Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

271 (2019) 568–583

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Processing Tech.

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Effect of stacking fault energy on the evolution of microstructure and texture T

during blast assisted deformation of FCC materials
Anuj Bishta,b,c, Lailesh Kumarb, Janardhanraj Subburajc, Gopalan Jagadeeshc, Satyam Suwasb,
⁎

a
Centre for Nanoscience and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
b
Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
c
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Associate Editor: Z. Cui Effect of stacking fault energy (SFE) on microstructural and crystallographic aspect of high-velocity deformation
Keywords: of FCC metals (Ni, Cu, and austenitic stainless steel) via blast assisted deformation have been investigated in this
Blast loading work. Microstructural changes have been probed via XRD line profile analysis and electron back-scattered dif-
Stacking fault energy fraction methods along with TEM analysis for selected samples. The texture of all deformed material tends
Shockwave towards a developed α-fiber, which is observed to be strain-dependent. The relative fraction of Brass to Goss
Texture texture components increases with a decrease in SFE. The annealing twin boundaries, present in the initial
Convoluted multiple whole profile material, transform in segments or full to high angle random boundary in all the material due to the dislocation
EBSD
pile-up. However, the microstructure of the deformed material depends heavily on the SFE, with nickel showing
dislocation cells, and, austenitic stainless steel (ASS) has a mix of features of homogeneous dislocation, de-
formation bands, and deformation twins. Relatively thick deformation twins form in grains having orientations
other than {110} plane normal to the blast direction. The overall microstructure of ASS gives an impression of a
superimposed microstructure. Such structure is expected to be a result of shock passage through the material
followed by macroscopic straining. No such superimposed microstructure has been observed in nickel which is
attributed to recovery behavior prevalent in high SFE materials.

1. Introduction exposed to shock/blast wave deform at strain-rates ˜1000 s−1.

To develop an understanding of the plastic deformation of materials
under extreme conditions is highly warranted because of its immense
technological significance. Although the processes involving deforma-
tion of materials at high strain rate are of particular importance,
however, the strain rates for most of the processes involving shock or
blast waves are not clearly estimated. In order to analyze the response
of such deformation process to materials it is necessary to determine the
strain rates involved in the process. In this regard, the study by
Gharababaei et al. (2010) pertaining to the mid point deflection of
circular plates of mild steel, copper, and aluminium subjected to blast
loading is noteworthy. The authors reported a measured localized strain
rate of the order of the order of 742 s−1 in the process. In another study,
Tiwari et al. (2009) investigated the full field transient plate deforma-
tion during blast loading using 3D image correlation and reported that
the strain rate prevalent in this phenimenon was in the range of
1500–4000 s−1. Based on these studies, it can be said that metal plates
The shock/blast assisted deformation of metal plates find the ap-
plication in high-velocity sheet metal forming operations. Nagaraja
et al. (2012b) demonstrated the clinical applications of micro-blast
assisted metal foil forming process in drug delivery, where the energy of
the micro-blast is used to deliver micro-particles in the body. He re-
ported that the process parameters such as the particle velocity, spray
cone angle and velocity distribution of jet were dependent on the de-
formation behavior of the blast-loaded foil. Nagaraja et al. (2012a) also
carried out the finite element analysis of the deformation of the foil
coupled with experiments and demonstrated plastic hinge effect and
different failure modes. However, this study did not consider any ma-
terial variable that would influence the deformation behavior of the
metal foil subjected to blast loading.
Madhavan et al. (2014a) studied the development of microstructure
and deformation texture in Ni-60Co (wt%) on unidirectional rolling and
emphasized the role of deformation twinning and Brass-type shear band
in the development of Brass-type texture. Madhavan and Suwas (2015)

Corresponding author at: Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India.
⁎

