What is a cell?

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of
trillions of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those
nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the body’s
hereditary material and can make copies of themselves.

Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of these parts, called
organelles, are specialized structures that perform certain tasks within the cell. Human cells
contain the following major parts:

Cytoplasm
Within cells, the cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like fluid (called the cytosol) and other
structures that surround the nucleus.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of long fibers that make up the cell’s structural framework.
The cytoskeleton has several critical functions, including determining cell shape, participating
in cell division, and allowing cells to move. It also provides a track-like system that directs the
movement of organelles and other substances within cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

This organelle helps process molecules created by the cell. The endoplasmic
reticulum also transports these molecules to their specific destinations either inside or outside
the cell.

Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus packages molecules processed by the endoplasmic reticulum to be
transported out of the cell.

Lysosomes and peroxisomes

These organelles are the recycling center of the cell. They digest foreign bacteria that
invade the cell, rid the cell of toxic substances, and recycle worn-out cell components.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are complex organelles that convert energy from food into a form that the
cell can use. They have their own genetic material, separate from the DNA in the nucleus,
and can make copies of themselves.

Nucleus
The nucleus serves as the cell’s command center, sending directions to the cell to grow,
mature, divide, or die. It also houses DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the cell’s hereditary
material. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope, which
protects the DNA and separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell.

Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is the outer lining of the cell. It separates the cell from its
environment and allows materials to enter and leave the cell.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are organelles that process the cell’s genetic instructions to create proteins.
These organelles can float freely in the cytoplasm or be connected to the endoplasmic
reticulum.

The Nucleus
A nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that contains the cell's chromosomes. Pores
in the nuclear membrane allow for the passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus.

The nucleus is one of the most obvious parts of the cell when you look at a picture of the
cell. It's in the middle of the cell, and the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes,
which encode the genetic material. So this is really an important part of the cell to protect. The
nucleus has a membrane around it that keeps all the chromosomes inside and makes the
distinction between the chromosomes being inside the nucleus and the other organelles and
components of the cell staying outside. Sometimes things like RNA need to traffic between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm, and so there are pores in this nuclear membrane that allow
molecules to go in and out of the nucleus. It used to be thought that the nuclear membrane
only allowed molecules to go out, but now it's realized that there is an active process also for
bringing molecules into the nucleus. - Julie A. Segre, Ph.D.

The Endomembrane system is a membranous component of the eukaryotic cell. The

cytoplasm of the cell contains a system of membranous organelles that are suspended in it.
The organelles are termed as a system even though they have different structures and
functions as they are essential to the working of the cell. All these organelles work in
coordination and they include the cell membrane, vacuoles, the nuclear membrane,
lysosomes, Golgi complex, vesicles and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

Since the functioning of other organelles like mitochondria, chloroplasts etc, are not
coordinated with the functioning of the above, they are not considered part of the system.
Components of the Endomembrane System

Here is the list of few components of the Endomembrane system which play a vital role.

 Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER represents a network of tiny tubular structures scattered

in the cytoplasm. It divides the cytoplasm into two distinct compartments – luminal (inside
ER) and extraluminal (outside ER). ER is present in the cytoplasm in two forms – Rough
ER (embedded with ribosomes) and Smooth ER (free from ribosomes). Rough ER helps
in synthesis and secretion of proteins whereas Smooth ER synthesizes lipids.
 Golgi bodies – Named after Camilo Golgi, the scientist who discovered them, Golgi
bodies are a membraneous disc like sacs or cisternae of varying diameter between 0.5 –
1.0 µm stacked parallel like a lump of pancakes. Interconnected cis and trans faces or
forming and maturing faces of cisternae are concentrically arranged around the nucleus.
It serves mainly as the packaging center for endomembrane secretions like proteins.
 Lysosomes – Infamous as the ‘suicidal bags of cell’, these are membrane-bound
vesicular structures containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and even nucleic acids.
 Vacuoles – The voluminous vacuole is the membrane-bound space of the cytoplasm
that occupies as much as up to 90% volume of the plant cell. It contains water, sap,
excretory products and other materials which are useless for the cell. The outer
membrane of vacuoles, known as tonoplast, facilitates transport of ions against the
concentration gradient into the vacuole. Contractile vacuoles in amoeba facilitate
excretion along with transporting engulfed food via food vacuoles in some other protists.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate

most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical
energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondria contain their own small chromosomes. Generally,
mitochondria, and therefore mitochondrial DNA, are inherited only from the mother.

Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles, but they're membrane-bound with two

different membranes. And that's quite unusual for an intercellular organelle. Those
membranes function in the purpose of mitochondria, which is essentially to produce energy.
That energy is produced by having chemicals within the cell go through pathways, in other
words, be converted. And the process of that conversion produces energy in the form of ATP,
because the phosphate is a high-energy bond and provides energy for other reactions within
the cell. So the mitochondria's purpose is to produce that energy. Some different cells have
different amounts of mitochondria because they need more energy. So for example, the
muscle has a lot of mitochondria, the liver does too, the kidney as well, and to a certain
extent, the brain, which lives off of the energy those mitochondria produce. So if you have a
defect in the pathways that the mitochondria usually functions with, you're going to have
symptoms in the muscle, in the brain, sometimes in the kidneys as well; many different types
of symptoms. And we probably don't know all of the different diseases that mitochondrial
dysfunction causes. - William Gahl, M.D., Ph.D.

Chloroplasts are the ancestral members of a structurally diverse family of organelles

known as plastids (which also includes proplastids, amyloplasts and chromoplasts). Plastids
are responsible for photosynthesis and various metabolic and signalling functions (among
others), and they are the organelles that define plants.

Plastids evolved through endosymbiosis from an ancient relative of extant cyanobacteria.

They are semi-autonomous by virtue of the fact that they retain a functional genetic system of
their own. As a result, an important component of the biogenesis and homeostasis of plastids
is the coordination of the organellar genome (plastome) with the nuclear genome.

During evolution, many organellar genes were transferred from the plastome to the
nuclear genome, with the consequence that the bulk-flow of information during organellar
development proceeds from the nucleus to plastids. Nonetheless, plastid-to-nucleus signals
emitted by plastids (termed retrograde signals) have a significant influence on the expression
of many nuclear genes.

Most plastid proteins are encoded in the nucleus and synthesized in the cytosol (each
contains a cleavable targeting signal (or transit peptide)), and are imported post-
translationally by plastids through the TOC (translocon at the outer envelope membrane of
chloroplasts)–TIC (translocon at the inner envelope membrane of chloroplasts) translocation
machinery in the envelope membranes. Client-specific protein import pathways (enabled by a
diversity of TOC receptor components) influence the composition of the organellar proteome,
and the balance of these pathways is controlled by the cytosolic ubiquitin–proteasome
system.

Intraorganellar sorting of plastid proteins is achieved through a range of translocation

systems (including the cpSEC (chloroplast SEC), cpTAT (CHLOROPLAST TWIN ARG
TRANSLOCASE) and cpSRP (CHLOROPLAST SIGNAL RECOGNITION PARTICLE)
pathways) that have been conserved through evolution and are thus similar to protein sorting
pathways found in bacteria. Similarly, proteolytic systems operating inside plastids (CLP,
FTSH, DEG and LON) are of prokaryotic origin.

Plastids are propagated by the division of pre-existing organelles though a binary fission
mechanism that uses components that have been inherited from the prokaryotic
endosymbiont (for example, FTSZ (FILAMENTOUS TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE Z)), as well
as additional factors of eukaryotic origin (for example, dynamin-related ARC5
(ACCUMULATION AND REPLICATION OF CHLOROPLASTS 5)). The structurally dynamic
nature of plastids is further indicated by their ability to produce stroma-filled protrusions called
stromules and by observations of vesicle budding from the plastid body.

Plastid biogenesis and homeostasis are closely coordinated with cell and organ
development to ensure that an appropriate number of plastids of the correct type are present
in cells at each stage of plant development. Transcription factors responsible for chloroplast
differentiation may have roles in chloroplast-to-nucleus communication and in the response to
environmental (such as light) or hormonal signals.

Chloroplasts are the organelles that define plants, and they are responsible for
photosynthesis as well as numerous other functions. They are the ancestral members of a
family of organelles known as plastids. Plastids are remarkably dynamic, existing in strikingly
different forms that interconvert in response to developmental or environmental cues. The
genetic system of this organelle and its coordination with the nucleocytosolic system, the
import and routing of nucleus-encoded proteins, as well as organellar division all contribute to
the biogenesis and homeostasis of plastids. They are controlled by the ubiquitin–proteasome
system, which is part of a network of regulatory mechanisms that integrate plastid
development into broader programmes of cellular and organismal development.

