Introduction to Algebraic Geometry

Luca Scala

July 14, 2020

Contents

1 Basic Projective Geometry 4

1.1 Affine Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Projective Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Concrete examples and intuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Projective Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Projective Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Projective Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Relations between Projective and Affine Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Algebraic Varieties 19
2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Affine Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 Abstract reduced varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.3 Glueing of Algebraic Varieties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.4 Closed Immersions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Projective and Quasi-Projective Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1 Regular functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.2 Morphisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.4 Homogeneization and Dehomogeneization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.1 The Properness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.2 The Segre embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.3 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.4 Fibered Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3.5 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.6 The Grassmannian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3.7 The Fano variety of k-dimensional subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.4 Sheaves of ideals: a glimpse of the underlying schematic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.5 Irreducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

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 2.6 Rational functions and maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.1 Rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.2 Rational maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7 Finite Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.8 Noether’s Normalization Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.9 Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.9.1 Dimension as Transcendence Degree of the field of rational functions . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.9.2 Krull dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.10 Intersections of algebraic varieties: Krull’s theorem and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.10.1 Krull’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.10.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.11 Dimension of the fibers of a morphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.12 Incidence Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.13 Local Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.13.1 The local ring of an algebraic variety at a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.13.2 Tangent and Cotangent space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.13.3 Tangent Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.13.4 Smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.13.5 Normality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.13.6 Ramification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.13.7 Bertini’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.13.8 Geometric meaning of Degree and Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

3 Vector Bundles over Algebraic Varieties 141

3.1 Vector bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.1.2 Transition functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.1.3 Operations with vector bundles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.1.4 Subbundles and Quotient bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.1.5 Base change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.1.6 Tangent and Cotangent Bundle on a smooth variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.1.7 Algebraic Principal G-bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.1.8 Transverse sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.2 Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.2.1 Presheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.2.2 Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.2.3 Reconstruction/Definition of a sheaf using a base for the topology . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.2.4 Ringed Spaces. Sheaves of Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.2.5 Locally Free Sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.3 Divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.3.1 Weil Divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.3.2 Cartier Divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

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 3.3.3 Linear Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.3.4 Linear systems and immersions in the projective space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.4 References for further interesting topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.4.1 27 lines on a cubic surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.4.2 Riemann-Hurwitz formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.4.3 Blow-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.4.4 Chow’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.4.5 Bézout’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
.1 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
.2 Height and Codimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
.3 Nakayama’s Lemma and consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
.4 Nullstellensatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
.5 Hilbert Basis’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
.6 Integral Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
.7 Discrete Valuation Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
.8 Transcendence Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
.9 Direct (Inductive) and Inverse (Projective) Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

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Chapter 1

Basic Projective Geometry

1.1 Affine Space

Definition 1.1.1. Let V be a vector space over a field k. An affine space A modelled over V is a set
equipped with a transitive action of the additive group pV, `q:
AˆV - A
pP, vq - P `v

such that P ` v “ P for some P implies v “ 0. The transformations of A induced by the V -action are called
translations.

Example 1.1.2. We denote with Ank :“ k n the n-dimensional standard affine space over k. It is modelled
over the vector space k n and the k n -action coincides with the addition in k n .

Definition 1.1.3. Let pA, V q, and pB, W q be two affine spaces, modelled over the vector spaces V and W ,
respectively, over the field k. An affine map f between A and B is a map f : A - B such that there exists
a linear map ϕ : V - W such that

f pP ` vq “ f pP q ` ϕpvq @P P A, @v P V .

We leave to the reader to formulate the definition of affine isomorphism.

Remark 1.1.4. Given two points P, Q P A, we denote with Q ´ P the only vector v P V such that P ` v “ Q.
Fixed any point O P A (called origin), the map A - V given by P - P ´ O is a bijection and allows
us to identify the affine space with the vector space V . Suppose now V is finite dimensional. The data of a
basis of V allows to give coordinates xi over V – that is, to fix an isomorphism V - k n – and hence over
A setting xi pP q :“ xi pP ´ Oq, where xi are the coordinates in V of the vector P ´ O, relative to the fixed
basis of V . The map
A - Ank

sending P - px1 pP ´ Oq, . . . , xn pP ´ Oqq is an affine isomorphism.

Definition 1.1.5. A frame in an affine space A (modelled over the vector space V ) of dimension n, is a set
of n ` 1 points O, P1 , . . . , Pn such that the vectors Pi ´ O, i “ 1, . . . , n are linearly independent (a basis) in
V . A frame over A allows us to give affine coordinates on A, as we did above.

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1.2 Projective Space
1.2.1 Definition
Definition 1.2.1. Let V be a vector space over a field k. The projective space PpV q is the set of one
dimensional subspaces of V :

PpV q :“ txvy | v P V v ‰ 0u “ tW ď V | dimk W “ 1u .

It also identifies as the set of lines through the origin in V .

Definition 1.2.2. The Grassmannian of k-dimensional subspaces of the vector space V is defined as

Grpk, V q :“ tW ď V | dimk W “ ku .

We clearly have Grp1, V q “ PpV q.

Remark 1.2.3. Consider the surjective map

π : V zt0u - PpV q .

Consider now the natural k ˚ -action on the vector space V : it leaves the subset V zt0u globally invariant and
then induces a k ˚ -action over V zt0u, for which the map π is invariant. The map π hence descends to a
surjective map π
p as in the diagram

π-
V zt0u PpV q
-
πp

?
V zt0u
k˚
The map π
p is injective: indeed π pprwsq ðñ xvy “ xwy ðñ v “ λw Dλ P k ˚ ðñ rvs “ rws.
pprvsq “ π
Therefore π
p is bijective and
PpV q » V zt0u{k ˚ .

Notation 1.2.4. We denote Pnk :“ Ppk n`1 q.

Definition 1.2.5. Consider the projective space PpV q, where V is of dimension n ` 1 over k. A projective
subspace X of PpV q of dimension k is a subset of PpV q of the form X “ PpW q, where W is a subspace of
V of dimension k ` 1. A point of PpV q is a projective subset of dimension 0, a line in PpV q is a projective
subset of dimension 1, a plane is of dimension 2, an hyperplane is of dimension n ´ 1. The empty set is the
projective subspace H “ Ppt0uq, of dimension ´1.
Denote with SPpV q the set of projective subspaces of PpV q. Of course it is a lattice: indeed, if X “ PpW q,
Y “ PpZq, then

X ^ Y “ PpW X Zq
X _ Y “ PpW ` Zq

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Example 1.2.6. In P2k , if P, Q are distinct points, then P _ Q is the line connecting P and Q. Indeed
P “ Ppxvyq, Q “ Ppxwyq, P _ Q “ Ppxv, wyq, with xv, wy of dimension 2, since xvy ‰ xwy. Hence P _ Q is a
projective subspace of dimension 1 and hence a line.

Definition 1.2.7. Let V a finite dimensional vector space over a field k. Let W a subspace. The projective
star of center X “ PpW q is defined as
ΣX :“ PpV {W q

that is, the projective space associated to the quotient vector space V {W . It parametrizes dim W ` 1 vector
subspaces of V containing W . In other words, it parametrizes dim X ` 1 projective subspaces containing X.

Example 1.2.8. Take a point P in P2k . The projective star ΣP is the set of projective lines in P2k through
the point P .

Example 1.2.9. Take a point P in P3k . The projective star ΣP is the set of projective lines in P3k through
the point P .

Example 1.2.10. Take a line ` in P3k . The projective star Σ` is the set of projective planes in P3k through
the line `.

Definition 1.2.11. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field k. Two projective subspaces
X and Y of PpV q are said to be complementary if we have

• X ^ Y “ H;

• X _ Y “ PpV q.

Example 1.2.12. Two skew lines in P3k are complementary. A point P and a line in P2 not through P are
complementary.

Exercise 1. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field k. Two projective subspaces X “ PpW q
and Y “ PpZq of PpV q are complementary if and only if W ‘ Z “ V .

1.2.2 Concrete examples and intuition

The standard projective space Pnk : homogeneous coordinates From the definition, we have that

k n`1 zt0u
Pnk “ “ trpx0 , . . . , xn qs | xi P k, Dj | xj ‰ 0u „ txpx0 , . . . , xn qy | xi P k, Dj | xj ‰ 0u .
k˚
We will indicate a point rpx0 , . . . , xn qs as rx0 : ¨ ¨ ¨ : xn s or, more frequently, with rx0 , . . . , xn s. We say that
x0 , . . . , xn are the homogeneous coordinates of the point rx0 , . . . , xn s. We have that x0 , . . . , xn and y0 , . . . , yn
are the homogeneous coordinates of the same point if and only if

rx0 , . . . , xn s “ ry0 , . . . , yn s ðñ Dλ P k ˚ | xi “ λyi @i “ 0, . . . , n .

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Points in the finite and points at infinity. One of the main points in understanding intuitively the
projective n-space is that its points are in bijections with directions of lines through the origin in a standard
affine n ` 1 space. If k “ R the following intuitive idea is pretty correct. We can imagine of living inside a
n ` 1 dimensional space, that is, Rn`1 and that at infinity there is a ”celestial sphere” surrounding us, like in
Copernicus theories. Each of these lines through the origin intersect the sphere at infinity in two antipodal
points. To obtain a point in the projective n-space we have to indentify these two antipodal points. In other
words, the composition S n Ă - Rn`1 zt0u - Pn is surjective invariant for the antipodal involution (that
R
is the action of t˘1u “ µ2 over S n ). Hence it descends to a bijection S n {t˘1u „ PnR .
The projective space is a natural extension of the standard affine space. Let’s see it for P2k . Let’s see it
as the set of lines through the origin in k 3 . Fix any plane H in k 3 not passing through the origin. The set of
lines through the origin is the disjoint union of two subsets: the first, the lines intersecting the plane H; the
second, the set of lines parallel to the plane H. Of course the first set is in bijection with H itself, and H
is in bijection (linearly isomorphic) with a standard two dimensional affine plane k 2 . Let us now interpret
the second set of lines 1 . These lines can be thought as intersecting the plane H at infinity, in the ”celestial
sphere” in the euristic interpretation above. Hence they can be thought as points in H which lie at infinity.
Fixing any point (an origin) Q in the affine plane H, the set of lines in the second set are in bijection with
the set of lines inside H through Q, and hence in bijection with a projective line P1k . This line, which is the
horizon if H is of equation z “ 1, or the intersection of the plane H with infinity in general, is called the line
at infinity. We denote with UH the set of lines intersecting H, and with rH the line at infinity, rH » P1k .
Hence
ž ž
P2k “ UH rH » H P1k

since UH is in bijection with H. We will see that these are not just bijections, but isomorphisms of algebraic
varieties. UH will be an open set in the Zariski topology (or even in the quotient topology if k “ R, or
k “ C) and rH , its complementary, a closed line. This decomposition is valid for any Pnk , replacing H with
any hyperplane in k n`1 not passing through the origin. In general we will have
ž ž
Pnk “ UH πH “ k n Pn´1
k

where here πH is the hyperplane at infinity.

Note that if H parallel to H 1 , then UH “ UH 1 . If the coordinates on k n`1 are x0 , . . . , xn , the open sets

Uxi :“ Uxi “c “ trx0 , . . . , xn s | xi ‰ 0u

with c ‰ 0 are called fundamental affine open sets of the projective space Pnk and the give an affine open
cover for Pnk .

Some concrete examples. Consider P2k with homogeneous coordinates rx, y, zs. We saw that the fun-
damental affine open set Uz “ trx, y, zs | z ‰ 0u is in bijection with k 2 . Indeed the bijection can be made
explicit via the dehomogeneization map

Uz - k2
rx, y, zs - px{z, y{zq
1 It helps to think that H is the plane z “ 1

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Indeed, suppose that, to define Uz , we take the plane z “ 1. The line of direction px0 , y0 , z0 q, with z0 ‰ 0
crosses the plane z “ 1 in px0 {z0 , y0 {z0 , 1q. Hence it corresponds2 to the point px0 {z0 , y0 {z0 q in k 2 .
Consider now the parabola
y “ x2

in k 2 . We can parametrize its points as px, x2 q, x P k 2 . Hence, seeing k 2 inside P2k , the points at the finite
of the parabola are parametrized by the homogeneous coordinates rpx, x2 , 1qs. Sending x to infinity, where
does the point in the parabola goes? Well, we have that, since x ‰ 0 for large x,

rpx, x2 , 1qs “ rp1{x, 1, 1{x2 qs

and hence sending x to infinity the point in the parabola goes to rp0, 1, 0qs, which is a point in the line at
infinity r8 . But points at infinity corresponds to directions in k 2 . And rp0, 1, 0qs corresponds to the direction
p0, 1q, that is, the vertical direction. This means that the parabola crosses the line at infinity in a point
corresponding to the vertical direction: this is because x2 goes to infinity faster then x. One can actually
prove that the parabola3 is tangent to the line at infinity r8 in the point rp0, 1, 0qs.

Exercise 2. Do the same for the hyperbola x2 ´ y 2 “ 1. Compute the intersections with the line at infinity.

Exercise 3. Compute the intersection of the circle x2 ` y 2 “ 1 in P2C with the line at infinity.

Homogeneization. Using the dehomogeneization map rx, y, zs - px{z, y{zq we can guess the equation
of the projective closure in P2k 2
of the affine parabola y “ x in Uz . Indeed, if z ‰ 0, the homogeneus
coordinates rx, y, zs satisfying the equation of the affine parabola is

y{z “ x2 {z 2 .

This is true if z ‰ 0. Eliminating denominators we get the global equation

zy “ x2 .

This is the equation of the projective closure of the parabola in P2k . We also say that the equation is obtained
from the equation y “ x2 by the process of homogeneization. The reader will see that it is an equation of a
cone inside k 3 , and that it is invariant by the action of k ˚ there. Hence it defines something in P2k .
We saw in the example above that the parabola crossed the line z “ 0 in the point r0, 1, 0s. How is the
shape of the parabola next to that point? Well, we just have to find an affine cover containing that point.
That point has y “ 1, so nonzero. Hence r0, 1, 0s P Uy . In order to find equations of the projective parabola
over Uy , we can just intersect the cone zy “ x2 with the plane y “ 1. The equation of the parabola around
the point r0, 1, 0s is then z “ x2 , and in the plane y “ 1, the point r0, 1, 0s is actually an origin now. So it is
true that the parabola is tangent to the line at infinity (now represented by z “ 0 in the px, zq affine plane
Uy .