E-mail addresses: toninegi01@gmail.com (A. Bisht), kumarlailesh.mit@gmail.com (L. Kumar), janardhanraj@super-wave.in (J. Subburaj),
jaggie@iisc.ac.in (G. Jagadeesh), satyamsuwas@iisc.ac.in (S. Suwas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.04.029
Received 12 January 2018; Received in revised form 5 April 2019; Accepted 15 April 2019
Available online 25 April 2019
0924-0136/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Bisht, et al.
also studied the deformation texture in Ni-20Co (wt%) after rolling and
reported the development of copper-type texture. The stacking fault
energy (SFE) of Ni-20Co (˜100 mJ/m2) is higher than Ni-60Co alloy
(˜15 mJ/m2), which clearly indicated the response of face-centered
cubic (FCC) material to plastic deformation on SFE, and hence the final
texture. Ray (1995) clearly stated the role of SFE on the evolution of
Brass-type or Copper-type texture during rolling. A more recent com-
prehensive documentation by Madhavan et al. (2016) addresses the
evolution of rolling texture in a series of Ni-Co alloys with different
stacking fault energies, and the study reconfirms that the SFE of the
material is the deciding factor for the type of crystallographic texture
formed in FCC materials.
In a previous study on shock assisted deformation of Al, carried out
by Ray et al. (2015), substantial texture changes were observed as a
result of shock assisted deformation. In a later study, Bisht et al. (2017)
investigated the shock assisted deformation of copper in big metal
plates and reported changes in texture and microstructure including a
change in the character of twin boundaries. Although these studies
were carried out on two FCC materials representing different group
stacking faults energies, a systematic investigation on the effect of SFE
in FCC materials with entire range of SFE values subjected to shock/
blast wave assisted deformation pertaining to their response to micro-
structural and textural changes, has not been reported. In the present
investigation, the microstructural response of FCC materials subjected
to a miniaturized blast loading pertaining to material and micro-
structural parameters is investigated. Three FCC materials, namely,
nickel (SFE˜128 mJ m−2), copper (SFE ˜ 78 mJ m−2) and austenitic
stainless steel (SFE˜20 mJ m−2), having SFE in decreasing order, have
been selected to elucidate the role of stacking fault energy on the post-
blast evolution of microstructure and texture.
2. Methods
2.1. Materials and processing
Pure nickel, OHFC copper, and austenitic stainless steel (ASS) were
received in the form of sheets of thickness 3–6 mm. These materials
were thermo-mechanically processed to break the initial microstructure
and obtain different starting textures. The grain size of the material was
tailored in the similar size range. The as-received materials were mul-
tistep cross rolled (MSCR) at room temperature to get final thickness
reduction of 90%. Thereafter, the samples were annealed to obtain
strain free recrystallized grains. The initial reduction to high strain level
ensured more or less uniformity in the strain, so that subsequent an-
nealing would lead to uniform recrystallization. After cold rolling,
nickel was annealed at 350 °C for 5 min, copper at 400 °C for 3 min, and
austenitic stainless steel at 900 °C for 1 h. The processed materials were
cut to discs of 12 mm diameter. All the samples were thinned down to
200 μm thickness for further blast experiments.
2.2. Experimental procedure for blast wave treatment
The discs from the as-processed materials were subjected to a high
strain rate loading on the normal plane of the disc by exposing them to
the blast wave generated using detonation-driven miniaturized shock
tube (MST), developed by Janardhanraj and Jagadeesh (2016). High-
pressure detonation wave was created in the tube by combustion of the
in-situ generated oxyhydrogen mixture. After attaining the required
pressure, the gaseous mixture was detonated by triggering a hot wire. A
steady detonation wave was produced which travels along the length of
the tube. The MST was operated in detonation mode. The schematic of
the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1a. A detailed description of the
setup and its operation can be found elsewhere (Janardhanraj and
Jagadeesh, 2016).
Each of the three materials Nickel, Copper and Austenitic Stainless
Steel, obtained after the treatment mentioned in the preceding section,
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583
was deformed to two different strain levels, referred as “def1” and
“def2”, with the strain of latter (def2) being higher than former (def1).
Blast waves of different strength were used to deform different mate-
rials to similar strain levels. The strength of blast wave was varied by
changing the oxy-hydrogen fill pressure. The head-on pressure experi-
enced by the sample was measured using a PCB 113B22 sensor. The
recorded head-on pressure profile of the detonation wave is shown in
Fig. 1b. The area under the curve of pressure profile gives the impulse
per unit area. The peak blast pressure, the impulse per unit area and the
impulse values used in the present investigation are tabulated in
Table 1. The pressure profile shows an ideal blast wave profile with
exponential decay. It should be noted that although the peak pressure
and impulse values are relatively low, the impulse per unit area is
significantly high.
2.3. Strain measurement after blast exposure
The deformed material is obtained as hat shaped. A typical sample
(blast loaded copper) is shown in Fig. 2a. The midsection of the sample
is schematically shown in Fig. 2b. A triaxial state of strain exists at any
point in the deformed shape which can be represented by strain along
three directions, namely, circumferential strain, radial strain, and
thickness strain. The radial and circumferential strains at the center of
the disc are the same. The thickness strain at the center of the hat-
shaped disc is obtained from the mid-point deflection (h) (Ray et al.,
2015) as
r2 r2
t = ln = ln
2 h 2 h (1)
Where
r 2 + h2
=
2h (2)
r is the radius of exposed area (4 mm) (shown in Fig. 2b), h is the mid-
point deflection (marked in Fig. 2b), and, is the radius of curvature.
2.4. Microstructure and texture characterization
All the samples were characterized via X-ray line profile analysis
and electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) technique. The X-ray
diffraction (XRD) patterns were recorded on the rolling plane (here
rolling plane refers to that of the sheet samples prior to subjecting to
blast wave exposure) of the sample. The XRD patterns of the blast wave
exposed samples were recorded at the mid-point deflection of the de-
formed sample. The line profile analyses (LPA) of the patterns were
carried out for quantitatively estimating the microstructural features.
The deformed samples were cut along a plane passing through the
center of the disc to expose the transverse plane. The sectioning was
done in such a manner that the plane was parallel to the initial rolling
direction. EBSD characterization was done on the transverse plane of
the material at the mid-point deflection (along y as shown in Fig. 2b) to
get orientation related microstructural information. The details of mi-
crostructural attributes and micro-texture were extracted from the
EBSD data.
For recording the X-ray diffraction patterns, the samples were me-
tallographically polished. The measurement was carried out in Bruker
D8 Discover diffractometer using Co Kα radiation, operated at 40 kV
and 40 mA. The patterns were recorded using point source X-ray taking
into account the small area and curvature at the mid-point deflection.
Step size of 0.02o and scan speed of 5 s/step was used. Whole profile
fitting of the obtained XRD pattern was executed using extended con-
volutional multiple whole profile (eCMWP), a program for X-ray line
profile analysis developed by Ribárik et al. (2001). The information
pertaining to different microstructural features, for example, crystallite
size, dislocation density and planar defect density, were obtained from
the eCMWP analysis.
A. Bisht, et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of the experimental setup (miniaturized shock tube (MST)). (b) Head-on blast wave pressure profile for various oxy-hydrogen fill pressures.

Table 1 loaded samples. The discs were thinned down by mechanical polishing
Blast wave parameters obtained for various oxyhydrogen fill pressures. to a thickness of ˜80 μm. The thinned discs were subjected to electro-
Oxyhydrogen fill Peak pressure Impulse per unit Impulse (mN-
polishing using an electrolyte consisting of perchloric acid and ethanol
pressure (bar) (MPa) area (Pa-s) s) (for nickel and austenitic stainless steel samples) at −30 °C in Fishione
Twin-Jet Electropolisher®. The samples were loaded in the TEM in such
5 24.6 482.9 24.3 a manner that the orientations of the grains observed in the TEM are
6 37.0 593.4 29.8
parallel to shock direction (n direction as shown in Fig. 2b).
8 55.6 827.5 41.6
10 71.1 965.6 48.6
3. Results