Cytoskeleton Definition
The cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and tubules that extends throughout a cell,
through the cytoplasm, which is all of the material within a cell except for the nucleus. It is
found in all cells, though the proteins that it is made of vary between organisms. The
cytoskeleton supports the cell, gives it shape, organizes and tethers the organelles, and has
roles in molecule transport, cell division and cell signaling.

Structure of the Cytoskeleton

All cells have a cytoskeleton, but usually the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells is what is
meant when discussing the cytoskeleton. Eukaryotic cells are complex cells that have a
nucleus and organelles. Plants, animals, fungi, and protists have eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic
cells are less complex, with no true nucleus or organelles except ribosomes, and they are
found in the single-celled organisms bacteria and archaea. The cytoskeleton of prokaryotic
cells was originally thought not to exist; it was not discovered until the early 1990s.
The eukaryotic cytoskeleton consists of three types of filaments, which are elongated chains
of proteins: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.

The microfilaments of this cell are shown in red, while microtubules are shown in green. The
blue dots are nuclei.

Microfilaments
Microfilaments are also called actin filaments because they are mostly composed of the
protein actin; their structure is two strands of actin wound in a spiral. They are about 7
nanometers thick, making them the thinnest filaments in the cytoskeleton. Microfilaments
have many functions. They aid in cytokinesis, which is the division of a cytoplasm of a cell
when it is dividing into two daughter cells. They aid in cell motility and allow single-celled
organisms like amoebas to move. They are also involved in cytoplasmic streaming, which is
the flowing of cytosol (the liquid part of the cytoplasm) throughout the cell. Cytoplasmic
streaming transports nutrients and cell organelles. Microfilaments are also part of muscle cells
and allow these cells to contract, along with myosin. Actin and myosin are the two main
components of muscle contractile elements.

Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are about 8-12 nm wide; they are called intermediate because
they are in-between the size of microfilaments and microtubules. Intermediate filaments are
made of different proteins such as keratin (found in hair and nails, and also in animals with
scales, horns, or hooves), vimentin, desmin, and lamin. All intermediate filaments are found in
the cytoplasm except for lamins, which are found in the nucleus and help support the nuclear
envelope that surrounds the nucleus. The intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm maintain
the cell’s shape, bear tension, and provide structural support to the cell.

Microtubules
Microtubules are the largest of the cytoskeleton’s fibers at about 23 nm. They are hollow
tubes made of alpha and beta tubulin. Microtubules form structures like flagella, which are
“tails” that propel a cell forward. They are also found in structures like cilia, which are
appendages that increase a cell’s surface area and in some cases allow the cell to move.
Most of the microtubules in an animal cell come from a cell organelle called the centrosome,
which is a microtubule organizing center (MTOC). The centrosome is found near the middle of
the cell, and microtubules radiate outward from it. Microtubules are important in forming the
spindle apparatus (or mitotic spindle), which separates sister chromatids so that one copy can
go to each daughter cell during cell division. They are also involved in transporting molecules
within the cell and in the formation of the cell wall in plant cells.

Function of the Cytoskeleton

As described above, the cytoskeleton has several functions. First, it gives the cell shape.
This is especially important in cells without cell walls, such as animal cells, that do not get
their shape from a thick outer layer. It can also give the cell movement. The microfilaments
and microtubules can disassemble, reassemble, and contract, allowing cells to crawl and
migrate, and microtubules help form structures like cilia and flagella that allow for cell
movement.

The cytoskeleton organizes the cell and keeps the cell’s organelles in place, but it also
aids in the movement of organelles throughout the cell. For example,
during endocytosis when a cell engulfs a molecule, microfilaments pull the vesicle containing
the engulfed particles into the cell. Similarly, the cytoskeleton helps move chromosomes
during cell division.

One analogy for the cytoskeleton is the frame of a building. Like a building’s frame, the
cytoskeleton is the “frame” of the cell, keeping structures in place, providing support, and
giving the cell a definite shape.