Exercise 4. Let Fq the field with q “ pm elements, p a prime. How many points are in PnFq ?
2 If we start with the plane x “ c, c ‰ 0, we end up with the point px0 c{z0 , y0 c{z0 q in k2 but the multiplication/division by
c is an isomorphism (homotecy) of k2 to k2
3 or better, its projective closure

8
Exercise 5. Let X, Y two projective subspaces of PpV q, with V a finite dimensional vector space over k.
Prove that
dim X ^ Y “ dim X ` dim Y ´ dim X _ Y .

Use this formula to prove that two distinct lines in P2k always intersect in one point, that a plane and a line
always intersect in P3k , that two distinct planes in P4k always intersect. Prove that these facts do not hold in
general in A2k , A3k , A4k , respectively.

1.3 Projective Maps

Definition 1.3.1. Let V1 , V2 vector spaces over the field k. A projective application is a function

f : PpV1 qzPpW q - PpV2 q

induced by a linear map ϕ : V1 - V2 , in the sense that

f pxvyq “ xϕpvqy

and where W is an subspace of V1 containing ker ϕ (this is the condition in order that f is defined). In what
follows the subspace W will always be the kernel of ϕ. We indicate a projective map as

f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q

to emphasize that it is not everywhere defined.

An isomorphism f : f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q of projective spaces is an everywhere defined projective
map that admits an everywhere defined projective map g : PpV2 q - PpV1 q such that f ˝ g “ idPpV q ,
2

g ˝ f “ idPpV1 q .
A projectivity of PpV q is a projective isomorphism of PpV q in itself. We denote with Autk PpV q the group
of projectivities of PpV q and with P GLk pnq “ Autk Pnk .

Proposition 1.3.2. Consider a projective map f : PpV1 qzPpW q - PpV2 q, induced by a linear map
ϕ : V1 - V2 . Then

• f is defined and injective ðñ ϕ is injective;

• f is surjective ðñ ϕ is surjective;

• f is defined and bijective ðñ ϕ is bijective.

Proof. Easy and left to the reader.

Proposition 1.3.3. A projective map f : PpV1 qzPpW q - PpV2 q determines the subjacent linear map
ϕ : V1 - V2 up to a constant.

Proof. Let ϕ, ψ two linear map inducing f . It is clear that ker ϕ “ ker ψ and that, for any v P ker ϕ,
ϕpvq “ cψpvq for any nonzero constant c. Fix v ‰ 0 in V not in ker ϕ. Then f pxvyq “ xϕpvqy “ xψpvqy,
hence ψpvq “ λϕpvq. For any other vector v 1 in xker ϕ, vy, we surely have ϕpv 1 q “ λψpv 1 q. Fix now any other
vector w independent with v not in xker ϕ, vy. Hence ϕpwq is independent with ϕpvq (and hence ψpwq is

9
independent with ψpwq). We also have ϕpwq “ µψpwq, with µ ‰ 0, since f pxwyq “ xϕpwqy “ xψpwqy, but
also xϕpv ` wqy “ xψpv ` wqy “ f pxv ` wyq. Hence for some nonzero ν:

λψpvq ` µψpwq “ νψpvq ` νψpwq

Then
pλ ´ νqψpvq ` pµ ´ νqψpvq “ 0

which implies λ “ ν “ µ as we wanted.

Proposition 1.3.4. A projectivity of P1k is determined by the image of three distinct points.

Proof. Exercise.

Proposition 1.3.5. P GLk pnq » GLk pn ` 1q{k ˚ .

Proof. Easy exercise.

1.3.1 Projections
Definition 1.3.6. Let V a finite dimensional vector space over the field k and let W be a vector subspace.
The subspace W determines a projective subspace X of PpV q. The projective map

πX : PpV q - PpV {W q “ ΣX

induced by the linear map V - V {W is called the projection of PpV q with center X. It it defined over
PpV qzX and can be intrinsecally characterized as the map sending a point P P PpV qzX to P _ X, that is,
to the unique dim X ` 1 projective subspace of PpV q containing X and P .
Let now Z a complementary projective subspace of X. The composition Z - V - V {W is an
isomorphism. The composition
»
σZ : ΣX - PpZq Ă - PpV q

is called a section of the projection of center X. It sends a subspace K to the point K ^ Z.

In the above situation, we define the projection of PpV q onto Z of center X as the composition
»
πX,Z : PpV qzX - ΣX - Z.

It can be intrinsecally described as the map sending

P - pP _ Xq ^ Z .

Exercise 6. 1. Draw the projection of P2k of center a point onto a line not passing through the point.
2. Let `, m two skew lines in P3k . Draw the projection of P3k onto m of center `.

Proposition 1.3.7. Any projective map between projective spaces factor through a projection and an injec-
tion. More precisely, let f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q a projective map, induced by the linear map ϕ : V1 - V2 .
Then f factors through
πX,Z
PpV1 q - PpZq Ă - PpV2 q

where the first is a projection of PpV1 q of center X “ Ppker ϕq onto Z – a projective subspace complementary
to X – and PpZq Ă - PpV2 q is an injection.

10
Proof. The linear map ϕ : V1 - V2 factors through the maps

V1 - V1 { ker ϕ Ă - V2 .

Let I be a vector subspace complementary to ker ϕ in V1 . Using the isomorphism V1 { ker ϕ, we can say that
the map ϕ factors through
„
V1 - V1 { ker ϕ - I Ă - V2

, where the composition of the first two maps coincides with the direct sum projection onto I: V “ ker ϕ ‘
I - - I. The factorization of the linear map ϕ as composition V1 - - I Ă - V2 induce the projective
maps in the decomposition above.

Remark 1.3.8. A projective map f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q induces an everywhere defined inclusion-preserving
map between the full lattices of subspaces

f : SPpV1 q - SPpV q ,
2

setting
f pPpW qq “ PpϕpW qq

where ϕ is the subjacent linear map of f .

Proposition 1.3.9. Let L be a projective subspace of dimension ` in PpV q, with V finite dimensional. Let
E a projective subspace complementary to L. Consider points Q0 , . . . , Q` in L such that L “ Q0 _ ¨ ¨ ¨ _ Q` .
Consider subspaces Ei “ Qi`1 _ ¨ ¨ ¨ _ Q` _ E: they are complementary to Q0 _ ¨ ¨ ¨ _ Qi and such that
L Ĺ E`´1 Ĺ E`´2 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ E0 . Moreover, consider the projections πQi : Ei´1 zQi - Ei of center Qi onto
Ei . Then The projection of center L onto E: πL : PpV qzL - E is the composition of projections πQi :

πL “ πQ ` ˝ ¨ ¨ ¨ ˝ πQ 0 .

Proof. The proof is an easy exercise left to the reader.

1.4 Projective Duality

Definition 1.4.1. Let V be a vector space over the field k. Denote with V ˚ the dual vector space, that is
V ˚ “ Homk pV, kq. The dual projective space of PpV q is

PpV q˚ :“ PpV ˚ q .

Recall that if W is a vector subspace of V , of dimension k, we denote with W K the vector subspace of
V ˚ of dimension dim V ´ k defined as

W K :“ tw˚ P V ˚ | w˚ pvq “ 0 @v P W u

Analogously, if Z is a dimension k vector subspace of V ˚ , we define Z K a dimension dim V ´ k subspace of

V as Z K “ tv P V | w˚ pvq “ 0@w˚ P Zu. This is because the bilinear map

V ˆV˚ - k

sending pv, w˚ q - w˚ pvq is a perfect pairing.

11
Definition 1.4.2. By projective duality we mean the duality4 between the lattices SPpV q and SPpV ˚ q given
by the map
SPpV q - SPpV ˚ q

X “ PpW q - X _ :“ PpW K q

Y _ “ PpZ K q  Y “ PpZq

Remark 1.4.3. The projective duality interchanges the operations of intersection and generation. Indeed, if
X and Y are projective subspaces of V or V ˚ , then

pX ^ Y q_ “ X _ ^ Y _
pX _ Y q_ “ X _ ^ Y _

Since we have such strong relations (involving duality, inclusion, intersection and generation) between sub-
spaces of projective space and its dual, we can state:

Theorem 1.4.4 (Principle of Projective Duality). Every statement about subspaces involving only the order
relation, and the operation of intersection and generation admits a corresponding dual statement.

Example 1.4.5. The two statements

• There exists a unique plane passing through three not aligned points in P3k

• Three planes in P3k not intersecting in a line intersect in a single point.

are dual one of the other.

Example 1.4.6. The two statements

• In the projective plane there exists a unique line through two distinct points

• Two distinct lines in P2k always intersect in a point

are two dual statements.

Remark 1.4.7. One of the important consequences of projective duality is that an hyperplane H “ PpW q
inside PpV q, dim W “ dim V ´ 1, corresponds to a point PH “ PpW K q inside PpV q˚ . Hence the dual
projective space parametrize the hyperplanes in PpV q.

Plücker Coordinates in PpV ˚ q. Consider Pnk “ Ppk n`1 q. Call ei , i “ 0, . . . , n the canonical basis in
k n`1 . Write vectors in k n`1 vertically. Let e˚j be the dual basis in pk n`1 q˚ . The vector e˚j has to be seen
as a linear form k n`1 - k, sending ei to zero if i ‰ j and sending ej “ 1. Hence it can be written as
a 1 ˆ n ` 1 (horizontal) matrix. Consider an hyperplane H in Ppk n`1 q and the correponding point (which
we still call H) in Pppk n`1 q˚ q. Suppose the homogeneous coordinates of H in Pppk n`1 q˚ q are ra0 , . . . , an s.
Then H, as a point of pPnk q˚ , with respect to the dual basis e˚i , is xpa0 , . . . , an qy. Via projective duality, H,
as an hyperplane of Pnk is
H “ Ppxpa0 , . . . , an qyK q .
4A duality of lattices is an order-reversing bijective map with inverse an order-reversing map

12
A point P “ rx0 , . . . , xn s in Pnk belongs to the hyperplane H if and only if

P P H ðñ xpx0 , . . . , xn qy Ď xpa0 , . . . , an qyK

ðñ px0 , . . . , xn q P xpa0 , . . . , an qyK
ðñ a0 x0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an xn “ 0

This means that an hyperplane H of Pnk has Plücker coordinates ra0 , . . . , an s in the dual projective space
pPnk q˚ if and only if its equation in the homogeneous coordinates of Pnk is a0 x0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an xn “ 0. The
coordinates ra0 , . . . , an s of the hyperplane H as a point in pPnk q˚ are called the Plücker coordinates 5 of H.

Plücker coordinates of hyperplanes under isomorphisms . Consider a projective map f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q.
We want to find conditions on f in order that f sends hyperplanes in hyperplanes, and in this case, we want
to find out if the composition
_ f _
PpV1˚ q - SPpV q
1
- SPpV q
2
- SPpV q˚
2

has image inside PpV2 q˚ and is given by a projective map between PpV1˚ q - PpV2 q˚ .
The first question implies immediately that f has to be everywhere defined and injective; moreover the
vector spaces V1 and V2 have to be of the same dimension. Hence f has to be a projectivity; set ϕ the
underlying linear map. In this case the composition above has image exactly PpV2˚ q. So when does the
composition, _ ˝ f ˝ _ : PpV1˚ q - PpV2˚ q is a projective map (necessarily a projectivity)? If this is true,
then there exists a linear map ψ ˚ : V ˚ - V ˚ inducing the composition, meaning
1 2

_ ˝ f ˝ _pxw˚ yq “ xψ ˚ w˚ y

that is
_ ˝ f pPpxw˚ yK qq “ xψ ˚ w˚ y .

This is equivalent to having, for all w˚ P V1˚ :

Ppϕpxw˚ yK qq_ “ xψ ˚ w˚ y ðñ
Ppϕpxw˚ yK qq “ Ppxψ ˚ w˚ yK q ðñ
˚ K ˚ ˚ K
ϕpxw y q “ xψ w y ðñ
´1 ˚
xϕ w˚ yK “ xψ ˚ w˚ yK ðñ
´1 ˚
ϕ w˚ “ ψ ˚ w˚

Hence6 .
˚
ψ ˚ “ ϕ´1 .
5 There are more general Plücker coordinates, for any k-dimensional projective subspace of Pn
k ; see the chapter on Grass-
mannians.
6 In the computation above the step ϕpxw ˚ yK q “ xϕ´1 ˚ w ˚ yK can be motivated as follows. One has that v P xw ˚ yK
˚ ˚
if and only if w˚ pvq “ 0. Then we show that ϕpvq P xϕ´1 w˚ yK ; but this happens if and only if ϕ´1 pw˚ qpϕpvqq “ 0.
Indeed ϕ ´1 ˚ pw˚ qpϕpvqq :“ w˚ pϕ´1 pϕpvqq “ w˚ pvq “ 0 because v P xw˚ yK . So we proved that ϕpxw˚ yK q Ď xϕ´1 w˚ yK .
˚

Let’s now prove Ě. Take v P xϕ ´1 ˚ w˚ yK . This means, by definition that pϕ´1 q˚ pw˚ qpvq “ 0, which is equivalent to
w˚ pϕ´1 pvqq “ 0. Let’s prove that this v is in ϕpxw˚ yK q. Indeed v “ ϕpϕ´1 pvqq, and ϕ´1 pvq is in xw˚ y, because we just proved
that w˚ pϕ´1 pvqq “ 0

13
Corollary 1.4.8. Let f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q a projective isomorphism induced by the linear isomorphism ϕ.
Then the composition
_ f _
_ ˝ f ˝ _ : PpV1˚ q - SPpV q
1
- SPpV q
2
- SPpV q˚
2

˚
has image exactly PpV2˚ q and is a projective isomorphism induced by the linear map ϕ´1 .

