucose is actively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.
8) Match the items of column I with those of column II:
Column I column II
a) Ammonotelism i) birds
b) Bowman’s capsule ii) water reabsorption
c) Michturition iii) bony fish
d) Uricotelism iv) urinary bladder
e) ADH v) renal tubule
 Multiple choice questions: Test book
1. Mode of excretion in bony fishes is
a) Ammonotelism
b) Ureotelism
c) Uricotelism
d) Guanotelism
2. Nitrogenous water which is less toxic, soluble in water and formed during ornithine
cycle is
a) Urea
b) Ammonia
c) Uric acid
d) Amino acid
3. Conversation of water is possible in this mode of excretion.
 a) Ureotelism
b) Uricotelism
c) Ammonotelism
d) Guanotelism
4. Retroperitoneal kidney is….
a) Peritoneum on anterior side
b) Peritoneum on posterior side
c) Absence of peritoneum
d) Peritoneum on both anterior and posterior side
5. The part of the cortex continued inside the renal medulla between the pyramids is
a) Columns of bellini
b) Columns of bertini
c) Columnae carnae
d) Chordate tendinate
6. The structural and functional unit of kidney is
a) Seminiferous tubule
b) Uriniferous tubule
c) Malphian tubule
d) Haversian canal
7. Ultrafiltration takes place in…
a) Loop of Hencle
b) Malphian corpuscle
c) Collecting duct
d) Minor calyx
8. In a normal healthy person, normal blood glucose level is
a) 45 to 95 mg per 100 ml of blood
b) 200 to 300 mg per 100 ml of blood.
c) 5 to 10 mg per 100 ml of blood
d) 500 to 600 mg per 100 ml of blood
9. Which one of the following is the normal constitiuent of urine.
a) Blood
 b) Glucose
c) Protein
d) Urea
10. Osmoregulation is carried out by…
a) Ureter
b) Nephron
c) ACTH
d) ADH
 Multiple choice of questions chap-19
1. The following substances are the excretory products in animals. Choose the least
toxic form among them?
a. Urea
b. Uric acid
c. Ammonia
d. Carbon dioxide
2. Filtration of the blood takes place at
a. PCT
b. DCT
c. Collecting ducts
d. Malphian body
3. Which of the following statements is incorrect
a. ADH- prevents conversation of angiotensinogen in blood angiotensin
b. Aldosterone – facilities water reabsorption
c. ANF- enhances sodium reabsorption
d. Renin-causes vasodilatation
4. A large amount quantity of one of the following is removed from our body by lungs.
a. CO2 only
b. H2O only
c. CO2 and H2O
d. Ammonia
5. The pH of human urine is approximately
 a. 6.5
b. 7
c. 6
d. 7.5
6. Different types of excretory structures and animals are given below. Match them
appropriately and mark the correct answer from among those
Given below.
Excretory structure /organ animals
A. Protonephridia i. prawn
B. Nephridia ii. Cockroach
C. Malphian tabules iii) earthworm
D. Green gland or antennal gland iv.Flatworms
a. D) i C)ii, B) iii and A) iv
b. B) i C) ii, A) iii and B) iv
c. D) i, C)ii, A) iii and B) iv
d. B) i, C) ii, B) iii and D) iv
7. Which one of the following statements is incorrect?
a. Birds and land snails are uricotelic animals
b. Mammals and frogs are ureotelic animals.
c. Aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects are ammonotelic animals.
d. Birds and reptiles are ureotelic.
8. Which of the following pairs is wrong?
a. Uricotelic ………birds
b. Ureotelic……….insects
c. Ammonotelic ……..tadpole
d. Ureotelic ……….elephant
9. Which one of the following statements is incorrect?
a. The medullary zone of kidney is divided into a few conical masses.
Called medullary pyramids projecting into the calyces.
b. Inside the kidney the cortical region extends in between the medullary pyramids
as renal pelvis.
 c. Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule is called the renal corpuscle.
d. Renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tabule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule
(DCT) of the nephron are situated in the cortical region of kidney.
10. The condition of accumulation of urea in the blood is termed as
a. Renal calculi
b. Glomerulonephriris
c. Uremia
d. Ketonuria
11. Which one of the following is also known antidiuretic hormone?
a. Oxytocin
b. Vascopressin
c. Adrenaline
d. calcitonin
12. Match the terms given in column I with their physiological processes given in
column II and choose the correct answer.