Cell surface specializations and intercellular junctions of human term amniotic

epithelium were examined by conventional thin ‐section electron microscopy, after staining
with the cationic probes ruthenium red and cationic ferritin, and by freeze ‐fracture methods.
Desmosomes were the predominant type of intercellular junction and often the most apical of
the junctional types. In freeze‐fracture replicas, desmosomes were characterized by roughly
circular areas of large, often irregular, P‐face intramembranous particles. Gap junctions were
identified in the laterobasal regions between cells. In thin sections they were characterized by
a narrow intercellular space, and in freeze‐fracture replicas had a typical plaquelike
arrangement of P‐face intramembranous particles and E ‐face depressions.
Hemidesmosomes at the basal cell surface were characterized by occasional large particles
and clusters of particles on both the E and P fracture faces. No evidence of tight junctions
was found. The apical cell surface was heavily stained by both ruthenium red and cationic
ferritin, indicating the negatively charged nature of this surface. Ruthenium red penetrated
between the epithelial cells and bound to anionic materials on the lateral cell surfaces,
especially at the location of desmosomes. Below the base of the intercellular cleft, large
ruthenium red‐positive granules were present in the extracellular matrix. The possibility that
the anionic substances in the intercellular region may contribute to the control of permeability
in the amniotic epithelium is discussed.

The nature of life and the nature of death

Life is defined as a "condition" that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic
materials and dead organisms. Life is comprised of processes and is a maintained state. The
most sophisticated form of life is man and our though focuses upon the nature of the life and
death of man. Man demonstrates three lives or aspects of life: Life of the body--the physical,
life of the mind and life of the spirit. Physical life is basic existence; the mind contributes
effectiveness and scope; the spiritual entity contributes maximum living. Physiology: The
existence of life physical is demonstrated by the presence of functions. Living tissues and
organisms exhibit: Irritability: the ability to be excited or detect stimuli and to respond thereto;
Growth and reproduction: this consists of the power of multiplication and duplication,
regeneration and differentiation; Adaptability: permitting both change and maintenance of
balances (homeostasis); and finally and most characteristic of all is Metabolism: the
transformation of energy and the use of materials. These properties, however, can be
retained for a while by tissues after death of the organism so there is another mystery of life
which we understand only in part. Life consists of structure and processes operating under
integrative control. This integrative power is the secret we do not understand--we know it
confers all the life properties, the continuous flow of processes related to the organism's need
for survival. Death is failure not so much of process but of integrative drive and coordination--
but, of course, structure and process can fail too, destroying integrated activity. The total
organism is under integrative control by brain and mind, the autonomic nervous system and
by the neuroendocrine-endocrine complex, all acting in unison. These physical processes
contribute to the existence of the life of the mind and spirit and are in turn powerfully affected
by intellect and morale. However, we do not understand the driving force which converts
inorganic matter, organizes it and then propels it into life. Life seems to be only a continuation
of a heritage--life creating life. Philosophy: The life of the mind requires acquisition of
knowledge, curiosity, cultivation of the power to reason, use of thought and contemplation, all
under discipline. True life of the mind may not exist and may cease to be even though
physical existence may be present. Somewhat the same can be said of the life of the spirit; it
also is not automatically genetically granted in completed form.

Energy for life

All living beings need an energy source to activate chemical reactions. For example, to
light a match requires some kind of energy source to trigger the reaction. In this case one
simply has to rub the top on a rough surface to produce heat and make it light. This is a case
of “activation energy”.
Almost all the experiments we spoke about in the other chapters, used electric discharges,
ultraviolet light and heat as energy sources. However these energy sources can be harmful to
living molecules , because too much heat can disintegrate the molecules and the coacervate
in them, causing irreparable damage.
The primordial earth didn’t have a sufficiently thick and dense atmosphere, so ultraviolet
radiations could have destroyed everything on the planet’s surface. This blocked the evolution
of organisms in the areas struck by this energy. Both electric discharges and ultraviolet rays
were generally active in the atmosphere , while life began almost certainly in the water or in
protected humid places. Therefore, other forms of energy must have helped the beginning of
life on Earth.
As time passed, the diluted hot soup that was found in the depressions of the Planet’s
surface, started to cool down and so the reactions become slower . At this point it is believed
that new substances must have appeared which were able to help chemical reactions. These
substances actually exist in every living organism: enzymes.
Enzymes activate chemical reactions in living beings even at temperatures so low to be
unable to supply the necessary energy to trigger them.
Enzymes generally are formed by two parts: a protein part and a non protein part. The protein
part includes the so called “active site”, meaning an area that adheres to the molecules on
which it acts. The other non protein part, is often a vitamin and helps the protein part in its
function.
Enzymes can function also outside the living cell and this has been useful in multiple lab
experiments.
Today living beings tend to use sugars as a source of energy. Sugars or carbohydrates are
molecules formed by carbon, oxygen and hydrogen and are synthesized by green plants. Did
these substances exist in the primordial ocean?
Melvin Calvin was able to answer this question with a new experiment. He struck different
chemical compounds from those used in Miller’s experiments but which could have existed
nonetheless in the primitive atmosphere, with high energy radiation. Thus, Calvin was able to
obtain new molecules like simple sugars such as glucose.
Thanks to specific enzymes, glucose and other similar sugars can create more complex
structures such as starch and cellulose.
Primordial oceans might have contained glucose molecules that could be usable as an
energy source, but a lot of activation energy is needed to undo the ties among atoms of
glucose and produce other energy. So presumably there was a similar mechanism to the one
that happens in living beings nowadays, which means that they must bind some atoms to the
molecule that must be divided so that they will attract electrons that will form a bond to
weaken the molecular structure and break it down. In the case of glucose, the phosphorous
groups (a group of phosphor, oxygen and hydrogen atoms) bind to a sugar molecule and
transform it into glucose – phosphate, a weaker molecule than the initial one which
consequently requires less activation energy to break down. ATP ( acid
adenosyntriphosphate) is a chemical compound that supplies not only energy to add
phosphoric groups to glucose, but also the necessary phosphoric group to weaken the
molecule.