Corollary 1.4.9. Let H an hyperplane in Pnk of Plücker coordinates ra0 , . . . , an s. Let f : Pnk - Pn of ma-
k
trix A P GLk pn ` 1q (up to constants). Then the hyperplane f pHq has Plücker coordinates rpa0 , . . . , an qA´1 s.

1.5 Projective Frames

Definition 1.5.1. Let V a finite dimensional vector space over k of dimension n ` 1. A projective frame in
PpV q is the data of n ` 2 points P0 , . . . , Pn , U in PpV q such that

• the subspace Hj “ _i‰j Pi is an hyperplane for any j “ 1, . . . , n

• U R Hj for any j “ 1, . . . , n.

The point U is called the unit point of the frame.

Proposition 1.5.2. Let V be a vector space of dimension n ` 1. The following choices (or datas) are
equivalent:

i) The data of a projective frame over PpV q;

ii) The choice of a base in V , up to the multiplication of all the vectors of the base by the same constant
in k ˚ ;

iii) The choice of a projective isomorphism f : PpV q - Pn .

k

Proof. iiiq ùñ iq. A projective isomorphism f : PpV q - Pn is induced, up to a constant c ‰ 0, by an

k
isomorphism ϕ : V - k n`1 . So, take

Pi “ xϕ´1 pei qy @i “ 0, . . . , n

U :“ xϕ´1 p1, . . . , 1qy “ xϕ´1 pe1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` en qy “ xϕ´1 pe1 q ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ϕ´1 pen qy .

The points U, P0 , . . . , Pn define a projective frame over Pnk . Of course the definition of the points U, Pi does
not depend on the isomorphism ϕ, up to the constant c.
iiq ùñ iiiq. A choice of a basis v0 , . . . , vn , up to a nonzero constant c induced an isomorphism
V - k n`1 , up to a nonzero constant c, and hence a unique projective isomorphism f : PpV q - Pn .
k
iq ùñ iiq. Let Pi “ xvi y, i “ 0, . . . , n, for a choice of nonzero vectors vi P V . The condition than
Hj is an hyperplane for all j “ 0, . . . , n implies that v0 , . . . , vn linearly independent over k (prove it!). But
we actually made a choice in picking up the vectors vi . We could as well pick up vectors λi vi , for nonzero
constants λi P k ˚ . So which choice will give our basis? The unit point helps us in this task. Indeed, set
U “ xα1 v1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αn vn y, for nonzero constants αi P k ˚ (otherwise U would be in one of the hyperplanes Hj ).

14
The idea is that, in the coordinates given by the frame, the point U should have homogeneous coordinates
r1, . . . , 1s. Hence we want that, for some nonzero constant γ P k˚

λ1 v1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` λn vn “ γpα1 v1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αn vn q

which implies, by the linear independence of the vectos vi , that λi “ cαi , for some nonzero constant c.

Remark 1.5.3. The choice of a projective frame in PpV q allows to introduce, via the associated projective
isomorphism f : PpV q - Pn , homogeneous coordinates over PpV q. Moreover, if f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q is
k
a projective map, the choice of frames R1 and R2 over PpV1 q and PpV2 q, respectively, allows to associate a
matrix A P Mn`1 pkq to f , up to the multiplication by a nonzero constant in k ˚ .

Proposition 1.5.4. A projective map f : PpV1 q - PpV2 q is a projective isomorphism if and only if it
maps a frame of PpV1 q to a frame of PpV2 q.

Proof. Easy: left to the reader.

Proposition 1.5.5. Consider two projective spaces of the same dimension PpV1 q and PpV2 q. Given frames
R1 and R2 over PpV1 q and PpV2 q, respectively, there exists a unique projective isomorphism sending R1 over
R2 .

Proof. Easy: left to the reader.

1.6 Relations between Projective and Affine Space

Remark 1.6.1. Let f : PpV q - PpV q a projective map from PpV q to itself. The following are equivalent:

• Then there is a projective subspace X “ PpW q such that f is defined over X and that f pXq “ X

• Any set of m ` 1 “ dim X ` 1 points P0 , . . . , Pm in X such that P0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Pm “ X can be extended

to a projective frame U, P0 , . . . , Pm , Q1 , . . . , Qn´m of PpV q such that the matrix of f with respect to
this frame is of the kind ˜ ¸
A B
0 C
ˇ
where A is a matrix of a linear map W - W inducing the projective map f ˇ : X
X
- X (with
respect to which projective frame of X? find it!)

In addition to the fact above, if, moreover, we have that every point of X is fixed for f if and only if the
matrix A is the identity up to nonzero constants.

Definition 1.6.2. A projectivity f : PpV q - PpV q is called an homology if it admits an hyperplane H of

PpV q of fixed points for f (meaning f pP q “ P for all P P H). The hyperplane H is the axis of the homology.

Proposition 1.6.3. If f : PpV q - PpV q is an homology, then any matrix associated to f is diagonalizable,
with at most two different eigenvalues, one of them of multiplicity n.

Proof. It follows from the previous remark.

15
Corollary 1.6.4. A projectivity f : PpV q - PpV q is an homology if and only if f ˚ : PpV q - PpV q is
an homology if and only if pf ˚ q´1 is an homology.

Proof. It follows from the fact that if the matrix A relative to f has at most two different eigenvalues, one
of which of multiplicity n. Hence this is also true for t A or t A´1 and this implies that f ˚ and pf ˚ q are
homologies.

Proposition 1.6.5. A projectivity f : PpV q - PpV q is an homology if and only if there exists a point
P P PpV q such that f fixes globally every hyperplane H through P (that is f pHq “ H for all hyperplane
H Q P ). The fixed point P is called the center of the homology. The homology is called special if the center
is inside the axis, that is P P H; it is called non special if P R H.

Proof. If f is an homology, then, by the previous corollary, pf ˚ q´1 is an homology. This means that there
exist an hyperplane P _ in PpV ˚ q such that

pf ˚ q´1 pH _ q “ H _ @H _ P P v ee .

Applying projective duality, and using that pf ˚ q´1 “ _ ˝ f ˝ _, we have

f pHq “ H @H _ P P _

that is
f pHq “ H @H Q P .

Proposition 1.6.6. Let ω be an homology of the projective plane. The homology is determined by the images
ωpP q, ωpQq of two distinct poins P, Q not lying on the axis and different from the center.

Proof. Easy drawing the objects in the plane.

Proposition 1.6.7. Let f : PpV q - PpV q an homology, f ‰ id. Then there exists a projective frame R
over PpV q such that f , with respect to the frame R, has matrix
¨ ˛
1 0 ... 0
˚ ‹
˚ 0 α 0 ... ‹
˚ ‹
˚ ‹
˚ 0 0 α 0 ‹
˚ ‹
˚
˝ ... ‹
‚
... ... 0 α

if it is a non-special homology, and ¨ ˛

1 1 ... 0
˚ ‹
˚ 0 1 0 ... ‹
˚ ‹
˚ ‹
˚ 0 0 1 0 ‹
˚ ‹
˚
˝ ... ‹
‚
... ... 0 1
if it is a special one.

Proof. Use Jordan block decomposition of any linear map inducing f .

16
Proposition 1.6.8. Let V be a vector space of dimenion n ` 1 over the field k and H an hyperplane of
PpV q. If tv0 , . . . , vn u is a base of V such that H “ PpT q, where T “ xv1 , . . . , vn y, then there is an injective
homomorphism of groups

T Ă - Autk PpV q

v - τv

where τv is the projectivity induced by the linear map τ̃v defined as

τ̃v pv0 q “ v0 ` v , τ̃v pvi q “ vi @i ą 0 .

Proof. To be completed.

Theorem 1.6.9. Let V a finite dimensional projective space and let H be a hyperplane of PpV q. Let
H “ PpT q and fix a basis tv1 , . . . , vn u of T . Set

A :“ tP P PpV q | P R Hu .

Then A is an n-dimensional affine space modelled over the vector space T , whose action by translations is
given by
AˆT - A

pP, vq - P ` v :“ τv pP q

Moreover, a projectivity of PpV q induces an affine isomorphism of A if and only if it fixes globally the
hyperplane H; on the other hand, any affine isomorphism of A extends to a unique projectivity of PpV q with
the condition of fixing globally the hyperplane H.

Proof. To be completed.

Exercise 7. Let Ank an affine space over the field k, with coordinates px1 , . . . , xn q. Embed the affine space
in Pnk (with homogeneous coordinates rx0 , . . . , xn s) via the map

Ank - Pnk
px1 , . . . , xn q - r1, x1 , . . . , xn s

Consider the projection

πQ : Pnk zQ - Pn´1
k

where Q is the point r0, α1 , . . . , αn´1 , 1s P Pnk and where Pn´1

k is the hyperplane xn “ 0 in Pnk . Prove that
the map
p : Ank - An´1
k

given by
px1 , . . . , xn q - px1 ` α1 xn , . . . , xn´1 ` αn´1 xn q
ˇ
is obtained and taking the restriction πQ ˇAn :
k

ˇ
f “ πQ ˇAn
k

where An´1
k is the affine space in Pn´1
k given by x0 “ 1.

17
Example 1.6.10. The projection f : k 3 - k 2 given by px, y, zq - px ´ 2z, y ` 3zq can be obtained by
considering the point r0, ´2, 3, 1s P P3 , taking the hyperplane H of equation x3 “ 0 in P3 , considering the
ˇ
projection πQ : P3 - H of center Q onto H and taking the restriction πQ ˇ 3 : k 3
k
- k 2 , where k 3 is
immersed in P3 via px, y, zq - r1, x, y, zs, and k 2 is immersed in H via px, yq - r1, x, y, 0s.

Exercise 8. We generalize here the previous exercise. Consider Ank “ k n . Consider a vector subspace E of
dimension c and a complementary vector subspace L of dimension n ´ c in k n . Define the parallel projection
with direction L
πL : Ank - E

as
P - pP ` Lq ^ E .

Show that the projection between affine spaces in the previous exercise is a parallel projection of direction
the line pα1 t, α2 t, . . . , αn´1 t, tq.
Consider now the projective space Pnk “ Ppk ‘ k n q and the projective subspaces L “ Ppt0u ‘ Lq and
E “ Ppk ‘ Eq. Here Ank embeds as k n - Ppk ‘ k n q via v - x1 ‘ vy. The restriction of this map to E
embeds E into E. Consider the projection

πL : Pnk zL - E

of center L onto E. Then

ˇ
πL ˇAn : Ank - E
k

coincides with the parallel projection πL defined above.

18
Chapter 2

Algebraic Varieties

We will always work over an algebraically closed field k, unless explicitely mentioned.

2.1 Definitions
2.1.1 Affine Varieties
The Zariski topology on the affine space Ank “ k n .

Definition 2.1.1. We call a closed algebraic set of Ank “ k n a set X defined as the zero locus of an arbitrary
family of polynomials in A “ krx1 , . . . , xn s. If S Ď krx1 , . . . , xn s is the family of polynomials, we denote the
associated closed algebraic set of k n as V pSq. We also say that X “ V pSq is an affine subvariety of Ank . In
general, an affine variety is an affine subvariety of some Ank .

Remark 2.1.2. Suppose that X “ V pSq. Then it is immediate to see that X “ V pxSyq, where xSy is the
ideal generated by S. Indeed, we have V pxSyq Ď V pSq. On the other hand, if x P V pSq, then x is in the
zero locus of any combination f1 g1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` fl gl , with gj P S. After this remark, we can just consider closed
algebraic sets of k n of the form V pIq, where I is an ideal of krx1 , . . . , xn s.
Remark 2.1.3. The ring of polynomials krx1 , . . . , xn s is noetherian. This is equivalent to the fact that any
ideal I of krx1 , . . . , xn s if finitely generated. This implies, in turn, that any closed subset X “ V pIq can be
written as X “ V pg1 , . . . , gl q, where g1 , . . . , gl are a finite set of generators of I.
Remark 2.1.4. Before going on, we note the following properties of the sets V pIq.

• I Ď J ùñ V pIq Ě V pJq;
?
• V pIq “ V p Iq

Remark 2.1.5. It is not a coincidence that the sets of the form V pIq are called closed. Indeed they satisfy
the axioms for a collection of closed subsets for a topology. Indeed

• H “ V pAq “ V p1q, Ank “ V p0q;

Ş ř
• λPΛ V pIλ q “ V p λ Iλ q;

19
 • V pIq Y V pJq “ V pIJq “ V pI X Jq.
?
In order to prove the last one, use the fact that I X J “ IJ.
The resulting topology is called the Zariski topology over k n . The Zariski topology is far from being
Hausdorff (separated) (prove it!).

Definition 2.1.6. Let X an arbitrary subset of k n . The ideal of polynomials vanishing over X is defined as

IpXq :“ tf P A | f pxq “ 0 @x P Xu .

The ideal IpXq is naturally reduced ideal of A. (prove it!).

Remark 2.1.7. The ideals IpXq and the subsets V pIq are related by the following relations:

• X Ď V pIpXqq; I Ď IpV pIqq

• X “ V pIpXqq if and only if X is closed

• X Ď Y ùñ IpXq Ě IpY q.

Nothing more we can say without further hypothesis. If the field k is algebraically closed we have the
following deep and fundamental theorem.

Theorem 2.1.8 (Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz). Let k be an algebraically closed subset. Let I be an arbitrary
ideal of krx1 , . . . , xn s. Then
?
IpV pIqq “ I.

Remark 2.1.9. One of the corollaries of the Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz, called also Hilbert’s Small Nullstellen-
satz, is the characterizations of maximal ideals m of A as ideals IpP q, where P is a point.

Definition 2.1.10. Let X be a topological space. A subset Y of X is said to be locally closed if for any
point y P Y , there is an open neighbourhood Vy of y in X such that Vy X Y is closed in Vy .

Example 2.1.11. kztP1 , . . . , Pr u, where Pi are points in k, is a locally closed in k (with the Zariski topology).

Exercise 9. Is CzZ locally closed in C (with the Zariski topology)?

Exercise 10. Is the set tpt, et q | t P Cu a Zariski-closed in C2 ?