Column I column II
A. Proximal convoluted tubule i. formation of concentrated urine
B. Distal convoluted tubule ii. Filtration of blood
C. Hencle’s loop iii. Reabsorption of 70-80% of
electrolytes
D. Counter –current mechanism iv. Ionic balance
E. Renal corpuscle v. maintenance of
Concentration gradient in
medulla.
a. A-iii, B-v, C-iii, D-ii, E-i.
b. A-iii, B-iv, C- i D-v, E- iv
c. A-i , B-iii, C-ii , D-v, E-iv
d. A-iii, B- i, C- ii, D-v, E-iv
13. Match the abnormal conditions given in column A with their explanations given in
column B and choose the correct option .
Column A column B
 A. Glycosurea i. accumulation of uric acid in joints
B. Renal calculi ii. Inflammation in glomeruli
C. Glomerular nephritis iii. Mass of crystallised salts within the Kidney.
D. Gout iv. Presence of glucose in urine
Options:
a. A- i, B-iii, C-ii, D- iv
b. A- iii, B- ii, C-iv, D-i
c. A- iv, B-iii, C-ii, D-i
d. A-iv, B- ii, C-iii, D- i.
14. We can produce concentrated / dilute urine. This is facilitated by a special
mechanism. Identify the mechanism.
a. Reabsorption from PCT
b. Reabsorption from collecting in DCT
c. Reabsorption / secretion in DCT
d. Counter current mechanism in Hencle’s loop/ vasa recta
15. Dialyzing unit ( artificial kidney) contains a fluid which is almost same as plasma
except that it has
a. High glucose
b. High urea
c. No urea
d. High uric acid
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Where does the selective reabsorption of glomerular filtrate take place?
2. What is the excretory product from kidneys of reptiles?
3. What is the composition of sweat produced by sweat glands?
4. Identify the glands that perform the excretory function in prawns.
5. What is the excretory structure in amoeba?
6. The following abbreviations are used in the context of excretory functions, what do they
stand for?
a. ANF b. ADH c.GFR d. DCT
7. Differentiate glucosurie from Ketonuria
 8. What is the role of sebaceous glands?
9. Name two actively transported substances in glomerular filtrate.
10. Mention any two metabolic disorders, which can be diagnosed by analysis of urine
11. What are the main processes of urine formation?
12. Sort the following into actively or passively transported substances during reabsorption
of GFR.
Glucose, amino acids, nitrogenous wastes, NA+ water
112 BIOLOGY, EXAMPLAR PROBLEMS
13. Complete the following:
a. Urinary excretion= tubular reabsorption + tubular secretion –
b. Dialysis fluid = plasma-
14. Mention the substances that exit from the tubules in order to maintain
a. Concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium
15. Fill in the blanks appropriately
Organ excretory wastes
a. Kidneys ________________________
b. Lungs __________________________
c. Liver ___________________________
d. Skin ___________________________
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Show the structure of a renal corpuscle with the help of a diagram.
2. What is the role played by renin- angiotensin in the regulation of kidney function?
3. Aquatic animals generally are ammonotelic in nature where as terrestual forms are not.
Comment.
4. The composition of glomerular filtrate and urine is not same. Comment.
5. What is the procedure advised for the correction of extreme renal failure?
Give a brief account of it.
6. How have the terrestrial organisms adapted themselves for conservation of water?
9) Name of the following:
a) A chordate animal having flame cells as excretory structures
b) Cortical portions projecting between the medullary pyramids in the human kidney.
 c) A loop of capillary running parallel to the hencle’s loop.
10) 12. Fill in the gaps:
a) Ascending limb of hencle’s loop is ___________to water whereas the descending
limb is ____________to it.
b) Reabsorption of water from distal parts of the tubules is facilited by
hormone________________
c) Dialysis fluid contain all the constituents as in plasma except_______
d) A healthy adult human excretes (on an average) __________gm of urea/day.
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION 111111113333
7. Label the parts in the following diagram.
8. Explain, why a heamodialysing unit called artificial kidney?
9. Comment upon the hormonal regulation of selective reabsorption\.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the mechanism of formation of concentrated urine in mammals.
2. Draw a labelled diagram showing reabsorption and secretion of major substances at
different parts of the nephron.
3. Explain briefly. Micturition and disorders of the excretory system.
4. How does tubular secretion help in maintaining ionic and acid –base balance in body
fluids?
5. The glomerular filtrate in the loop of Hencle gets concerted in the descending and then
gets diluted in the ascending limbs. Explain.
6. Describe the structure of a human kidney with the help of labelled diagrams.
(www.ncert multiple choice questions for chapter no.19 excretion)