For EBSD, samples were metallurgically polished followed by
electro-polishing. EBSD was performed in a scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) (FEI SIRION) with an accelerating voltage of 25 kV. Step
size within the range of 0.1–0.15 μm was used for various samples. For
few cases, scans were repeated with a large step size of 0.5 μm to obtain
better statistics, especially for determination of texture. Also, in some
cases, a finer scan with a step size of 50 nm was recorded over a small
area for better resolution of microstructural features. Post-processing of
the EBSD data was carried out using TSL OIM™ analysis software.
Beausir and Fundenberger (2015) developed a robust open source
software called JTEX for texture analysis. Microtexture information
from the EBSD data was plotted and further texture analysis was carried
out using JTEX. The coarse scan data is near representative of the local
macrotexture. The orientation distribution function (ODF) was calcu-
lated from the so-obtained EBSD data. The volume fraction of important
texture components was estimated from the ODF by integrating the
elemental volume Δφ1·ΔΦ·Δφ2 with 10° integral range.
Further, finer microstructural examinations were performed using a
FEI Tecnai F30 transmission electron microscope (TEM) operating at
300 kV. TEM investigation was carried out for selected samples,
namely, nickel (high SFE) and austenitic stainless steel (low SFE). Discs
of 3 mm diameter were extracted from the central region of the blast
The results pertaining to blast loading experiments performed in
MST and the microstructural features of the blast loaded samples are
presented in the following sub-sections.
3.1. Measured experimental parameters: impulse and effective strain
As mentioned in section 2.2, blast waves of different peak impulses
were generated by varying oxyhydrogen fill pressures. The peak pres-
sure, impulse per unit area and impulse values corresponding to the
oxyhydrogen fill pressure are given in Table 1. The oxyhydrogen fill
pressures and strains achieved at the mid-point deflection for various
samples are listed in Table 2.
3.2. Microstructural features of the blast loaded material
3.2.1. X-ray diffraction based investigations
The X-ray diffraction patterns recorded for all the blast loaded
samples were analyzed and fit using eCMWP software to obtain in-
formation pertaining to the defects in the microstructure. The im-
portant microstructural parameters obtained from the analysis are
listed in Table 3.
The initial nickel sample has coarse strain-free grains in micrometer

Fig. 2. (a) Sectioned copper sample subjected to blast loading. (b) Schematic representation of sectioned sample indicating the area of investigation.

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Table 2 deformation. The volume fraction of G component decreases and then

Oxyhydrogen fill pressures used and the strains obtained in blast loaded nickel, increases again with strain. The fraction of G is higher than Bs in nickel
copper, and austenitic stainless steel (ASS) samples. def2 sample. The S component develops with strain. With strain, the Cu
Sample ID Oxyhydrogen Mid-point deflection Thickness strain component weakly appears for def1 condition and then disappears
fill pressure (bar) h (mm) again for def2 as observed from in 2 = 45° ODF section in Fig. 3b and
c.
Ni def1 8 1.23 0.09
The texture of initial copper is relatively weaker compared to nickel.
Ni def2 10 2.12 0.25
Cu def1 5 1.12 0.08 The texture of copper comprises of Bs as the major texture component
Cu def2 8 2.86 0.41 followed by C and S (Fig. 3d). A weak α-fiber is present in the initial
ASS def1 8 1.61 0.15 sample. After blast induced deformation, the α-fiber further develops
ASS def2 10 2.50 0.33
(Fig. 3e and f), especially the Bs and G texture components located on
the fiber. The volume fractions of Bs and G components increase with
strain and is almost equal for the def2 sample. The C component ap-
Table 3
pears for def1 sample and then disappears at higher strain, for the def2
Microstructural parameters obtained from XRD LPA for blast loaded nickel,
copper, and austenitic stainless steel (ASS) samples. sample. With strain, the Cu and S components decrease and completely
get diminished for the def2 condition.
Sample ID β ρ (x1015 m 2)
x area (nm) dtwin (nm) The initial texture of the austenitic stainless steel (ASS) has Bs as the
Ni initial > 1 μm – – 1.3
major component and a weak G component (Fig. 3g). A weak α-fiber is
Ni def1 112 – – 1.8 present in the initial sample. After blast deformation, the α-fiber further
Ni def2 278 – – 0.7 develops with displaced Bs component. This can be noticed in the
Cu initial > 1 μm – – 1.4
2 = 0° section of Fig. 3h and i. As a result, the volume fraction of Bs
Cu def1 > 1 μm – – 1.5
component decreases. The G component gets strengthened. Overall, Bs
Cu def2 367 – – 2.1
ASS initial > 1 μm 1e-5 > 1 μm 0.6 and G are the major components of texture with latter being higher in
ASS def1 > 1 μm 1.58 23 1.47 volume fraction. The C component is absent in the initial material and
ASS def2 > 1 μm 3.23 11 3.30 does not develop. The S and Cu components are present in a small
fraction in the initial sample. The volume fraction of these component
does not change much with deformation.
(μm) range. For def1 sample of nickel, the dislocation density increases
with increase in strain to def2 condition. However, it was observed that 3.2.3. Microstructural evolution on blast loading
the crystallite size first decreases from micrometer range to 112 nm and The microstructural evolution in the blast loaded nickel, copper and
then increases to 278 nm with an increase in strain from initial to def1 austenitic stainless steel samples were investigated primarily by ana-
to def2. lyzing the EBSD data. Results are discussed using micrographs based on
In the copper sample, the dislocation density increases with increase inverse pole figure (IPF) map, kernel average misorientation (KAM)
in strain. The grains are coarse in the initial material. On deformation maps and grain boundary maps. In Figs. 4–6, the IPF maps represent the
due to blast loading, the grains remain coarse till def1 condition. local crystal orientation in the map on the sheet plane (ND), however,
However, at higher strain for def2 sample, a crystallite size as 367 nm is the morphological features depict that on the transverse plane. The
predicted by XRD LPA indicating ultrafine subgrain formation at the KAM map gives information pertaining to local misorientation in the
higher strain level. material with respect to its neighbours and hence in the local strain
On deformation of austenitic stainless steel (ASS), the dislocation distribution. Different types of grain boundaries are superimposed on
density increases with strain. Moreover, nano-sized deformation twins the maps to understand their interplay. The grain boundaries include
are predicted by XRD LPA. The average distance between twin high-angle random grain boundary (HARB) (boundaries with mis-
boundaries (β parameter) indicates that the density of twin boundaries orientation between the neighbouring grains above 15°), low-angle
increases with strain. Nevertheless, subgrain formation is not predicted grain boundary (LAGB) (misorientation 5°–15°), very low angle grain
in this case as can be identified from the coarse crystallite size even for boundary (VLAB) (misorientation 2°–5°) and the coincidence site lattice
the def2 condition. (CSL) boundaries. The CSL for FCC crystals includes the Σ3 CSL
boundary (twin boundary) has axis-angle misorientation of < 111 >
3.2.2. Texture evolution on blast loading 60° and Σ9 CSL boundary has < 110 > 38.9° misorientation.
As reported by Suwas et al. (2002), Copper {112} < 111 > (Cu), S The IPF maps of nickel, copper and ASS samples before and after
{132} < 643 > , Cube {100} < 001 > (C), Brass {110} < 112 > (Bs) deformation are shown in Figs. 4–6, respectively. The initial micro-
and Goss {110} < 100 > (G) are the important FCC texture compo- structure of all the material displays a recrystallized strain free micro-
nents in rolling. These components lie very close in the pole figure structure. Abnormal grain growth is noticed at some locations in the
hence are difficult to be distinguished and quantify. In order to have a initial nickel sample, as confirmed by the presence of few large grains
lucid understanding of texture, orientation distribution functions (ODF) containing enclosed small grains. It is clear from the IPF maps of all the
have been plotted, where the texture components are distinguishable. materials that after blast loading, the grains get elongated in the sheet
The relevant 2 sections of the ODF ( 2 = 0°, 45°, and 65°), which plane parallel to the rolling direction and compressed along the blast
contain the mentioned important texture components, of the blast- direction. The orientation variation can be observed inside the grains
loaded samples are shown in Fig. 3. The volume fractions of important post-blast treatment indicating strain accumulation inside the grains.
texture components are included in Table 4. The grain size distribution, grain orientation spread (GOS), kernel
The texture of the initial nickel (Ni) sample has C and G as the major average distribution (KAM) and misorientation plots for nickel, copper
texture components (Fig. 3a). After blast deformation, the α-fiber starts and ASS samples are shown in Figs. 7a–d, 8 a–d and 9 a–d respectively.
forming which can be observed in 2 = 0° sections of the ODF in Fig. 3b The macroscopic trend exhibited by nickel, copper, and ASS are similar.
and c. The C component moves towards G component along with the There is a little change in grain size distribution after deformation and a
development of Bs component as the strain is increased from def1 to slight shift towards smaller grain size is observed. The GOS value re-
def2 sample, resulting in the formation and strengthening of the α-fiber. presents the macroscopic of strain inside the grain. The GOS distribu-
This leads to a drastic decrease in the volume fraction of C. This drastic tion widens and spreads towards higher value with strain indicating
decrease of C component signifies its unstable nature during strain accumulation in the material; however, the value still remains