Regular functions

Definition 2.1.12. Let Y a locally closed in k n “ Ank . A function f : Y - k is called regular if for any
y P Y there is an open neighbourhood Vy of y in Y , and two polynomials g, h P krx1 , . . . , xn s such that h ‰ 0
in Vy , such that
ˇ gˇ
f ˇVy “ ˇVy .
h
Exercise 11. Prove that the previous definition is equivalent to the following. A function f : Y - k
is called regular if for any y P Y there is an open neighbourhood Vy of y in Ank , and two polynomials
g, h P krx1 , . . . , xn s such that h ‰ 0 in Vy , such that
ˇ gˇ
f ˇVy XY “ ˇVy XY .
h

20
Notation 2.1.13. Let X be a locally closed in Ank . If U is an open set of X, then U is locally closed in Ank .
We denote with OX pU q the k-algebra of regular functions f : U - k.

Exercise 12. Let X a locally closed of Ank . Prove that any regular function f : X - k is continuous (for
the Zariski topology of X and k, respectively). Use that fact that a function f : X - Y between two
topological spaces is continuous if and only if it is locally continuous, that is, for any x P X, there exists an
ˇ
open subset Vx of x in X such that the restriction f ˇVx - Y is continuous.

Proposition 2.1.14. Let X be an affine variety, that is, a closed X “ V pIq of an affine space Ank . Then
any global regular function on X is a restriction of a polynomial in krx1 , . . . , xn s.

Proof. Let f P OX rXs be a regular function. This means that for any x P V pIq there exists an open
neighbourhood Vx of V pIq and two polynomials Px , Qx in krx1 , . . . , xn s, with Qx ‰ 0 over Vx such that
ˇ
Px ˇˇ
f“ .
Qx ˇVx

This means that we have the relation

f Qx “ Px over Vx .

Step 1. In this step we find, for any x P V pIq, polynomials Px and Qx such that Qx pxq ‰ 0, such that
the relation
f Qx “ Px (2.1)

holds over the whole X. To do this consider an arbitrary x P X “ V pIq and polynomials Px and Qx such that
f Qx “ Px holds over an open neighbourhood Vx of V pIq, such that Qx ‰ 0 over Vx . Now Vx “ V pIqzV pIx1 q,
for some ideal Ix1 Ľ I. Since x R V pIx1 q, then Ipxq Ğ Ix1 (otherwise txu “ V pIpxqq Ď V pIx1 q) . Hence there
ˇ
exists gx P Ix1 such that gx R Ipxq. Then g ˇV pI 1 q “ 0 and gpxq ‰ 0. Multipliy relation 2.1 by gx to obtain
x

f Qx gx “ Px gx .

The relation is surely valid over Vx because 2.1 was valid there. But if y P X X V pIx1 q “ XzVx , we have that
f pyqQx pyqgx pyq “ Px pyqgx pyq because gx pyq “ 0. Hence naming Px1 “ Px gx and Q1x “ Qx gx , we have that
Q1x pxq ‰ 0, and that
f Px1 “ Q1x over the whole X .

Step 2. Let J the ideal generated by polynomials Qx , x P X, found in the previous step, such that
Qx pxq ‰ 0 and such that there exists polynomials Px such that f Qx “ Px over X. By construction the
polynomials Qx have no common zero over X. This means that

V pIq X V pJ q “ H .
?
Hence V pI ` J q “ H. Hence, by Nullstellensatz, I ` J “ p1q, but this means that I ` J “ p1q. The
ideals J and I are of course finitely generated, that is, I “ pR1 , . . . , Rl q, J “ pQx1 , . . . , Qxm q, for some l
and m and some polynomials Rj and Qxi . But then we can write

1 “ G1 R1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Gl Rl ` H1 Qx1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Hm Qxm .

21
This equality holds in krx1 , . . . , xn s, hence over Ank . Therefore
m
ÿ l
ÿ m
ÿ
ˇ ˇ ˇ
f “f ¨1“ Hi f Qxi ˇX ` f Gj Rj ˇX “ Hi f Qxi ˇX
i“1 j“1 i“1
ˇ
because Rj ˇX “ 0, since Rj P I. Using relation ??, we get
m
ÿ m
ÿ
ˇ ˇ
f“ Hi f Qxi ˇX “ Hi Pxi ˇX
i“1 i“1
řm
and hence f is the restriction to X of the polynomial i“1 H i Px i .

Corollary 2.1.15. Let X be a closed algebraic subset of k n , with k algebraically closed. Then the algebra
OX pXq of regular functions over X is finitely generated over k.

Proof. By the previous theorem, the restriciton of poylnomials over k n provides a surjective morphism of
k-algebras:
- OX pXq .
krx1 , . . . , xn s -
The kernel is easily a radical ideal IX of polynomials vanishing over X, that is, the ideal associated to X.
Hence
OX pXq » krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX .
Hence the images xi of xi in OX pXq generate OX pXq as a k-algebra.

Example 2.1.16. Over a non-algebraically closed field, the previous theorems are false. Take for example,
in R2 , the circle C of equation x2 ` y 2 “ 1. The function f px, yq “ 1{px2 ` 1q is a never-vanishing regular
function over C, but it can’t be expressed as a restriction of a polynomial in Rrx, ys. Moreover RrCs is not
finitely generated over R. These are some of the difficulties in which one runs when trying to study algebraic
geometry over a non algebraically closed field. However, one can take as definition of regular function over
C the restriction of a polynomial over R2 . In this case, yes, RrCs would be isomorphic to Rrx, ys{IX and it
would be finitely generated. Moreover, points in C would correspond to maximal ideals in RrCs (one does
not have the inverse correspondence, in any case).

Notation 2.1.17. Let k be an arbitrary field. Let X be an closed algebraic subset of k n . We will indicate
with krXs the algebra krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX , where IX is the ideal of polynomials vanishing over X. By the
previous theorem, when k is algebraically closed, then krXs “ OX pXq. This is not true, however, when k is
not algebraically closed; here krXs Ĺ OX pXq.

Definition 2.1.18 (Morphisms between locally closed of the affine space). Let X and Y locally closed in
An , Am , respectively. A morphism f : X
k k
- Y between X and Y is a continuous map which preserves
regular functions, that is for any open set U of Y and for any regular function ϕ : U - k, then f ˚ ϕ :“
ϕ ˝ f : f ´1 pU q - k is a regular functions over the open set f ´1 pU q. In other words, for any U open set
of Y , the pull back f ˚ defines a morphism of k-algebras

f ˚ : OY pU q - OX pf ´1 pU qq .

Definition 2.1.19. If X and Y are locally closed in Ank , Am

k , respectively, then an isomorphism f : X
- Y
between them is a morphism of locally closed subsets such that there exists a morphism g : Y - X
betweeen locally closed subsets such that g ˝ f “ idX , f ˝ g “ idY .

22
Exercise 13. Let Y Ď Am k a locally closed. If f : Y
- k is a regular function on Y , then for any x P Y
then f extends locally to a regular function f¯ : Ux - k over an open neighbourhood Ux of x in Am k .

Exercise 14. Let X be a locally closed in Ank . Then the inclusion X Ă - An is a morphism, by definition.
k
(That it is continuous, it is obvious. That it preserves regular functions, it follows immediately by the
definition).

Exercise 15. Let X be a topological space. Let tUi uiPI be an open cover of X. Prove that a subset C of
X is closed in X if and only if C X Ui is closed in Ui for all i P I.

Exercise 16. 1 Let X Ď Ank and Y Ď Am n m

k locally closed in Ak and Ak , respectively. Giving a morphism
f : X - Y is equivalent to giving a morphism f : X - Am k such that f pXq Ď Y .

Proposition 2.1.20. Let X be a locally closed in Ank . A map f : X - Am is a morphism if and only if
k
the components fi are regular functions on X.

Proof. If f : X - Am is a morphism, and the coordinate functions on Am are called yi , then f ˚ pyi q “ fi
k k
are regular functions, because yi are regular functions on Am
k .
m
Conversely, suppose we have a map f : X - Ak such that the components fi are regular functions.
This means the following: for any x P X, there exists an open neighbourhood Vx of X and polynomials
pi , qi P krx1 , . . . , xn s such that qi ‰ 0 over Vx and such that over Vx the map f is given by
ˆ ˙
p1 pxq pm pxq
f pxq “ ,..., .
q1 pxq qm pxq
Let’s prove that f is continuous. It is sufficient to prove that f ´1 pV pF qq is a closed in X, for any F P
kry1 , . . . , ym s. It is sufficient to prove that f ´1 V pF q X Vx is closed in any Vx found above, because such open
sets Vx cover X. But over Vx we have that f ´1 V pF q X Vx is given by the x P Vx such that

F pp1 pxq{q1 pxq, . . . , pm pxq{qm pxqq “ 0 .

Now, taking a common denominator qpxq “ lctpq1 , . . . , qm q, taking hi “ q{qi . writing pi {qi “ pi hi {qpxq,
observing that qpxq ‰ 0 over Vx , and writing F “ Fl ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Fd (homogeneous components of F ), we can see
that F pp1 pxq{q1 pxq, . . . , pm pxq{qm pxqq can be written as

F pp1 pxq{q1 pxq, . . . , pm pxq{qm pxqq “ Gpxq{Rpxq

for some polynomials Gpxq, Rpxq P krx1 , . . . , xn s, with Rpxq never zero on Vx (do the computation!). Hence
f ´1 pV pF qq X Vx “ V pGq X Vx and hence f ´1 V pF q X Vx is closed in any Vx and hence f ´1 V pF q is closed in
X.

Proposition 2.1.21. Let X and Y locally closed in Ank , Am

k , respectively. Let f be function a f : X
- Y
between X and Y . Then f is a morphism if and only if there exists f1 , . . . , fm regular functions on X such
that the composition f : X - Y Ă - Am is given by
k

f px1 , . . . , xn q “ pf1 px1 , . . . , xn q, . . . , fm px1 , . . . , xn qq

for any px1 , . . . , xn q in X.

1 Hint: If f : X - Y is a morphism, then i ˝ f : X - Am k is a morphism and pi ˝ f qpXq Ď Y . On the other hand,
suppose that f : X - Amk is a morphism and that f pXq Ď Y . Then it is immediate to prove that f : X - Y is
continuous, because any open set of Y is the intersection of an open set of Am
k with Y . To prove that f : X - Y respects
regular functions, use exercise 13.

23
Proof. Let f : X - Y a morphism between locally closed subsets in Ank , Am
k , respectively. The inclusion
m m
Y - Ak is a morphism. Hence i ˝ f : X - Ak is morphism and hence the components fi (of i ˝ f , or
of f ) are regular functions.
Conversely, suppose we have a map f : X - Y such that the composition i ˝ f : X - Am is given
k
by f px1 , . . . , xn q “ pf1 px1 , . . . , xn q, . . . , fm px1 , . . . , xn qq, with fi regular functions on X. By the previous
step i ˝ f : X - Am is a morphism; moreover pi ˝ f qpXq Ď Y , by definition. Hence f is a morphism, by
k
exercise 16.

Corollary 2.1.22. Giving a morphism between X and Y , where X is an affine variety in Ank and Y is a
locally closed in Am is equivalent to giving a map F : k n - k m given by F pxq “ pF1 pxq, . . . , Fn pxqq, where
k
Fi are polynomials in krx1 , . . . , xn s such that F pXq Ď Y .

Definition 2.1.23. A quasi-affine variety is an open subset of an affine variety.

Corollary 2.1.24. If X Ď Ank is an affine variety and Y is a quasi-affine variety of Am k , Y “ V pIqzV pJq,
then a map F : k n - k m defined by F pxq “ pF1 pxq, . . . , Fm pxqq, where Fi P krx1 , . . . , xn s induces a
ˇ
morphism f : X - Y if and only if, for any g P I, gpF1 , . . . , Fn qˇX “ 0 and for each x P X, F pxq R V pJq.

Remark 2.1.25. If X Ď k n and Y Ď k m are two closed algebraic subset over a non-algebraically closed field
k, and f : k n - k m is a polynomial map2 , then the pull-back f ˚ still defines a morphism of k-algebras
f ˚ : krY s - krXs.

Noetherian topological spaces

Definition 2.1.26. A topological space X is noetherian if any descreasing sequence of closed subsets

¨ ¨ ¨ Fi`2 Ď Fi`1 Ď Fi Ď Fi´1 ¨ ¨ ¨ Ď F0

is stationary, that is, there exists N P N such that, for any i ą N , Fi “ Fi`1 .

Exercise 17. Show that X is a noetherian topological space if and only if any increasing sequence of open
subsetes
V0 Ď ¨ ¨ ¨ Vi´2 Ď Vi´1 Ď Vi Ď Vi`1 ¨ ¨ ¨

is stationary.

Definition 2.1.27. A topological space X is quasi-compact if, given an open cover tUi uiPI of X, one can
Ťs
extract an finite open subcover tUi1 , . . . , Uir u (such that j“1 Uij “ X).

Proposition 2.1.28. Any noetherian topological space is quasi-compact.

Proof. Let X be a noetherian topological space. Let tUi uiPI an open covering. Consider the open subsets
of X built in this way. Take a point x P X. Let V0 one of the open subsets Ui containing x. If V0 “ X we
are done, otherwise, take y P XzV0 and consider an open set Uj1 in the covering such that y P Uj . Then set
V1 “ V0 Y Uj1 . If the process does not stop, continuing like that we can build an infinite strictly increasing
sequence of open subsets
V0 Ĺ V1 Ĺ V2 Ĺ V3 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ Vj Ĺ Vj`1 Ĺ . . .
2 we mean that the components fi are polynomials over kn

24
which violates noetherianity. Hence the process has necessarily to stop, and in the end, we wil have a
sequence of open subsets V0 , Uj1 , . . . , Ujl covering X and extracted from the covering tUi uiPI .

Proposition 2.1.29. Any subset of a noetherian topological space is noetherian with the induced topology.