MOLECULES OF LIFE
All life on Earth is built from four different types of molecules. These four types of
molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life.
The four molecules of life are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids. Each of the
four groups is vital for every single organism on Earth. Without any of these four molecules, a
cell and organism would not be able to live. All of the four molecules of life are important
either structurally or functionally for cells and, in most cases, they are important in both ways.

PROTEINS
Proteins are the first of the molecules of life
and they are really the building blocks of life.
Proteins are the most common molecules found in
cells. If all the water is removed from a cell,
proteins make up more than half of the remaining
weight.
Protein molecules are involved in a range of
aspects of a cell’s biology. They come in a huge
variety of forms and perform a massive range of
functions. They are involved in muscle movement,
storage of energy, digestion, immune defence and
much more.
The primary structure of a protein is a long chain made of many smaller molecules called
amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids that are used to build proteins. The different
amino acids can be arranged into trillions of different sequences that each creates a unique
protein. The long chain of amino acids twists and folds on itself to produce the final shape of a
protein.

Amino acids contain nitrogen. Nitrogen-based compounds are an essential part of the
diet of all organism so they can produce new proteins for their cells. This is why farmers often
add nitrogen-based fertilisers to help their crops grow and why it is important for humans to
eat foods that contain proteins.

CARBOHYDRATES
The next of the four molecules of life are
carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are an important
source of energy. They also provide structural
support for cells and help with communication
between cells.
A carbohydrate molecule is made of atoms
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are
found in the form of either a sugar or many
sugars linked together.
A single sugar molecule is known as a
monosaccharide. Two sugar molecules bonded together is a disaccharide and many sugar
molecules make a polysaccharide. The three different types of carbohydrates are all
important for different reasons.
Carbohydrates are the most important sources of energy for many organisms. Plants use
the sun’s energy to convert CO₂ into carbohydrates. The energy of these carbohydrates later
allows plants to grow and reproduce.
Many organisms have what is known as a cell wall that surrounds their cell. The cell
walls of plants and fungi are made from carbohydrates. Cell walls provide important protection
for the cells of plants and fungi.

LIPIDS
Lipids are a highly variable group of molecules that include fats, oils, waxes and some
steroids. These molecules are made mostly from chains of carbon and hydrogen called fatty
acids. Fatty acids bond to a range of other types of atoms to form many different lipids.
Cells require lipids for a number of reasons. Probably the most important role of lipids is
the main component of cell membranes. A type of lipid called a phospholipid is the primary
molecule found in the membranes of cells. 
 Other important functions lipids have include insulation of heat, storing energy, protection
and cellular communication. The importance of these various functions is why lipids are
classed as one of the four molecules of life.
Almost all lipids are insoluble in water. The structure of lipid molecules means they are
repelled by water. This is why oils and fats form globules in water and why the vinegar and oil
of vinaigrette separate if the mixture is left for a while.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
The final of the four molecules of life are the
nucleic acids. There are two types of nucleic acids
that are essential to all life. These
are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
RNA (ribonucleic acid).
DNA is a very well-known type of molecule
that makes up the genetic material of a cell. DNA
is responsible for carrying all the information an
organism needs to survive, grow and reproduce.
RNA is a lesser-known molecule but it also plays
an important role in cells. RNA molecules are used to translate the information stored in DNA
molecules and use the information to help build proteins. Without RNA, the information in
DNA would be useless.
Nucleic acids are long chains made from many smaller molecules called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is made of a sugar, a base and a phosphate group.
The two differences between DNA and RNA are their sugars and their bases. DNA has a
deoxyribose sugar while RNA has a ribose sugar. DNA has four different bases – adenine
(A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). RNA has three of the same bases but the
thymine base is replaced with a base called uracil (U).