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Fig. 3. Selected ODF sections 2 = 0°, 45° and 65° for the blast loaded samples: (a) nickel initial, (b) nickel def1, (c) nickel def2, (d) copper initial, (e) copper def1, (f)
copper def2, (g) austenitic stainless steel initial, (h) austenitic stainless steel def1, and (i) austenitic stainless steel def2. (colour online.)

Table 4 these values increases with strain. This is accompanied by an increase in

Volume fraction of important texture components for blast loaded nickel, the fraction of LAGBs along with VLABs in all the materials. However,
copper and austenitic stainless steel (ASS) samples. for ASS, a distinct peak of low height at 60° can still be observed in
Sample ID Volume fraction of texture components (%) addition to the broadened peak.
A small region of the samples with maximum strain (def2) was
Cube Goss Brass S Copper examined in detail to get a better understanding of the underlying
phenomena. The IPF map, the grain boundary (GB) map, and the KAM
Ni initial 5.45 3.09 0.24 0.35 0.57
Ni def1 0.70 1.56 1.79 0.33 1.00 map of the selected region for nickel, copper and ASS def2 samples are
Ni def2 0.98 3.72 2.94 0.79 0.66 shown in Figs. 10a–c, 11 a–c and 12 a–c respectively. In all the maps,
Cu initial 0.63 0.16 1.97 0.16 0.17 HARB is represented by black lines, while twin boundary is represented
Cu def1 2.85 1.22 2.10 1.07 0.11 by orange lines. Brandon’s criteria ( < 15°/ ) has been used as criteria
Cu def2 0.06 3.96 4.12 0.89 0.13
ASS initial 0.09 3.05 4.48 0.70 0.46
for identification of 3 CSL boundaries (twin boundaries). In the GB
ASS def1 0.02 4.79 4.18 0.34 0.38 map, LAGBs are shown, represented by blue lines. No new HARB ap-
ASS def2 0.01 4.04 7.32 0.40 0.07 pears to have formed, however, new LAGBs have formed which is also
reflected in the misorientation plots (Figs. 7d, 8 d and 9 d). The KAM is
distributed quite uniformly over the region investigated (Figs. 10b, 11 b
within 5° (Figs. 7b, 8 b and 9 b). The KAM distribution broadens and and 12 b). However, the overall KAM value is higher for blast loaded
shifts to the right with the strain on imposing blast assisted deforma- copper and ASS as compared to blast loaded nickel. A closer look at the
tion, indicating strain accumulation inside grains (Figs. 7c, 8 c and 9 c). KAM map of nickel reveals the formation of cell type structure (in-
The average KAM is less than 3° for all samples. More precise in- dicated by arrows in Fig. 10b). In contrast, copper and ASS exhibit the
formation related to grain boundary character distribution can be ex- formation of deformation bands as perceived by line formation in their
tracted from the misorientation plot. The peak in the misorientation respective KAM maps (Figs. 11b and 12 b). The GB maps (Figs. 10c, 11 c
angle plot (Figs. 7d, 8 d and 9 d) at 60° for all the materials indicates the and 12 c) indicate that many CSL boundaries which belong to the an-
presence of annealing twins in all the initial samples. The number nealing twins present in the initial material have changed its character
fraction at 60° misorientation decreases drastically and the spread near to HARB, either fully or in segments. It is noted that the KAM value is