Proof. Let X be a noetherian topological space. Let Z Ď X a subset. Suppose we have a decreasing sequence
of closed in Z.
¨ ¨ ¨ Ď Fl`1 Ď Fl Ď ¨ ¨ ¨ Ď F2 Ď F1 Ď F0 .
X
Consider now Gi :“ Fj the closure of Fj in X. Then for sure Fj “ Gj X Z. Moreover, we have the
decreasing sequence of closed in X:

¨ ¨ ¨ Ď Gl`1 Ď Gl Ď ¨ ¨ ¨ Ď G2 Ď G1 Ď G0

which has to be stationary, since X is noetherian. By the fact that Fj “ Z X Gj , we get that also the
sequence
¨ ¨ ¨ Ď Fl`1 Ď Fl Ď ¨ ¨ ¨ Ď F2 Ď F1 Ď F0

is stationary.

Proposition 2.1.30. The topological space Ank is noetherian and hence quasi-compact. Any closed subset
of Ank is hence noetherian and quasi-compact.

Proof. Consider a decresing sequence of closed subsets

¨ ¨ ¨ Ď Fl`1 Ď Fl Ď ¨ ¨ ¨ Ď F2 Ď F1 Ď F0

of Ank . We then have an increasing sequence of ideals in krx1 , . . . , xn s:

IpF0 q Ď IpF1 q Ď ¨ ¨ ¨ Ď IpFl q Ď IpFl`1 q Ď . . . .

But krx1 , . . . , xn s is noetherian. Hence the sequence stabilizes, meaning that for all j ě 1 and for a certain
m:
IpFm`j q “ IpFm q .

Consider the closed V pIpFj qq “ Fj . They necessary stabilize, that is, we have

Fj`m “ V pIpFj`m qq “ V pIpFj qq “ Fj

for all j ě 1. The second statement follows from the preceding propositions.

Exercise 18. Use the fact that Ank is noetherian to show that any locally closed subset of Ank is the
intersection of a closed of Ank with an open set of Ank , that is, if X is locally closed in Ank , then there exists
closed V pIq, V pJq in Ank such that X “ V pIqzV pJq “ V pIqzV pI ` Jq; in other words X is an open set of
the affine variety V pIq, that is, a quasi-affine variety.

Proposition 2.1.31. Let X be a Noetherian topological space. Let F be a nonempty family of closed subsets
of X. Then F admits a minimal element.

Proof. Left to the reader as an easy exercise.

25
2.1.2 Abstract reduced varieties
Definition 2.1.32. An abstract reduced variety3 over k is a noetherian topological space X such that has
a open covering pUα qαPA such that Uα is homeomorphic, via homeomorphisms ϕα : Uα - V pIα q Ď Ank α ,
to closed subsets V pIα q of the affine space Ank α . The covering pUα qα is such that, if α, β P A, the composed
maps ϕα ˝ ϕ´1
β
n ϕα ˝ϕ´1
Ak β Ě V pIβ q Ě ϕβ pUα X Uβ q - ϕα pUα X Uβ q Ď V pIα q Ď Anα
β
k
n
is an isomorphism of locally closed in the affine spaces Ak β and Ank α . The open covering pUα qαPA is called
an algebraic atlas, and ϕα a chart.

Exercise 19. Show that the open covering pUα qαPA can always be supposed to be finite, since the topological
space X is noetherian.

Exercise 20. Show that the definition of abstract reduced variety is equivalent to the following. An abstract
reduced variety over k is a noetherian topological space X such that for any x P X, there exists an open
neighbourhood Ux of x in X, and a homeomorfism ϕx : Ux - V pIx q Ď Ank x of Ux to a closed V pIx q of an
affine space Ank x , such that if, for x, y P X, Vx X Vy ‰ H, then the composed map ϕx ˝ ϕ´1
y

n ϕx ˝ϕ´1
Ak y Ě V pIy q Ě ϕy pUx X Uy q - ϕα pUx X Uy q Ď V pIx q Ď Anx
y
k

n n
is an isomorphism of locally closed in the affine spaces Ak y and Ak y .

Definition 2.1.33. Let X an abstract reduced variety. Let U be an open set of X. A function f : U - k
is said to be regular if for any chart ϕα : Uα - V pIα q of an algebraic atlas Uα , the function f ˝ ϕ´1
α :
ϕα pU X Uα q - k is a regular function over the locally closed ϕα pU X Uα q. We will write OX pU q the set
of regular functions defined over the open set U of X. We write OX for the “map”4

OX : topen sets of X u - tk-algebrasu

sending U - OX pU q.

Exercise 21. Let X be a topological space. Let pUα qα an open covering of X. A subset Y of X is closed
in X if and only if Y X Uα is closed in Uα for any α.

Definition 2.1.34. Let X and Y be abstract algebraic varieties, with regular functions OX , OY . A mor-
phism of algebraic varieties between X and Y is a continuous map f : X - Y which preserves regular
functions, that is, for any open set U of Y , the pull-back f ˚ is a map of k-algebras

f ˚ : OY pU q - OX pf ´1 pU qq .

Proposition 2.1.35. Let X and Y be abstract algebraic varieties, with regular functions OX , OY . Let f :
X - Y an isomorphism. The pull-back f ˚ induces an isomorphism of k-algebras f ˚ : OY pY q - OX pXq.

Proof. Easy. Left to the reader.

3 for the sake of completion, we need another property here: separation, which will be introduced later; without the separation
property, we speak of prevarieties
4 It is better defined as a functor between categories than as a map

26
Exercise 22. Let X be an algebraic variety, with atlas pUi qiPI and charts ϕi : Ui - V pIi q Ď Ani . Prove
k
that ϕi are isomorphisms.

Remark 2.1.36. Let X be an algebraic variety, with an affine atlas tUi , ϕi uiPI . As we saw, the affine atlas
allows us to define regular functions OX over the variety X. Suppose that tVj , , ψj ujPJ is another affine atlas
over the topological space X. Exactly as in differential geometry, we say that the two atlases are compatible
if, for each i P I, j P J, the transition function ψj ˝ ϕ´1 : ϕi pUi X Vj q - ψj pUi X Vj q is an isomorphism of
i
locally closed sets in the affine space. Of course, exactly as in differential geometry, two compatible atlases
define the same structure of algebraic variety over X. This can be said in terms of regular functions; let OrX
the sheaf of regular functions over X determined by the atlas tVj , , ψj ujPJ . Then the two atlases tUi , ϕi uiPI
and tVj , , ψj ujPJ are compatible if and only if the sheaves of regular functions determined by the the two
atlases are the same, that is, if and only if OX pU q “ O
rX pU q for any open set U of X.

We will use the following remarks in the next proof.

Remark 2.1.37. Let R be a commutative ring and I be an ideal of R. Consider the map R - Rrxs and
let I e the extension of I in Rrxs, that is, the ideal in Rrxs generated by I. It is not difficult to see that I e
is the ideal of polynomials with coefficients in I (exercise 3, page 126, in Basic Algebra [Jac]). Therefore,
considering the composition
R Ă - Rrxs - Rrxs{I e

one sees it immediately that the kernel of this morphism is I and hence we deduce an epimorphism

ϕ : pR{Iqrxs - Rrxs{I e .

Since I e can be seen as the ideal of polynomials in Rrxs having coefficients in I, then the map ϕ is injective,
and hence an isomorphism.
Remark 2.1.38. If R is a commutative ring and I is an ideal of R and f P R, then

R{pI ` pf qq » pR{Iq{ppf q ` Iq{I » pR{Iq{pf¯q

where f¯ “ f ` I, and the fact that the ideal pf¯q in R{I is given by pf q ` I{I.

Notation 2.1.39. Let A be a commutative ring and S Ď A a multiplicative subset5 of A We denote with
S ´1 A the ring of partial fractions of A in which the elements of S have been inverted6 . If f P A, then the set
Sf :“ t1, f n | n P N˚ u is a multiplicative subset of A. We denote with Af :“ Sf´1 A. It is easy to prove that
if p is a prime ideal of A, then Azp is a multiplicative subset of A. We denote with Ap the ring of partial
fractions Ap :“ pAzpq´1 A.
5 that is a subset such that
• 1 P S;

• s, t P S ùñ st P S.

6 The formal definition of S ´1 A is pAˆSq{ „, where „ is the equivalence relation on AˆS defined as pa, sq „ pb, tq ðñ Du P
S | upat ´ bsq “ 0. It acquires naturally a structure of A-algebra. The class rpa, sqs of an element pa, sq is commonly denoted
with the fraction a{s. We refer to Atiyah-MacDonald, chapter 3, for details. We advise the reader in taking particular care
with such rings of partial fractions when the set S contains zero divisors: things can be very different from standard fractions!

27
Proposition 2.1.40. Let X an affine algebraic variety. Let f P krXs be a nonzero global regular function
on X. Let Xf be the open set XzV pf q. Then Xf is (isomorphic to) an affine algebraic variety and krXf s “
krXsf .

Proof. by definition X is a closed subset of Ank , say X “ V pP1 , . . . , Pr q, Pi P krx1 , . . . , xn s. Let F P

ˇ
krx1 , . . . , xn s a polynomial such that F ˇX “ f . Consider the affine variety Y in k n ˆ k “ k n`1 (with
coordinates px1 , . . . , xn , yq) given by equations
$
’ P1 px1 , . . . , xn q “ 0
’
’
’
& ...
’
’
’ Pr px1 , . . . , xn q “ 0
’
yF px1 , . . . , xn q ´ 1 “ 0
%

Consider the map

π : kn ˆ k - kn

given by the first projection (that is, sending px1 , . . . , xn , yq - px1 , . . . , xn q). It induces a morphism
ˇ
π ˇY : Y - Xf , since if px1 , . . . , xn , yq P Y , then f px1 , . . . , xn q “ F px1 , . . . , xn q ‰ 0, since on Y we have
that F px1 , . . . , xn qy “ 1.
Consider now the morphism
ϕ : Xf - kn ˆ k

given by functions px1 , . . . , xn q

- px1 , . . . , xn , 1{F px1 , . . . , xn qq. The image of Xf is inside Y , by definition.
ˇ ˇ
Hence it induces a morphism ϕ : Xf - Y . One has clearly that ϕ ˝ π ˇ “ idY , π ˇ ˝ ϕ “ idX . Hence
Y Y f

ϕ : Xf - Y and πY : Y - Xf are the inverse one of the other. Hence ϕ is an isomorphism between
ˇ ˚ „
Xf and the affine variety Y . Hence Xf is affine. Hence π ˇY : krXf s - krY s is an isomorphism. But now

krY s »krx1 , . . . , xn , ys{pP1 , . . . , Pn , yF ´ 1q

»krx1 , . . . , xn , ys{pI e ` pyF ´ 1qq
»pkrx1 , . . . , xn , ys{I e q{pI e ` pyF ´ 1qq{I e
»pkrx1 , . . . , xn , ys{I e q{pȳ F̄ ´ 1q
»krXsrys{pyf ´ 1q » krXsf .

onde indicamos com I e o ideal pP1 , . . . , Pn q de krx1 , . . . , xn , ys. Hence krXf s » krY s » krXsf .

Exercise 23. Let ϕ : X - Y an isomorphism of locally closed subsets of An , Am , respectively. Let Z be

k k
ˇ
a closed subset of X and let Z 1 be the image ϕpZq. Prove that ϕˇZ : Z - Z 1 is an isomorphism of locally
closed subsets of Ank , Am
k , respectively.

Exercise 24. Prove that if Y is a locally closed subset of a topological space X, then there exists a n open
subset U of X such that Y is closed in U .

Exercise 25. Consider the affine variety X in k 2 defined by equations xy “ 0. Try to understand the ring
Ax , where A “ OX pXq “ krx, ys{pxyq. Does it resemble krysy ? Give a geometric interpretation.

Theorem 2.1.41. Any locally closed subset (and hence any open or closed subset) of an algebraic variety
inherits the structure of algebraic variety.

28
Proof. 1. We prove that, if X is an abstract algebraic variety and V is an open set of X, then V acquires
a natural structure of algebraic variety. Indeed, let tUi uiPI an affine atlas for X, with affine charts ϕi :
Ui - V pIi q Ď Ank i . We first need to find an affine atlas for V : the problem here is that V X Ui might not
be affine. However, for each i, V X Ui is isomorphic to an open set of V pIi q, that is, it is isomorphic to some
V pIi qzV pJi q, for some ideal Ji of krx1 , . . . , xni s. But J is finitely generated, say Ji “ xg1 , . . . , gri y. Hence
ri
č ri
ď
V X Ui » V pIi qzV pJi q “ V pIi qz V pghi q “ V pIi qzV pghi q
hi “1 hi “1

Now Wi,hi :“ V pIi qzV pghi q is an affine variety, by the previous proposition. Consider then Vi,hi :“
ϕ´1
i pWi,hi q:it is an open subset of V , isomorphic to an affine variety, hence, an affine variety. Now it is easy
ˇ
to prove that all the open sets Vi,hi , for i P I, hi “ 1, . . . , ri , cover V . Moreover ϕi ˇV : Vi,hi - Wi,hi
i,hi

is an affine chart. The reader can show easily that transition functions are regular. That V is noetherian is
clear from previous propositions ??.
2. We now prove that any closed subset Z of an abstract algebraic variety X inherits the structure of
algebraic variety. As above, consider an affine atlas tUi uiPI for X, with affine charts ϕi : Ui - V pIi q. We
ˇ
claim that tZ X Ui uiPI is an affine atlas for Z, with charts ϕi ˇZXUi . Indeed ϕi pZ X Ui q is a closed subset
of V pIi q, hence affine of the form V pJi q, for some ideal Ji containing Ii . Hence we have the affine charts
ˇ »
ϕi ˇZXUi : Z X Ui - V pJi q Ď V pIi q. That the transition functions are regular is left as an easy exercise to
the reader (use the previous exercise).
3. Let’s now prove that if Y is a locally closed of an abstract algebraic variety X, then Y inherits the
structure of algebraic variety. Indeed, by the previous exercise, let U be an open subset of X such that Y
is open in U . Then U is naturally a subvariety of X, because of 1, and Y is naturally a subvariety of U ,
because of 2. The reader can prove that the inherited structure of subvariety over Y does not depend on the
chosen open subset U .

Definition 2.1.42. Let X be an abstract algebraic variety. A subvariety Y of X is a locally closed subspace
Y of X, equipped with the induced structure of algebraic variety. The subvariety Y is called a closed
subvariety if Y is closed in X; an open subvariety if Y is open in X.