The Sun
We consume energy in dozens of forms. Yet virtually all of the energy we use originates
in the power of the atom. Nuclear fusion reactions energize stars, including the Sun, and the
resulting sunlight has profound effects on our planet.

Sunlight contains a surprisingly large amount of energy. On average, even after passing
through hundreds of kilometers of air on a clear day, solar radiation reaches Earth with
enough energy in a single square meter to run a mid-size desktop computer—if all the
sunlight could be captured and converted to electricity. Photovoltaic and solar
thermal technologies harvest some of that energy now and will grow in both usage and
efficiency in the future.
Solar radiation reaches Earth with enough energy in a single square meter to run a mid-size
desktop computer.

The Sun’s energy warms the planet’s surface, powering titanic transfers of heat and
pressure in weather patterns and ocean currents. The resulting air currents
drive wind turbines. Solar energy also evaporates water that falls as rain and builds up behind
dams, where its motion is used to generate electricity via hydropower.

Most Americans, however, use solar energy in its secondhand form: fossil fuels. When
sunlight strikes a plant, some of the energy is trapped through photosynthesis and is stored in
chemical bonds as the plant grows. Of course we can recover that energy directly months or
years later by burning plant products such as wood, which breaks the bonds and releases
energy as heat and light. More often, though, we use the stored energy in the much more
concentrated forms that result when organic matter, after millions of years of geological and
chemical activity underground, turns into coal, oil, or natural gas. Either way, we’re reclaiming
the power of sunlight.
.

Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis

 In multicellular autotrophs, the main cellular structures that allow photosynthesis to take
place include chloroplasts, thylakoids, and chlorophyll.

Key Points

 The chemical equation for photosynthesis is

6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2.6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2.
 In plants, the process of photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll of the leaves,
inside the chloroplasts.
 Chloroplasts contain disc-shaped structures called thylakoids, which contain the
pigment chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll absorbs certain portions of the visible spectrum and captures energy from
sunlight.
Key Terms

 chloroplast: An organelle found in the cells of green plants and photosynthetic algae
where photosynthesis takes place.
 mesophyll: A layer of cells that comprises most of the interior of the leaf between the
upper and lower layers of epidermis.
 stoma: A pore in the leaf and stem epidermis that is used for gaseous exchange.
Overview of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water
as substrates. It produces oxygen and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P or GA3P), simple
carbohydrate molecules that are high in energy and can subsequently be converted into
glucose, sucrose, or other sugar molecules. These sugar molecules contain covalent bonds
that store energy. Organisms break down these molecules to release energy for use in
cellular work.

Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis uses solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water to

produce energy-storing carbohydrates. Oxygen is generated as a waste product of
photosynthesis.

The energy from sunlight drives the reaction of carbon dioxide and water molecules to
produce sugar and oxygen, as seen in the chemical equation for photosynthesis. Though the
equation looks simple, it is carried out through many complex steps. Before learning the
details of how photoautotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy, it is important to
become familiar with the structures involved.

Chemical equation for photosynthesis: The basic equation for photosynthesis is

deceptively simple. In reality, the process includes many steps involving intermediate
reactants and products. Glucose, the primary energy source in cells, is made from two three-
carbon GA3P molecules.
Photosynthesis and the Leaf

In plants, photosynthesis generally takes place in leaves, which consist of several layers
of cells. The process of photosynthesis occurs in a middle layer called the mesophyll. The gas
exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs through small, regulated openings called
stomata (singular: stoma ), which also play a role in the plant’s regulation of water balance.
The stomata are typically located on the underside of the leaf, which minimizes water loss.
Each stoma is flanked by guard cells that regulate the opening and closing of the stomata by
swelling or shrinking in response to osmotic changes.
 Structure of a leaf (cross-section): Photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll. The
palisade layer contains most of the chloroplast and principal region in which photosynthesis is
carried out. The airy spongy layer is the region of storage and gas exchange. The stomata
regulate carbon dioxide and water balance.
Photosynthesis within the Chloroplast

In all autotrophic eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place inside an organelle called a

chloroplast. For plants, chloroplast-containing cells exist in the mesophyll. Chloroplasts have
a double membrane envelope composed of an outer membrane and an inner membrane.
Within the double membrane are stacked, disc-shaped structures called thylakoids.