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A. Bisht, et al.
Fig. 4. Inverse pole figures (IPF) maps for the blast loaded nickel (a) initial, (b) def1, and, (c) def2. (colour online.)
lower adjacent to the HARB segments of mentioned transformed
boundaries. Such regions are marked by white circles in Figs. 10b and
12 b. The misorientation line profiles inside a grain along the arrow
marked in the corresponding IPF maps of nickel (Fig. 10a), copper
(Fig. 11a) and ASS (Fig. 12a) are shown in Figs. 10d, 11 d and 12 d,
respectively. Both point-to-point and point-to-origin misorientation
profile have been plotted. The point-to-point misorientation is limited
to 2° for a major part of the length for all material and is higher than 2°
only near the boundary of deformation bands (for copper and ASS). In
nickel, the point-to-origin misorientation (Fig. 10d) indicates the for-
mation of local pockets of regions with misorientation just around 2°
which reflects the formation of cell structure in the material. The point-
to-origin misorientation for copper (Fig. 11d) and ASS (Fig. 12d) in-
dicates the formation of deformation bands.
A few partitioned grains of austenitic stainless steel in def2 condi-
tion are shown in Fig. 13. Deformation twins are observed within the
grains (Fig. 13af). The twin boundaries and HARBs are superimposed
for easy identification of the deformation twins. The deformation twins
are distinguished from annealing twins based on the size and the sur-
rounding boundary character. The deformation twin is thinner in size
and is completely surrounded by the twin boundary. The boundary
surrounding a deformation twin has a low deviation from the theore-
tical twin angle-axis relation (Σ3 CSL < 111 > 60°). On the other
hand, the remnant annealing twins are big in size and have boundaries
having a twin as well as HARB character in different segments. The
latter type of annealing twins are marked by arrows in Fig. 13e and g.
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583
The deformation twins are observed in non G and non Bs oriented
grains, i.e, grains not having (110) plane parallel to sheet plane. In the
grain that undergoes twinning, the twinned region has (110) plane
parallel to the sheet plane. This further strengthens the α-fibre texture.
One important observation is the absence of heavily twinned region in
any grain. Most of the deformation twins are lenticular in shape.
However, a few deformation twins (Fig. 13c and f) appear to have very
different or irregular shape which is not typical. Another interesting
feature observed is the set of parallel bands with nanometer thick en-
circled in Fig. 13c and f. These bands are aligned parallel to the blast
direction.
3.2.4. Transmission electron microscopy studies
A finer-level microstructural characterization was carried out using
transmission electron microscope (TEM) for selective blast loaded
samples (nickel def2 and ASS def2). The montage of the bright field
micrographs of the nickel def2 sample is shown in Fig. 14a–b. In
Fig. 14a, regions with different types of dislocation structures are evi-
dent. Dislocation cell structures are marked in the image. Regions with
no cell structure and low dislocation density are present. Also, regions
with dense and uniformly distributed dislocations without cell structure
are observed in the TEM micrographs. Dense cell structures are shown
in Fig. 14b. The cell structures are predominant in the sample. The cell
size varies from few 100 nm to 1 μm in the observed region.
TEM bright field images of the deformed ASS def2 sample are shown
in Fig. 14c–d. Different regions can be identified in the micrograph
A. Bisht, et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583

Fig. 5. Inverse pole figures (IPF) maps for the blast loaded copper (a) initial, (b) def1 and (c) def2 samples. (colour online.)

(Fig. 14c). A region having random uniform dense dislocations is ob-
served. Thin twin-like features can also be seen, as indicated by the
arrows in Fig. 14c. The region marked by circle shows bands of high-
low dislocations aligned in a parallel fashion. There is a uniform dis-
location background with dislocation band (near vertical) intersected
by thin deformation twin like features (inclined lines). The dislocations
in the band are not in the form of a straight line as observed in case of
planar slip. In the region below the marked circle, thin streaks of lines
spaced at distance from each other are visible which appear to be de-
formation twins. Micrographs at higher magnification from different
locations are shown in Fig. 14d. Deformation twin-like features (thin
lines) are indicated by the arrow. The overall microstructure is very
complex and appears to be resulting from the superimposition of mul-
tiple phenomena. It should be noted that due to relatively strong texture
in austenitic stainless steel samples, most of the grains in the electron
transparent region are expected to be Goss (G) oriented. Thus, thick

Fig. 6. Inverse pole figures (IPF) maps for the blast loaded austenitic stainless steel (a) initial, (b) def1 and (c) def2 samples. (colour online.)