Exercise 26. Let X be an algebraic variety, with atlas pUi qiPI and charts ϕi : Ui - V pIi q Ď Ani . Prove
k
that ϕi are isomorphisms.

Proposition 2.1.43. Let X be an abstract algebraic variety. Then X has a basis for the Zariski topology
made of affine open subsets.

Proof. It follows easily and quickly from the preceding results. Indeed, let tUi uiPI an open affine cover of X.
It suffices to prove that any open subset V of X can be covered with affine open subsets. Intersecting with
the open subsets Ui , it suffices to prove the same thing for each of the V X Ui . But this is an open set of an
affine variety Ui , and it can be covered by open affine subsets of the form pUi qgj with the same argument of
the proof of Theorem 2.1.41, step 1. Hence
ď ďď
V “ pV X Ui q “ pUi qgj
iPI iPI jPJ

for some gj regular functions on Ui .

29
Exercise 27. A map f : X - Y of topological spaces is continuous if and only if it is locally continuous,
ˇ
that is, if, for any x P X, there exists an open neighbourhood Vx of x in X such that f ˇV : Vx - Y is
xˇ

continuous; equivalenty, if there exists an open covering tUα uαPA of X such that, for each α, f ˇUα : Uα - Y
is continuous.

Exercise 28. A function f : X - Y between algebraic varieties is a morphism if and only if it is a

morphism locally, that is, if for any x P X, there is an open neighbourhood Vx of x in X such that the
ˇ
restriction f ˇV : Vx - Y is a morphism. Equivalently, if there is an open covering pUα qαPA such that the
ˇx
restrictions f ˇ : Uα - Y is a morphism.
Uα

Exercise 29. A function f : X - Y between algebraic varieties is a morphism if and only for any y P Y
ˇ
there exists an open neighbourhood Vy of y in Y such that f ˇf ´1 pVy q : f ´1 pVy q - Vy is a morphism.
Equivalently f is a morphism if and only if there exists an open covering pVα qαPA of Y such that, for any
ˇ
α P A, the map f ˇf ´1 pV q : f ´1 pVα q - Vα is a morphism.
α

Proposition 2.1.44. Let X be an algebraic variety. A map f : X - An is a morphism if and only if

k
the components fi are regular functions on X.

Proof. ùñ. If f : X - An is a morphism, and we fix coordinates px1 , . . . , xn q on An , then xi ˝ f “

k k
f ˚ pxi q “ fi are regular functions on X.
ðù. On the other hand, suppose that the components fi are regular functions on X. Let pUi qi“1,...,r
ˇ
an affine atlas for X. It is sufficient that the restrictions f ˇUi : Ui - An is a morphism. Let ϕi :
k
ˇ
Ui - V pIi q Ď Am k the affine charts. The charts ϕ i are surely isomorphisms, hence to prove that f ˇUi is a
ˇ
morphism, it is equivalent to prove that f ˇU ˝ ϕ´1 i : V pIi q - Ank is a morphism. But the components of
ˇ i

this map are fi ˇU ˝ ϕ´1

i : V pIi q - Ank , which, by hypothesis, are regular functions on V pIi q Ď Am k . Hence
i ˇ ´1
they are restrictions of polynomials Fi P krx0 , . . . , xm s. Hence the map fi ˝ ϕ : V pIi q
ˇ
Ui i
- An is the
k
restriction to V pIi q to the map Am - An given by pF1 , . . . , Fm q. Hence it is a morphism by corollary
k
ˇ
2.1.24. Hence f ˇU is a morphism and hence f is locally a morphism, and hence f is a morphism.
i

Proposition 2.1.45. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y Ď Ank a quasi-affine variety. A map f : X - Y
f i
is a morphism if and only if the composition i˝f : X - Y Ă - An is a morphism such that pi˝f qpXq Ď Y .
k

Proof. Exercise for the reader.

Theorem 2.1.46. Let X and Y be algebraic varieties, with Y affine. We have that the map

MorpX, Y q - Homk-alg pkrY s, OX pXqq

f - f˚

is a bijection. Moreover f ˚ is injective if and only if imf is dense, that is, if f is dominant.

If, moreover, X is also affine, then we have the following

• f is an isomorphism if and only if f ˚ is an isomorphism

• If f ˚ is surjective, then f is injective.

30
Proof. Let’s prove first that the map f - f ˚ is a bijection. Let’s try to understand the morphism of
algebras f ˚ better. The affine variety Y is immersed in an affine space Am
k , and it is there defined by a radical
ideal IY . Hence krY s » kry1 , . . . , ym s{IY as proved above, that is, any regular function is a restriction of a
polynomial over k m . If f : X - Y is a morphism of algebraic variety, then yi ˝ f “ fi are the components
ˇ
of the composed morphism X - Y Ă - Am , and hence regular functions over X. If P py1 , . . . , ym qˇ is
k Y
ˇ
a regular function on Y , then f ˚ P ˇ “ P pf1 , . . . , fm q over X. This means that the morphism of rings
Y

f ˚ : krY s » kry1 , . . . , ym s{IY - OX pXq

is the only morphism of rings such that k goes to k (identity over constants) and that yi goes to fi pxq.
Indeed it is induced by the evaluation map

evf1 ,...,fm : kry1 , . . . , ym s - OX pXq ;

it descends to the quotient kry1 , . . . , ym s{IY - OX pXq: indeed IY Ď ker evf1 ,...,fm because in the com-
posed morphism X - Y - Am the image of f is inside Y , and hence, for any g P IY we have
k
gpf1 , . . . , fm q “ 0 as a function over X.
Let’s now build an inverse to the map f - f ˚ . Consider a morphism of k-algebras g :
krY s » kry1 , . . . , ym s{IY - OX pXq. Of course it is induced by a morphism of k-algebras g̃ :
kry1 , . . . , ym s - OX pXq, in the sense that IY Ď ker g̃. Denote with fi the images of yi via g̃. They are reg-
ular functions on X, by construction. These regular functions allow us to build a morphism hg : X - Am .
k
The condition IY Ď ker g̃ implies that, for any P P IY , P pf1 , . . . , fm q “ 0 as regular function on X and hence
that the morphism of algebraic varieties hg : X - Am has image inside Y , hence it defines a morphism
k
of algebraic varieties p
hg : X - Y , whose composition ι ˝ p hg : X - An is the morphism hg . We leave
k
to the reader to prove that the maps f - f ˚ and g hg are inverse one of the other7 .
-p
Suppose now that im f is dense. If f ˚ were not injective, than, there would exist a polynomial P P
kry1 , . . . , ym s, nonzero when restricted to Y such that f ˚ P “ 0 over X. But this would mean that im f Ď
ˇ Y
V pP q X Y . Now V pP q X Y is a strict closed subset of Y , since P ˇY ‰ 0. This is absurd, since im f “ Y .
Y
On the other hand, suppose that f ˚ is injective. If im f were not dense, then im f would be a strict
closed subset of Y , and hence we would have im f Ď V pP q X Y for some P which is nonzero over Y . But
ˇ
then f ˚ P “ P pf1 , . . . , fm q “ 0 which is absurd, since P ˇ ‰ 0 P krY s and f ˚ is injective.
Y
Suppose from now on that X is affine, inside an affine space Ank , with ring of regular functions krXs »
krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX , where IX is a radical ideal. Suppose now that f ˚ is surjective. Suppose there exists
p1 , p2 P X such that f pp1 q “ f pp2 q, with p1 ‰ p2 . Now, since X is affine, there surely exists regular a regular
function ϕ such that ϕpp1 q ‰ ϕpp2 q (take for example one of the coordinates xi of the points: one of them
has to be different, since p1 ‰ p2 ). But f ˚ is surjective, hence ϕ “ f ˚ ψ “ ψ ˝ f , for some ψ P krY s. But
then
ϕpp1 q “ ψ ˝ f px1 q “ ψ ˝ f px2 q “ ϕpp2 q

which is absurd.
We still need to prove that f is an isomorphism if and only if f ˚ is an isomorphism. Necessity follows
from propositon ??. Now if f ˚ is an isomorphism, take its inverse: it has to be a morfism krXs - krY s
7 The reader has to prove that h˚
g “ g and that hf ˚ “ f . But this is pretty easy following the discussion at the beginning
of the proof.

31
of the form g ˚ , for some morphism of algebraic variety g : Y - X, becase of the bijectivity of the map
f - f ˚ proved in the beginning. We have that f ˚ ˝ g ˚ “ idkrXs and g ˚ ˝ f ˚ “ idkrY s ; but now

pidX q˚ “ idkrXs “ f ˚ ˝ g ˚ “ pg ˝ f q˚

which implies
idX “ g ˝ f

using the bijectivity of the map

MorAlgVar pX, Xq - Mork´Alg pkrXs, krXsq

sending h - h˚ . With a similar argument we get that f ˝ g “ idY .

Exercise 30. Take X “ A2 ztp0, 0qu. It is a quasi-affine variety. Show that OX pXq » krx, ys and deduce
that X can’t be affine.

Proposition 2.1.47. Let X be an algebraic variety. Consider a nonzero regular function ϕ : X - k and
´1 ˚
the open subset Xϕ defined as Xϕ :“ ϕ pk q “ tx P X | ϕpxq ‰ 0u. Then

OX pXϕ q “ OX pXqϕ ,

that is, the ring of regular functions on X, where ϕ has been inverted.

Proof. The natural restriction morphism

OX pXq - OX pXϕ q
ˇ
sends the function ϕ to ϕˇX , which is invertible in OX pXϕ q. Hence, by universal property of localizations,
ϕ

we have the natural morphism

θ : OX pXqϕ - OX pXϕ q .
ˇ
This morphism is naturally injective, since it sends a fraction h{ϕr , h P OX pXq to the restriction h{ϕr ˇX ,
ˇ ϕ

and h{ϕr “ 0 over Xϕ if and only if hˇ “ 0. So we just have to prove that the morphism θ is surjective.
Xϕ
Cover X with affine open subsets Ui , and set OX pUi q “ Ai . Of course Xϕ is covered by pUi qϕ , with
OX ppUi qϕ q “ pAi,ϕ , were we wrote Ai,ϕ :“ pAi qϕ .
Take i ‰ j. We have the commutative diagram of restrictions

OX pXϕ q - OX ppUi qϕ q “ Ai,ϕ

? ?
OX ppUj qϕ q “ Aj,ϕ - OX ppUi X Uj qϕ q

Consider now a function g P OX pXϕ q. We have that, for any i,

ˇ
g ˇpU “ hi {ϕri
i qϕ

32
and, multyplying by the right power of ϕ, we can assume that there exists m P N˚ such that, for all i we
have
ˇ
g ˇpUi qϕ “ fi {ϕm .

But now, the functions fi {ϕm and fj {ϕm have to be the same restricted to pUi X Uj qϕ , hence
ˇ ˇ
fi {ϕm ˇpUi XUj qϕ “ fj {ϕm ˇpUi XUj qϕ

but, since ϕ ‰ 0 over pUi X Uj qϕ , we have that fi “ fj over pUi X Uj qϕ , with fi P Ai , and moreover
fi ϕm “ fj ϕm over the wholes Ui X Uj . So set gi “ fi ϕm P Ai : these are functions over Ui which coincides
on intersections Ui X Uj ; since the open subsets Ui cover X, then there exists a global regular function
ˇ
f P A “ OX pXq such that f ˇU “ gi “ fi ϕm . Now the function f {ϕ2m is in OX pXqϕ and over pUi qϕ is
i

fi ϕm {ϕ2m “ fi {ϕm and hence coincides with g on any open set pUi qϕ . Hence the element g comes from the
element f {ϕm via the morphism θ. See also [Har77, exercise 2.16].

Proposition 2.1.48. Let X be an affine algebraic variety. Then we can cover X with affine open subsets
Xgi , i “ 1, . . . , n, with gi P krXs non constant regular functions such that xg1 , . . . , gn y “ p1q as ideals in
krXs

Proof. Let x P X. Then there exists a nonconstant g P krXs such that gpxq ‰ 0. Hence x P Xg . Set g1 “ g
and consider y P XzXg1 . Then there exists nonconstant g2 P krXs such that g2 pyq ‰ 0, hence y P Xg2 and
Xg1 Ĺ Xg1 Y Xg2 . If Xg1 Y Xg2 ‰ X, then take z P XzpXg1 Y Xg2 q. There exists nonconsant g3 P krXs such
that g3 pzq ‰ 0. Hence z P Xg3 . Like that, we build open subsets Xgi such that

Xg1 Ĺ Xg1 Y Xg2 Ĺ Xg1 Y Xg2 Y Xg3 Ĺ . . . .

The process has to stop since the topological space is noetherian. If k is algebraically closed, this argument
suffices, since the fact that X “ Yi Xgi is equivalent to Xi V pgi q “ H, which by Nullstellensatz implies
xgi , i “ 1, . . . , y “ p1q.

Exercise 31. Prove that if X “ R2 , then Xx´2 , Xx2 `y2 ´1 cover X, but xx ´ 2, x2 ` y 2 ´ 1y ‰ p1q “ Rrx, ys.

Proposition 2.1.49. Let X be an affine algebraic variety and V an affine open subset of X. Then V can
ˇ
be covered with a finite number of open subsets of the form Xg , such that xgi , i “ 1, . . . , hˇ y “ krV s.
i V

Proof. Take open subsets Xgi , i “ 1, . . . , h, covering X like in the previous proposition. We necessarily
ˇ ˇ
have that pg1 , . . . , gh q “ p1q in krXs. Take the restriction krXs - krV s. Hence pg1 ˇV , . . . , gh ˇV q “ p1q in
ˇ
krV s. Moreover, no gi ˇV are constant. Now V ˇˇ “ V X Xgi . Hence V ˇˇ is an open cover of V like in the
gi gi
V V
statement.

Remark 2.1.50. Beware: even if k is algebraically closed, not all affine open subsets of an affine variety X
are of the form Xf , for some regular function f P krXs.