Embedded in the thylakoid membrane is chlorophyll, a pigment that absorbs certain

portions of the visible spectrum and captures energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll gives plants
their green color and is responsible for the initial interaction between light and plant material,
as well as numerous proteins that make up the electron transport chain. The thylakoid
membrane encloses an internal space called the thylakoid lumen. A stack of thylakoids is
called a granum, and the liquid-filled space surrounding the granum is the stroma or “bed.”

Structure of the Chloroplast: Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which have

an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Stacks of thylakoids called grana form a third
membrane layer.

The light dependent reactions use photosynthetic pigments (organised into

photosystems) to convert light energy into chemical energy (specifically ATP and NADPH)

These reactions occur within specialised membrane discs within the chloroplast
called thylakoids and involve three steps:
 Excitation of photosystems by light energy
 Production of ATP via an electron transport chain
 Reduction of NADP+ and the photolysis of water
 Step 1:  Excitation of Photosystems by Light Energy
 Photosystems are groups of photosynthetic pigments (including chlorophyll)
embedded within the thylakoid membrane
 Photosystems are classed according to their maximal absorption wavelengths (PS I =
700 nm ; PS II = 680 nm)
 When a photosystem absorbs light energy, delocalised electrons within the pigments
become energised or ‘excited'
 These excited electrons are transferred to carrier molecules within the thylakoid
membrane

Understanding:

•  Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton

gradient

•  ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient

      
Step 2:  Production of ATP via an Electron Transport Chain
 Excited electrons from Photosystem II (P680) are transferred to an electron transport
chain within the thylakoid membrane
 As the electrons are passed through the chain they lose energy, which is used to
translocate H+ ions into the thylakoid
 This build up of protons within the thylakoid creates an electrochemical gradient, or
proton motive force
 The H+ ions return to the stroma (along the proton gradient) via the transmembrane
enzyme ATP synthase (chemiosmosis)
 ATP synthase uses the passage of H+ ions to catalyse the synthesis of ATP (from
ADP + Pi)
 This process is called photophosphorylation – as light provided the initial energy
source for ATP production
 The newly de-energised electrons from Photosystem II are taken up by Photosystem
I
 Understanding:

•  Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP

•  Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light dependent reactions

   
Step 3:  Reduction of NADP+ and the Photolysis of Water
 Excited electrons from Photosystem I may be transferred to a carrier molecule and
used to reduce NADP+
 This forms NADPH – which is needed (in conjunction with ATP) for the light
independent reactions
 The electrons lost from Photosystem I are replaced by de-energised electrons from
Photosystem II
 The electrons lost from Photosystem II are replaced by electrons released from water
via photolysis
 Water is split by light energy into H + ions (used in chemiosmosis) and oxygen
(released as a by-product)
 Overview of the Light Dependent Reactions
 The light dependent reactions occur within the intermembrane space of the thylakoids
 Chlorophyll in Photosystems I and II absorb light, which triggers the release of high
energy electrons (photo activation)
 Excited electrons from Photosystem II are transferred between carrier
molecules in an electron transport chain
 The electron transport chain translocates H+ ions from the stroma to
within the thylakoid, creating a proton gradient
 The protons are returned to the stroma via ATP synthase, which uses
their passage (via chemiosmosis) to synthesise ATP
 Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce
+
NADP  (forming NADPH)
 The electrons lost from Photosystem I are replaced by the de-
energised electrons from Photosystem II
 The electrons lost from Photosystem II are replaced following the
photolysis of water
 The products of the light dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) are
used in the light independent reactions

Light Dependent Reactions Analogy

Z Scheme
The energy changes (oxidation / reduction) that occur during photosynthesis
may be represented as a Z scheme:
 First vertical bar:  Photosystem II electrons are energised by light
(electrons replaced by photolysis of water molecules)
 Diagonal bar:  Electrons lose energy as they pass through an electron
transport chain (synthesising ATP)
 Second vertical bar:  Photosystem I electrons are energised by light
(electrons used to reduce NADP+)