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A. Bisht, et al.
Fig. 7. (a) Grain size distribution, (b) grain orientation spread, (c) kernel average misorientation and (d) misorientation plots for the blast loaded nickel.
deformation twins (100 nm in size) are not observed. Moreover, in G
oriented grains, thin (few nm thick) but spatially apart distributed de-
formation twins are observed.
4. Discussion
In the previous section, results pertaining to microstructural and
texture evolution in nickel, copper and austenitic stainless steel (ASS)
discs blast loaded into hat-shaped samples were presented. In these
specimens, the state of stress varies from mid-point deflection to outer
radius. As mentioned earlier, for a judicious comparison among the
samples, all the microstructural investigations reported in this work
have been carried out at the mid-point deflection of the samples. The in-
plane state of stress at any point is biaxial tensile in nature with the two
stresses being equal at the mid-point deflection as mentioned earlier by
Bisht et al. (2017). The thickness stress (parallel to blast loading di-
rection) is compressive. Thus, there is a material flow in-plane of the
disc. In the following section, a detailed discussion of the experimental
results will be presented vis-a-vis the existing knowledge in the field.
4.1. Comparison of strain levels between different materials
As mentioned earlier, in the present study, Ni, Cu, and ASS were
subjected to blast assisted deformation. Each material was deformed to
two strain levels (def1 and def2) in order to study the evolution of
texture and microstructure with strain. The strain achieved by different
materials at each level (say def1) are similar, however, they are not
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583
equal. This is primarily due to the complexity posed by the experi-
mentation along with the response of materials to the blast exposure.
The non-equilibrium nature of the test (deformation via blast waves)
makes the finer level control of the incident blast wave difficult.
Moreover, although the microstructural response of the material to
shock waves is qualitatively known, the mechanical response of mate-
rial exposed to shock wave is non-linear and not very well understood.
Further, the mechanical response is material dependent. This further
complicates the situation due to which it is very difficult to achieve
same strain value among different material. Nevertheless, the objective
of the present investigation is to study the evolution of texture and
microstructure with strain. With similar levels of strain value achieved
in each material, the evolution of microstructure and texture can be
qualitatively compared and studied as a function of the material para-
meter (SFE).
4.2. Strain rate between tests
In the present study, the transient strain response of the blast as-
sisted disc was not measured. The strain achieved in samples were
different and, hence it is expected that the strain rates between samples
are not exact. Information related to the strain rate experienced by
samples between tests is important as the material behavior is depen-
dent on the strain rate. During the test, different strain levels were
achieved in the disc by employing shock of varying strength. The strain
rate achieved under blast assisted deformation using the method em-
ployed is dependent on the impact shock parameters (pulse duration
A. Bisht, et al.
Fig. 8. (a) Grain size distribution, (b) grain orientation spread, (c) kernel average misorientation and (d) misorientation plots for the blast loaded copper.
(loading time)) and strain in the material. It must be noted that the
shock of different strength had similar shock profile and loading time
(Fig. 1b). The strain experienced by all the samples were within an
order of magnitude (Table 2). Thus, it can be said with estimation that
the strain rate (strain/loading time) experienced by the samples were
within an order of magnitude. It is known that the material displays
strain rate sensitivity when the strain rate change by more than an
order of magnitude (Gurao et al., 2011a). Moreover, in high strain rate
regime, the material behavior changes only when the difference in
strain rate is quite significant. Thus, with the samples experiencing
strain rate within the same order of magnitude, it can safely be con-
cluded that strain rate had minimal effect on the test results.
4.3. Effect of SFE on the deformed microstructure
Microstructural features of nickel, copper and austenitic stainless
steel (ASS) subjected to blast loading have similarities and differences.
Grain fragmentation is not observed in any of the samples. The initial
near equiaxed grains get elongated in the plane of the disc after de-
formation, as can be observed from the IPF maps (Figs. 4–6). No sign of
recrystallization was observed in any of the samples. Overall, there was
no significant change in the grain size as well as grain size distribution,
an observation corroborated with earlier reports on shock loading of
copper, by Bisht et al. (2017), and of aluminium, by Ray et al. (2015).
Nevertheless, changes in crystallite size are observed as tabulated in
Table 3. It should be noted that the crystallite size (obtained from XRD
technique) and grain size (obtained from EBSD) are completely dif-
ferent parameters and are not comparable. XRD is a bulk technique and
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583
sensitive to the smallest diffracting (crystallite) domain, unlike EBSD. It
is possible to observe crystallite domains from TEM, however the region
of investigation available is many a times limited and not good for
quantification. It is possible for a grain (deformed) to have a finer
crystallite domain within. The fraction of HARBs increases and that of
the twin boundary decreases. There is an increase in the fraction of
LAGBs with a peak towards 2° as observed from misorientation plots.
Inside a grain, the uniform point-to-point misorientation, limited below
2–3°, supports the proposition that dislocations are generated in a
homogeneous manner in all the materials. This is a characteristic fea-
ture of shock/blast deformed material, where a continuous change of
orientation within a grain is limited to 5°, which is in line with studies
reported earlier on shock deformed aluminium by Dhere et al. (1982)
and Ray et al. (2015), and, also in shock deformed copper by Bisht et al.
(2017) and Higgins (1971). Short range lattice fluctuation is observed
consistently. Meyers (1978) proposed that homogeneous nucleation of
dislocation or in other words generation of dislocation takes place in
the material on shock passage. The homogeneous lattice fluctuation is
due to the homogeneous nucleation of dislocations at the shock front
which are left behind in the material. It is expected that in such a si-
tuation, the KAM is uniformly distributed over the region. However, the
KAM spread increases with a decrease in SFE of the material, as ob-
served by comparing the KAM plots of nickel (Fig. 7c), copper (Fig. 8c)
and austenitic stainless steel (Fig. 9c). This is attributed to the SFE
dependence of recovery response in of the materials. Thornton et al.
(1962) studied the dependence of cross-slip behavior of FCC material
on SFE and concluded that the material with high SFE recovers faster
compared to the low SFE energy material, which is attributed to the
A. Bisht, et al.
Fig. 9. (a) Grain size distribution, (b) grain orientation spread, (c) kernel average misorientation and (d) misorientation plots for the blast loaded austenitic stainless
steel (ASS).
ease of dislocation climb in high SFE materials. Thus, the recovery
behavior of high SFE materials, in turn, governs the microstructural
evolution.
The microstructure of nickel has regions of dense uniform disloca-
tion, less dense tangled dislocations and dislocation cell structure. The
latter is a dominant feature in the microstructure of nickel after ex-
posure to blast wave and is primarily attributed to the ease of recovery
in nickel, owing to its high SFE. In contrast, the microstructures of
copper and austenitic stainless steel possess dense but uniformly dis-
tributed dislocation structure, which is also reflected in their KAM
maps. In these materials, dislocation density increases with strain. The
increased dislocation density is also captured in the CMWP analysis of
X-ray diffraction pattern obtained from the blast wave treated copper
and austenitic stainless steel. The homogeneous forest of dislocations
left behind the shock front does not undergo recovery as the SFE of
copper and austenitic stainless steel are relatively low. In addition, thin
deformation twins of around 100 nm thickness have been detected in
the microstructure of blast loaded austenitic stainless steel in the grains
which do not have {110} plane parallel to the sheet plane. However,
most of the twinned region has {110} plane parallel to the sheet plane,
which further contributes to the strengthening of α-fiber. In the grains
which have {110} plane parallel to the sheet plane, sparsely spaced thin
deformation twins are observed. All these results are supported by the
results of CMWP analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns. A set of bands
(nm thickness) aligned parallel to blast direction are observed in the IPF
maps of various grains (Fig. 13c and f) in the microstructure of blast
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583
wave treated austenitic stainless steel. Similar features are observed in
the TEM micrographs, where bands of high and low dislocation density
are clearly discernible (Fig. 14a). The dislocations in these bands are
not tangled, rather appear to be diffused (Fig. 14b). It has a uniform
background of dislocations intersected by thin deformation twins. The
complex microstructure, which looks like superimposition of many
microstructural features, is expected to be a result of the occurrence of
multiple phenomena. The series of events, which could have resulted in
such a microstructure, is discussed later in this section.
A noticeable feature of the microstructures of all the samples is the
decrease in twin boundary fraction with deformation, as seen from the
corresponding misorientation maps. There is a corresponding increase
in the HARB fraction. The high angle region of the misorientation plot
(misorientation > 15°) approaches the McKenzie distribution with
strain. This is primarily because of the interplay between twin bound-
aries and HARBs. The change in the character of twin boundary to
HARB, either fully or in segments, is anticipated to be a result of pile-up
of dislocation at the twin boundary, which can be seen clearly in the
grain boundary maps. The KAM value is relatively lower adjacent to the
HARB segments of such a twin-HARB boundary, which indicate the
occurrence of local strain relaxation due to the transformation of twin
boundary to HARB. Bisht et al. (2017) have reported similar changes in
shock deformed copper. The boundary transformation results in local
strain relaxation as observed in the KAM maps. The transformation in
boundary character strictly takes place along the annealing twin
boundaries which were present in the initial samples. The fraction of
A. Bisht, et al. Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583