33
2.1.3 Glueing of Algebraic Varieties.
Proposition 2.1.51. Let X be a topological space, with a finite open covering pUi qiPI . Suppose that we
are given homeomorphisms ϕi : Ui - Yi , where Yi are algebraic varieties. Suppose that for each i, j the
homeomorphisms
ϕi ˝ ϕ´1
j : ϕj pUi X Uj q
- ϕi pUi X Uj q

are isomorphisms of locally closed in Yj , Yi , respectively. Then there is a unique structure of algebraic variety
over X, not necessarily separated,, such that ϕi are isomorphisms for all i. The variety X is obtained by
glueing the varieties Yi along the isomorphisms ϕi ˝ ϕ´1
j .

Proof. Consider affine charts ψij : Wi,j - V pIi,j q, j “ 1, . . . , `i , for the variety Yi . They induce affine
charts θi,j : ψi,j ˝ ϕi : Vi.j “ ϕ´1
i pWi,j q
- V pIi,j q on Ui and hence on X. We just have to prove that, if
Vi,k X Vj,h ‰ H, then
´1
θi,k ˝ θj,h : θj,h pVi,k X Vj,h q - θi,k pVi,k X Vj,h q

is a regular function. But now (we omit the restrictions)

´1
θi,k ˝ θj,h “ ψi,k ˝ ϕi ˝ pψj,h ˝ ϕj q´1 “ ψi,k ˝ pϕi ˝ ϕ´1 ´1
j q ˝ ψj,h

is an isomorphism of locally closed subsets, since a composition of three isomorphisms.

The unicity of the structure of algebraic variety over X follows from the fact that any other structure
of algebraic variety over X such that ϕi : Ui - Yi are isomorphisms, would have necessarily compatible
affine charts. In other words, the structure of algebraic variety over X is induced by the structure of the
varieties Yi . We leave the details to the reader.

Proposition 2.1.52 (Glueing8 ). Let Yi , i “ 1, . . . , n, algebraic varieties. Consider in Yi , open sets Uij .
Suppose that there exists isomorphisms ϕij : Uij - Uji of algebraic varieties such that

Uii “ Yi for all i

ϕij pUij X Uik q “ Uji X Ujk for all i, j, k
ϕjk ϕij “ ϕik over Uij X Uik , for all i, j, k
ϕii “ idUii for all i .

Then there is a unique algebraic variety X, up to isomorphism, not necessarily separated, with an open
covering Vi and isomorphism ψi : Vi - Yi such that X is obtained by glueing the varieties Yi . Moreover,
ψi pVi X Vj q “ Uij for all i, j and ϕij “ ψj ˝ ψi´1 .
š
Proof. Consider the topological space X̃ “ i Yi . The set X̃ is clearly an algebraic variety. Consider over X̃
the equivalence relation „ given by x „ y if x P Yi , y P Yj for some i, j and such that y “ ϕij pxq (prove that
the relation is an equivalence relation: the cocycle conditions above are precisely necessary to obtain this).
Let now X “ X̃{ „, with the quotient topology. The quotient map π : X̃ - X is open (prove it). Hence
X inherits an atlas from the atlas of X̃; indeed, if pWij qjPJ is an atlas for Yi , then Aij “ πpWij q is open and
ˇ „ ˇ
is an atlas for X, since π ˇYi : Yi - X is injective and open; hence Aij - πpˇ q´1 pWij q - V pIij q
Wij
is an algebraic chart for X (complete the details).
8 Compare with [Har77, II, Exercise 2.13]. There the ϕij are given for i ‰ j and verify the hypothesis ϕij “ ϕ´1
ji insted of
our first and last equation. Our set of condition is the same as [EH00, I.2.4]

34
 It is now easy to prove that Vi “ πpYi q are open sets in X :“ X̃{ „, by definition of quotient topology,
and that the compositions ϕ´1
i :“ Yi Ă - X̃ - Vi are isomorphisms and that ϕij “ ϕi ˝ ϕ´1 j . We leave
as exercise to prove that ϕi pVi X Vj q “ Uij and that X is obtained by glueing the varieties Yi .

Exercise 32. Let X be an algebraic variety, with affine atlas pUi qiPI , with affine charts ϕi : Ui - Vi .
š
Denote with Φ the family tϕi uiPI of affine charts. We indicate the relation „Φ on i Vi given by x „ y if
and only if x P Vj , y P Vi and y “ ϕi ˝ ϕ´1
j pxq for some i, j P I. Then X is isomorphic to the variety obtained
glueing the affine varieties Vi through the isomorphisms ϕi ˝ ϕ´1 : Vji - Vij , where Vij is the open set
j
Vij “ ϕi pUi X Uj q. The map
ž ž
Vi - Vi { „Φ » X

is a surjective morphism of algebraic varieties.

Exercise 33. Let X be an algebraic variety, with open covering (not necessarily affine) U :“ pUi qiPI .
Then X is isomorphic to the variety obtained glueing the affine varieties Ui through the isomorphisms
ϕi ˝ ϕ´1 : Uji - Uij , given by the identity. The map
j
ž ž
Ui - Ui { „IU » X

is a surjective morphism of algebraic varieties. Here IU is the collection of identity maps ϕi : Ui - Ui .

š
Exercise 34. Let X be an algebraic variety, with an open covering pUi qiPI seen as X » iPI Ui { „IU , as
the previous exercise shows. Let Y be another algebraic variety, with open covering V :“ pVi qiPI , indexed on
š
the same set I, seen as Y » jPJ Vj { „IV . Suppose that for each i P I, we have a morphism fi : Ui - Vi .
ˇ ˇ
Suppose that fi pUij q Ď Vij for all i, j and that fi ˇ “ fj ˇ . Prove that the morphisms fi induce a
Uij Uij
morphism
f :X - Y .

2.1.4 Closed Immersions

Definition 2.1.53. Let f : Y - X a morphism of algebraic varieties. We say that f is a closed immersion
if its image f pY q is a closed subvariety of X and f induces an isomorphism f : Y - f pY q. Equivalently,
f is a closed immersion if and only if there exists a closed subvariety Y 1 of X such that f factorizes as the
composition
g
Y - Y1 Ă - X
»

»
with g : Y - Y 1 an isomorphism.

2.2 Projective and Quasi-Projective Varieties

If f P krx0 , . . . , xn s is a polynomial, we say that f is homogeneous if f pλx0 , . . . , λxn q “ λd f px0 , . . . , xn q for
any λ P k, where d “ deg f .

Exercise 35. A polynomial f P krx0 , . . . , xn s is homogeneous of degree d if and only if it is sum of monomials
of degree d.

35
Definition 2.2.1. An ideal I is homogeneous if, for any f P I, writing f as f “ f0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` fd , where fi is
the homogeneous component of degree i of f , then fi P I, for all i “ 0, . . . , d.

Lemma 2.2.2. If Y is a cone in k n`1 with vertex containing the origin, then IpY q is a homogeneous ideal.

Proof. Let f P IpY q, and write it as f “ f0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` fd . The polynomial f vanishes on all Y . Let P P Y , say
P “ pa1 , . . . , an q. The line P _ O is inside Y , and an arbitrary point of it is of the form pλa1 , . . . , λan q. then
f pλa1 , . . . , λan q “ 0 for any λ P k. But then the polynomial in λ

f pλa1 , . . . , λan q “ λd fd pa1 , . . . , an q ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` λf1 pa1 , . . . , an q ` f pa0 , . . . , an q “ 0

is identically zero. Hence fi pa1 , . . . , an q “ 0 for all i. Hence if f pP q “ 0, for f P IpY q, then all homogeneous
components fi of f satisfty fi pP q “ 0. Hence fi pP q “ 0 for all i “ 0, . . . , d. Hence if f P IpY q, f “ f0 `¨ ¨ ¨`fd ,
then fi P IpY q for all i, and hence IpY q is homogeneous.

Proposition 2.2.3. Let I be an ideal of krx0 , . . . , xn s. Consider the following.

1. I is homogeneous;

2. I is generated by homogeneous elements.

3. V pIq is a cone with vertex containing the origin in k n`1 ;

Then 1 ðñ 2 ùñ 3. If I is radical, then 3 ùñ 1, and the statements are all equivalent.

Proof. 2 ùñ 1. Suppose that I “ pF1 , . . . , Fl q, where Fi is homogeneous of degree di . Let P P V pIq, say
P “ pa1 , . . . , an q. In particular Fi pa1 , . . . , an q “ 0 for all i “ 1, . . . , l. We prove that the line P _ O is in
ř
V pIq. An arbitrary point of the line P _ O is of the form pλa1 , . . . , λan q for λ P k. Let G P I, G “ i Ri Fi .
We have
ÿ ÿ
Gpλa1 , . . . , λan q “ Ri pλa1 , . . . , λan qFi pλa1 , . . . , λan q “ Ri pλa1 , . . . , λan qλdi Fi pa1 , . . . , an q “ 0 .
i i

Hence P _ O is contained in V pIq, but this means that V pIq is a cone with vertex containing the origin.
1 ùñ 2. We have that I “ pf1 , . . . , fr q. But fj “ pfj q0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` pfj qdj , where pfj ql are the homogeneous
components of fj . Since I is homogeneous, then pfj ql P I for all l. Then I “ ppf1 q0 , . . . , pf1 qd1 , . . . , pfr q0 , . . . , pfr qdr q
and hence is generated by homogeneous components.
2 ùñ 3.
If I is radical, then 3 ùñ 1. Indeed, if I is radical then I “ IpV pIqq. But V pIq is a cone with vertex
containing the origin, hence IpV pIqq “ I is homogeneous by the lemma above.

?
Exercise 36. Prove that if I is homogeneous, then I is homogeneous.
9
?
Exercise 37. It can be that I is homogeneous, but I is not. Hence, if V pIq is a cone with vertex containing
the origin, it does not follow that I is homogeneous. Take for example, f “ x2 ` y 2 ´ z 2 P krx, y, zs and
9 Solution. We prove that f R I. Indeed, if f P I, there would exist two polynomials P and Q such that f “ P f 2 ` Qpz ´ 1qf .
Hence f “ f pP f ` Qpz ´ 1qq and, since krx0 , . . . , xn s is a domain, P f ` Qpz ´ 1q “ 1. But on the circle of equations x2 ` y 2 “ 1,
z “ 1 (in particular on the point p1, 0, 1q) the left hand vanishes, but the right hand not

36
 ? ?
the ideal I “ pf 2 , pz ´ 1qf q. Prove that I “ pf q, hence
I is radical and V pIq is the cone of equation
2 2 2 3
?
x ` y ´ z in k . But I is not homogeneous, otherwise f P I, and hence I “ I. But this is absurd,
because f R I (prove it). Note that the ideal I is the ideal of the cone x2 ` y 2 ´ z 2 “ 0, with the circle
V px2 ` y 2 ´ z 2 , z ´ 1q ”doubled ”.
We can even say that the nilpotents of the ring A :“ krx, y, zs{I (the scheme-theoretic regular function
ring of V pIq) are ”algebraically localized ” over the circle V px2 ` y 2 ´ z 2 , z ´ 1q, in the following sense. If we
take away that circle, that is if we set X “ V pIq and we consider Xz´1 , that is, X ”minus” the circle, and
we localize Az´1 , we have the injection i : A - Az´1 , and the ideal I, in the ring Az´1 is the extension
of I, that is I e :“ xipIqy, that is, the ideal in Az´1 generated by I. But I e “ xf 2 , pz ´ 1qf y (where we allow
multiplication by elements in Az´1 , but, since z ´ 1 is invertible, and pz ´ 1qf P I e , then f P I e , and hence
I e “ pf q, which is radical. So Az´1 {I e , which is the scheme-theoretic ring of regular functions over Xf , is a
reduced ring.

Exercise 38. Prove that the sum, intersection, product, radical of homogeneous ideals is a homogeneous
ideal.

Definition 2.2.4. If Y Ď Pnk , the affine cone over Y is the cone CY :“ π ´1 pY q Y t0u, where π :
k n`1 zt0u - Pnk . We set
IpY q :“ IpCY q Ď krx0 , . . . , xn s .

By what we proved, it is an homogeneous ideal.

Definition 2.2.5. If I is an homogeneous ideal in krx0 , . . . , xn s, then we set

VpIq :“ πpV pIqzt0uq Ď Pnk .

By definition it is the quotient V pIqzt0u{k ˚ and hence identified with the lines through the origin contained
in V pIq.

Exercise 39. Prove that, if I is a homogeneous ideal, then V pIq “ CVpIq .

Theorem 2.2.6 (Projective Nullstellensatz). Let I be a homogeneous ideal in krx0 , . . . , xn s. Then

?
IpVpIqq “ I.

Proof. It is a direct consequence of Nullstellensatz and the definitions of I and V. Indeed

?
IpVpIqq “ IpCVpIq q “ IpV pIqq “ I.

Exercise 40. Prove that, if I is a homogeneous ideal, then VpIpVpIqqq “ VpIq.

Proposition 2.2.7. We have the following

• VpIq Y VpJq “ VpIJq “ VpI X Jq

ř
• XαPA VpIα q “ Vp αPA Iα q

• VpIq “ H ðñ I Ě mr0 por algum r P N˚ .

37
 • Vpp0qq “ Pn .

Hence the sets VpIq, with I homogeneous, are the closed of a topology on Pnk , called the Zariski topology on
Pnk .

Proof. Let’s prove the third point. We have that VpIq “ H if and only if V pIq Ď t0u. But this happens if
?
and only if I “ IpV pIqq Ě m0 . But if this happen, than xm ˚
i P I for some m P N . Let k “ mintm |xi P
m

pn`1qk
I for all i “ 0, . . . , nu. Then m0 Ď I. On the other hand, if this happens, it is easy to show that
pn`1qk
V pIq Ď V pm0 q “ V pm0 q “ t0u and hence that VpIq “ H.

Exercise 41. Prove that the Zariski topology on Pnk is exactly the quotient topology 10 of the Zariski topology
on k n`1 zt0u, with respect to the quotient map π : k n`1 zt0u - Pn . k

Theorem 2.2.8. The projective space Pnk is an algebraic variety.