Fig. 10. (a) IPF map, (b) KAM map, and, (c) grain boundary map of the selected area of nickel def2 sample. The color-coded IPF triangle and the grain boundary type
line color is shown. The KAM scale range from blue to red corresponding to 0 - 5° misorientation. (d) The misorientation line profile along arrow marked in (a). (for
appropriate depiction of the colour coded elements, please refer to the online version.)

twin boundaries transformed is directly proportional to the strain in the
material. The broken twin boundary with HARB segments results in
poor twin boundary connectivity in all the deformed samples.
The complex microstructures observed in the blast loaded austenitic
stainless steel samples (Fig. 14b) gives an impression of superimposed
microstructural features. Such a microstructure is expected to be the
result of multiple phenomena occurring during shock/blast loading.
One possible explanation for the same is the difference in the material
response time (inertial) and the speed of shock front. The inertial re-
sponse of the material can be approximated to the strain rate observed
during shock/blast loading. The strain rate observed in similar but
large-scale shock loading experiments (measured through digital image
correlation) in closed condition is reported to be of the order of few
1000 s−1 by Gharababaei et al. (2010) and Tiwari et al. (2009), and, in
simulations by Zajkani et al. (2014), which implies that the deformation
process takes in few tens of μs. The velocity of sound in nickel, copper
and austenitic stainless steel are 4900 ms−1, 3800 ms−1 and
5050 ms−1, respectively. The impulse wave velocity generated during
the shock experiment is approximated as the material sound velocity for
calculation purpose. Clearly, the impulse wave will take 0.04 μs to
travel the thickness (200 μm) of the material. It is therefore expected
that the microstructural features due to shock wave propagation inside
the material are generated first. These features can relax to some extent
due to the trailing expansion wave. Following this phenomena, mac-
roscopic straining would give rise to additional microstructural features
superimposed on the shock generated features. The interplay between
the residual microstructural features due to propagation of shock front
and the following macroscopic straining is not straightforward. Rather
it will depend on both the material parameters as well as the macro-
scopic strain path. For instance, nickel is known for its tendency to
undergo recovery. Thus, the effects of both the phenomena are merged
into a resultant recovered dislocation cell type structure. On the other
hand, austenitic stainless steel, a low SFE material, does not undergo
recovery at room temperature. Thus, an imprint of both the phenomena
is present in the microstructure of the shock (blast) treated austenitic
stainless steel.
A simple schematic diagram representing the steps leading to the
overall microstructure is shown in Fig. 15. Assuming that the initial

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Fig. 11. (a) IPF map, (b) KAM map, and, (c) grain boundary map of the selected area of copper def2 sample. The color-coded IPF triangle and the grain boundary type
line color is shown. The KAM scale range from blue to red corresponding to 0 - 5° misorientation. (d) The misorientation line profile along arrow marked in (a). (for
appropriate depiction of the colour coded elements, please refer to the online version.)

material has no defects, a homogeneous distribution of dislocation is
left behind in the material due to the passage of shock wave. Some of
the dislocations (defects in general) may recover on coming in contact
with the trailing expansion wave. Following the shock wave, macro-
scopic straining of material will result in the changes in microstructural
features. There are many possible outcomes with regard to micro-
structural features. For example, new defects can be generated in the
material to accommodate the macroscopic strain. Alternatively, the
remnant defects from shock passage can rearrange to accommodate the
strain.
4.4. Effect of SFE on texture evolution
The study of texture evolution of all the experimental materials
displays the development of a texture mainly comprising of α-fiber on
blast loading. The brass (Bs) and Goss (G) components are the major
texture components. However, the relative fraction of the two compo-
nents (Bs and G) is observed to be dependent on the SFE of the material.
The relative fraction of Bs/G component increases with a decrease in
SFE, which can be observed from the ODF plots (Fig. 3) and the volume
fraction of the components (Table 4). The presence and intensities of
the other texture components depend on the specific material. The Cu, S
and Cube (C) texture components are generally weak and their volume
fraction is governed primarily by the SFE of the material. For the nickel
sample, the S component continuously develops with strain whereas the
Cu component first increases and then decrease. In the case of copper
sample, the S component decreases with strain, whereas the Cu com-
ponent first increases and then decreases (fluctuates). For austenitic
stainless steel (ASS), the S component does not change much whereas
the Cu component decreases. The Cube (C) component decreases and
fluctuates for nickel, however, is always weak. For copper and ASS, the
Cube component diminishes completely. Overall, the texture in all the

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Fig. 12. (a) IPF map, (b) KAM map, and, (c) grain boundary map of the selected area of austentic stainless steel def2 sample. The color-coded IPF triangle and the
grain boundary type line color is shown. The KAM scale range from blue to red corresponding to 0 - 5° misorientation. (d) The misorientation line profile along the
arrow marked in (a). (for appropriate depiction of the colour coded elements, please refer to the online version.)

materials converges towards a well-developed α-fiber with strain. Bisht
et al. (2017) in their earlier study on shock deformed copper and Ray
et al. (2015) in their study on shock deformed Al have reported a si-
milar observation, where predominant texture of the material com-
prised of {hkl} < 110 > , where < 110 > direction was parallel to the
loading direction. In the present investigation, it is clear that the most
prominent feature of blast treated nickel is dislocation bands and that of
ASS is twins. Nevertheless, all the material shows similar completely
developed α-fiber after deformation with stable texture components
{110} uvw . Thus, it is expected that some factors other than these
microstructural features also play a role in the development of the re-
sultant texture.
The evolution of texture in a material is primarily governed by the
strain path (Suwas and Singh, 2003). In the present study, at the mid-
point of the disc, the material flows in-plane in all direction. Similar but
different material flow behavior takes place during MSCR where ma-
terial flows in-plane along two perpendicular directions in successive
steps. As texture development is widely studied for MSCR, the concept
of stability of texture components during in-plane flow of material is
explained for MSCR and thereafter corollary is drawn for the texture
evolution observed in the present study. Gurao et al. (2011a,b) have
studied deformation texture of copper and nickel and its dependence on
strain path. They reported an increase in the volume fraction of Bs
{110} < 112 > and P(BND) {110} < 111 > texture component in
copper and nickel subjected to MSCR. The texture primarily consisted
of α fiber developed with a maximum at Bs. This was attributed to the
continuous destabilization of the substructure due to strain path change
which led to a higher average active number of slip systems (Gurao
et al. (2011a,b). Similarly, in the present case, the evolution of texture
in all the materials is primarily attributed to the manifestation of strain
path. The stable ideal orientation dependence on SFE is well established
for the unidirectionally rolled (UDR) materials (Suwas and Ray, 2014),
and, it is the most important factor that dictates whether a Bs-type or a
Cu-type texture will form (Smallman and Green, 1964). Öztürk (1988)
studied deformation and recrystallization texture in MSCR sheets of
copper and α-brass (Cu-30Zn). He reported that owing to the fact that
the MSCR process exhibits a four-fold symmetry, none of the orienta-
tions observed in unidirectional rolling are truly stable during MSCR
process. Due to the alternating changing path, the Cu component be-
comes metastable. The C component may form upto certain level as a
by-product of this depletion of Cu component and is metastable
(Öztürk, 1988). Some crystallites move away from Cu component rotate
to {001} < 110 > , while some component moves to Bs via rotation
about < 111 > TD axis (Öztürk, 1988). This repeated process results
in a buildup of {hkl} < 110 > and C components, with the former being
predominant (Öztürk, 1988). Thus, Bs and G components often appear
as the dominant components during MSCR. Unlike MSCR, in the present
study, the material flows in-plane in all direction at the mid-point of the

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Fig. 13. Few partitioned grains of austenitic stainless steel def2 sample with boundary type superimposed showing deformation twin inside the parent grain. The
color-coded IPF triangle and the grain boundary type line color are shown below for reference. The arrow indicates the twinned region which are remnant of
annealing twin from the initial sample. (colour online.)

disc. Due to this strain path, {110} uvw texture components becomes this process in all the materials even with different SFE. The effect of
the most stable component which results in a completely developed α SFE is manifested in terms of deciding the relative fraction of Bs/G
fiber. Thus, the development of a texture with α fiber takes place during texture components along α fiber and also via the appearance of weak S

Fig. 14. TEM micrographs of the blast loaded nickel def2 sample (a and b) and austenitic stainless steel def2 sample (c and d).

581
A. Bisht, et al.
Fig. 15. A schematic representation of the sequence of steps showing microstructural change resulting from shock passage followed by macroscopic deformation.
and Cu components, which are either stable or fluctuating in nature
with strain.
The overall texture development observed in the present study is in
accordance with the quasi-static deformation processes like cold
rolling. Yeung and Duggan (1986) studied the texture and structure
development in cross-rolled brass. In the rolling process, the texture
transformations are clearly noticeable only after a deformation above
50% thickness reduction (0.51 – 0.69 true strain). In the present case of
blast loading, the texture manifestation is observed even at a relatively
low strain level. Gurao et al. (2011a) have studied the effect of strain
rate (quasi-static and dynamic) on the evolution of deformation texture
in copper and nickel (different SFE) under compression. They observed
that the deformation texture shows little dependence on the SFE for a
large change in magnitude of strain rate. The SFE was reported to play a
secondary role in the activation of restoration processes. This is in line
with the present findings.
5. Summary
In this investigation, face centered cubic (FCC) materials with their
stacking fault energies (SFE) ranging from high to low
(SFENickel > SFECopper > SFEASS) were subjected to shock wave de-
formation via blast loading. The evolutions of microstructure and
crystallographic texture, resulting from the process, were investigated
by means of X-ray line profile analysis (XLPA) and electron back-scatter
diffraction (EBSD) methods. The overall analyses of the experimental
results led to following conclusions:
• The evolution of texture is mainly dependent on the deformation
geometry and the strain in the material. The final texture is similar
for FCC materials with different SFE, for example, Nickel, Copper
and Austenitic Stainless Steel. The texture tends to converge towards
a developed α-fiber, which spans over brass (Bs) and Goss (G) tex-
ture components. The relative fraction of Bs/G component increases
with a decrease in SFE. The effect of SFE is further manifested in
terms of the fluctuating appearance of Cu, S and cube (C) texture
components, though to a low extent. The components {110} uvw
are the most stable ones during blast loading of the discs. The other
FCC texture components, for example, Cu, S and Cube do not remain
stable.
• Depending on SFE, a variety of microstructures is observed in the
materials. Nickel (high SFE) predominantly shows cell formation,
whereas austenitic stainless steel (low SFE) shows homogeneous
distribution of dislocations and sparsely spread thin deformation
twins.
• There is no significant change in grain size distribution, however, a
significant increase in the frequency of low-angle misorientation
distribution (< 5°) is observed between different materials corre-
sponding to different SFE values.
•
The annealing twin boundaries, pre-existing in the initial material,
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Journal of Materials Processing Tech. 271 (2019) 568–583
get transformed to high angle random boundaries (HARB) after blast
loading, either in segments or completely. This is attributed to dis-
location pile up at the twin boundaries.
• In austenitic stainless steel, the grains with {110} plane parallel to
the sheet plane show uniformly but sparsely distributed thin de-
formation twins (few nm in thickness). Relatively thicker deforma-
tion twins (50–150 nm thickness) are observed in the grains which
have orientation other than {110} < uvw > . Moreover, in this case,
dislocations are arranged in bands with dense and lean dislocation.
• The microstructure of austenitic stainless steel, as seen under TEM,
appears to be resulting from the combined effect of microstructural
change due to shock passage followed by macroscopic straining.
Acknowledgements
Funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
Council (UK) through grant EP/K028316/1 and Department of Science
and Technology (India) through grant DST/RC-UK/14-AM/2012 for
project “Modeling of Advanced Materials for Simulation of
Transformative Manufacturing Processes (MAST)” is gratefully ac-
knowledged.
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