Proof. Step 1. Consider the open sets Ui “ Pnk zVpxi q. The maps

ϕi : Ui - Ank

sending rx0 , . . . , xn s - px0 {xi , . . . , xi´1 {xi , xi`1 {xi , . . . , xn {xi q is a homeomorphism.
Step 2. Since Pnk “ Yni“0 Ui , and Ui is a noetherian topological space (because homeomorphic to Ank , then
Pnk is noetherian.
Step 3. The transition functions ϕj ˝ ϕ´1
i : ϕj pUi X Uj q - ϕi pUi X Uj q is an isomorphism of quasi-affine
varieties.

Remark 2.2.9. The projective space Pnk is exactly obtained by gluieing n ` 1 copies of the affine space Ank
via the isomorphisms ϕij : Ank zV pxi q - Ank zV pxj q given by

ϕij : px1 , . . . , xi , . . . , xj´1 , xj`1 , . . . , xn q - px1 {xi , . . . , xi´1 {xi , xi`1 {xi , . . . , xj´1 {xi , 1{xi , xj`1 {xi , . . . , xn {xi q

Write down the transition function for P2k and P3k to understand thouroughly.

Definition 2.2.10. A projective variety is a closed subset of the projective space. It inherits the structure
of algebraic variety by theorem 2.1.41. A quasi-projective variety is an open set of a projective variety (with
the induced structure of algebraic variety). By extension, we call projective variety any variety isomorphic
to a closed subvariety of the projective space, and quasi-projective any variety isomorphic to an open set of
a closed subvariety of the projective space.

Exercise 42. Prove that any projective variety X Ď Pnk is defined by a (reduced) homogeneous ideal
I Ď krx0 , . . . , xn s, that is, there exists a (reduced) homogeneous ideal I Ď krx0 , . . . , xn s such that X “ VpIq.

Exercise 43. Prove that any locally closed of the projective space Pnk is a quasi-projecive variety.

Exercise 44. Let X and Y be two topological spaces. Prove that a function f : X - Y is continuous if
ˇ
and only if it is locally continuous, that is, for any open set U of X, the map f ˇU : U - Y is continuous.
Equivalently, prove that a function f as above is continuous, if and only if, for any open set U of X and
for any closed subset Z of Y the set f ´1 pZq X U is closed in U .
If X has an open cover X “ Yα Uα , one can check this property for just the open sets Uα of the cover.
10 If X is a topological space and „ is an equivalence relation on X, the quotient topology on X{ „, is by definition the
strongest topology on X{ „ such that the quotient map π : X - X{ „ is continuous; this is equivalent to saying that U is
an open set of X{ „ if and only if π ´1 pU q is an open set of X.

38
2.2.1 Regular functions.
Proposition 2.2.11. Let X Ď Pnk be a quasi-projective variety. A function f : X - k is regular if
and only if, for any point x P X, there exists an open neighbourhood Vx of x in X and two homogeneous
polynomials of the same degree, P , Q in krx0 , . . . , x1 s such that Q ‰ 0 over Vx and
ˇ Pˇ
f ˇVx “ ˇVx .
Q

Proof. ùñ . Let f : X - k a regular function. Take x P X. Now x P Ui for at least one i P t0, . . . , nu.
and consider ϕi : Ui - X Ank the affine chart for Pnk . Now X X Ui is a quasi-affine variety, isomorphic to
ϕi pX XUi q “ Yi , which is a quasi-affine variety of Ank and ϕi pxq P Yi . Now Yi “ V pIi qzV pJi q, which is an open
set of Ȳi “ V pIi q. Now Yi can be covered with a finite union of open sets pȲi qgj , for some gj regular functions
(that is, restriction of polynomials) on Ȳi . Suppose that ϕi pxq P pȲi qgj . Hence f ˝ ϕi : pȲi qgj Ď Yi - k is
a regular function by definition. Hence f ˝ ϕ, over pȲi qgj is given by the restriction h{gjl for some polynomial
h P krx1 , . . . , xn s. Let now Vx :“ ϕ´1
i ppȲi qgj q. Over Vx , the function f can be written as

dh ´ldg
j
hpx0 {xi , . . . , xi´1 {xi , xi`1 {xi , . . . , xn {xi q x hpx0 , . . . , xi´1 , xi`1 , . . . , xn q
f px0 , . . . , xn q “ l
“ i l ,
gj px0 {xi , . . . , xi´1 {xi , xi`1 {xi , . . . , xn {xi q gj px0 , . . . , xi´1 , xi`1 , . . . , xn q

if dh “ deg h ą ldgj “ l deg gj . Now gj px0 , . . . , xi´1 , xi`1 , . . . , xn q ‰ 0 over Vx , by definition. Hence f can
be written locally as a quotient of two homogeneous polynomials of the same degree.
ðù. Exercise, in the same lines.

Proposition 2.2.12. Let X be a quasi-projective variety in Pnk . Let CX its affine cone in k n`1 . Let
π : CX zt0u - X the quotient projection (that is the restriction of k n`1 zt0u - Pn ). Let U an open
k
subset of X and CU the affine cone over U , which is naturally an open set of CX . Then
˚ ˚
OX pU q » OCX zt0u pCU zt0uqk » OCX zt0u pπ ´1 pU qqk .

In other words, regular functions on the open set U can be identified with regular functions on CX zt0u which
are k ˚ -invariant.

Exercise 45. Prove that the quotient map π : k n`1 zt0u - Pn is a morphism.
k

2.2.2 Morphisms.
Proposition 2.2.13. Let X a quasi-projective variety, X Ď Pnk , and let f : X - Am a map. Then f is
k
a morphism if and only if for every x P X, there is an open neighbourhood Vx of x in X and homogeneous
polynomials F1 , G1 , . . . , Fm , Gm , with Gj ‰ 0 over Vx for all j, and with deg Fi “ deg Gi such that, over Vx
f is given by
F1 px0 , . . . , xn q Fm px0 , . . . , xn q
f px0 , . . . , xn q “ p ,..., q.
G1 px0 , . . . , xn q Gm px0 , . . . , xn q
Proof. ùñ . The components fi “ xi ˝ f , i “ 1, . . . , m, of the map f are regular functions over the
quasi-projective variety X. By the previous proposition, there are open neighbourhood Vi,x of x in X and
homogeneous polynomials Fi , Gi of the same degree, with Gi ‰ 0 over Vi,x , such that fi “ Fi {Gi over Vi,x .
Set now Vx :“ Xm
i“1 Vi,x , then f over Vx is of the form given by the statement.

39
 ðù. Suppose that the components of f are given locally by rational functions as in the statement. Let
x P Vx an open set X as in the statement such that, over Vx the map f has the representation
F1 px0 , . . . , xn q Fm px0 , . . . , xn q
f px0 , . . . , xn q “ p ,..., q.
G1 px0 , . . . , xn q Gm px0 , . . . , xn q
By the previous proposition, the components of this map are regular functions on the quasi-projective
ˇ
variety Vx . Hence the restriction f ˇVx - Am
k is a morphism. But then the map f : X
- Am is locally
k
a morphism and hence it it a morphism by proposition ?? . referenza

Proposition 2.2.14. Let X be a quasi-projective variety in Pnk . A map f : X - Pm is a morphism if

k
and only if for each x P X there exists an open neighbourhood Vx of x in X and homogeneous polynomials
of the same degree F0 , . . . , Fm in krx0 , . . . , xn s, not all vanishing at the same time over Vx , such that, for all
x P Vx the morphism f is given by
f pxq “ rF0 pxq, . . . , Fm pxqs .
If Vy is such an open neighbourhood of y and G0 , . . . , Gm are polynomials defining f locally over Vy and
Vy X Vx ‰ H, then we have that

Fi Gj “ Fj Gi over Vx X Vy

for all i, j P t0, . . . , mu.

Proof. ùñ . Let’s call Ui the fundamental open sets of Pnk , and with Vj the fundamental open sets of Pm
k .
m m m
Let x P X and let f pxq P P be in the fundamental open set Vi “ P zVpxi q. Let ψi : Vi
k
- A the
k k
affine chart, given by rx0 , . . . , xm s - px0 {xi , . . . , xi´1 {xi , xi`1 {xi , . . . , xm {xi q. Consider the restriction
ˇ ´1
f f ´1 pV q : f pVi q
ˇ - Vi and the composition ψi ˝ f : f ´1 pVi q - Am k . Now x P f
´1
pVi q, and f ´1 pVi q
i

is a quasi-projective variety. By the preceding proposition, there exists an open neighbourhood Vx of x in

X, Vx Ď f ´1 pVi q and homogeneous polynomials F1 , G1 , . . . , Fm , Gm , with Gj ‰ 0 over Vx for all j, and with
deg Fi “ deg Gi such that, over Vx the morphism ψi ˝ f is given by
F1 px0 , . . . , xn q Fm px0 , . . . , xn q
pψi ˝ f qpx0 , . . . , xn q “ p ,..., q
G1 px0 , . . . , xn q Gm px0 , . . . , xn q
Let now G the common denominator G “ lcmpG1 , . . . , Gm q and let Hi the polynomial Hi “ G{Gi . Multi-
plying each Fi by Hi we can suppose that the map is given by
F1 px0 , . . . , xn q Fm px0 , . . . , xn q
pψi ˝ f qpx0 , . . . , xn q “ p ,..., q
Gpx0 , . . . , xn q Gpx0 , . . . , xn q
with the Fi altered as explained. Note that now Fi and G are all homogeneous of the same degree. But,
ˇ
seeing Am m
k inside Pk this means that the map f Vx : Vx
ˇ - Pn is given by
k

F1 px0 , . . . , xn q Fi´1 px0 , . . . , xn q Fi`1 px0 , . . . , xn q Fm px0 , . . . , xn q

f px0 , . . . , xn q “ r , , 1, ..., s
Gpx0 , . . . , xn q Gpx0 , . . . , xn q Gpx0 , . . . , xn q Gpx0 , . . . , xn q
that is

f px0 , . . . , xn q “ rF1 px0 , . . . , xn q, . . . , Fi´1 px0 , . . . , xn q, Gpx0 , . . . , xn q, Fi`1 px0 , . . . , xn q, . . . , Fn px0 , . . . , xn qs

and this is the form of the statement (the Fi and G do not vanish simultaneously over Vx ).

Definition 2.2.15. Let X be a projective variety, X Ď Pnk , defined by a homogeneous (reduced) ideal
I Ď krx0 , . . . , xn s. The ring SpXq :“ krx0 , . . . , xn s{I is called the homogeneous coordinate ring of X.

40
2.2.3 Examples
Example 2.2.16 (The Veronese Map). Consider Pm k with homogeneous coordinates x0 , . . . , xm . The
α0
space of all monomials x “ x0 ¨ ¨ ¨ xm in x0 , . . . , xm of degree d has dimension N ` 1 “ m`d
α αm
` ˘
d . The
Veronese map 11 of degree d on Pnk is the map

νd : P m
k
- PN
k

given by rx0 , . . . , xm s - r. . . , xα , . . . s, where α P Nk and |α| “ d (and is ordered lexicographically). For

example, the Veronese map
ν2 : P2k - P5k

is given by
rx0 , x1 , x2 s - rx20 , x0 x1 , x0 x2 , x21 , x1 x2 , x22 s

If we denote with w2,0,0 , w1,1,0 , w1,0,1 , w0,2,0 , w0,1,1 , w0,0,2 the homogeneous coordinates on P5k , the image of
ν2 is the Veronese surface in P5k , given by 6 quadric equations

wI wJ “ wK wL for I, J, K, L P N3 | |I| “ |J| “ |K| “ |L| “ 2, I ` J “ K ` L

In general the image Vn,d of the Veronese map νd over Pnk is called the Veronese variety. If we fix coordinates
wI on PN
k the equations for Vn,d are quadric equations given by

wI wJ “ wK wL for I, J, K, L P Nn`1 | |I| “ |J| “ |K| “ |L| “ d, I ` J “ K ` L

In general we also call Veronese map the composition of νd with an automorphism of PN . Let’s now prove
that the Veronese map νd is an isomorphism of Pnk with Vn,d .

Proposition 2.2.17. The Veronese map νd : Pnk - PN is an isomorphism onto its image Vn,d .
k

Proof. It is pretty clear that the image of νd is inside Vn,d . Let’s find an inverse g : Vn,d - Pn . Consider
k
a multi-index J P Nn of order |J| “ d ´ 1, say J “ pj0 , . . . , jn q, with j0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` jn “ d ´ 1. Consider Ji the
multi-index of order d given by Ji “ pj0 , . . . , ji ` 1, . . . , jn q. Consider the projection

π : Vn,d - Pnk

given by
πpr. . . , wI , . . . sq “ rwJ0 , . . . , wJn s .

The map π does not depend on the choice of J. Indeed, if L is another multi-index of order d ´ 1, and
L0 , . . . , Ln are the multi-index built as done for J0 , . . . , Jn , we have that, over Vn,d :

wJi wLj “ wLi wJj

since Ji ` Lj “ Jj ` Li , and hence rwJ0 , . . . , wJn s “ rwL0 , . . . , wLn s. It is now immediate to prove that
π : Vn,d - Pnk is a regular map. Taking as J0 “ pd, 0, . . . , 0q, we see that

π ˝ νd rx0 , . . . , xn s “ rxd0 , xd´1

0 x1 , xd´1
0 x2 , . . . , xd´1
0 xn s “ rx0 , . . . , xn s
11 Named after Giuseppe Veronese, 1854 - 1917

41
because all monomials xd´1
0 xj and xd0 are different from zero. Hence π ˝ νd “ idPnk . On the other hand, if
I “ ti1 , . . . , in u
n
ź
νd ˝πr. . . , wI , . . . s “ νd rwJ0 , wJ1 , . . . , wJj , . . . , wJn s “ r. . . , wJiii , . . . s “ rwJd0 , wJd´1
0
wJ1 , wJd´1
0
wJ2 , . . . , wJd1 , . . . , s
i“0
śn
One is reduced to prove that, for all I, i“0 wJiii “ wJd´1
0
wI . But, since we have equations wI wJ “ wK wL
whenever I ` J “ K ` L, this amounts to prove that, as multi-indexes,

i0 J0 ` i1 J1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` in Jn “ pd ´ 1qJ0 ` I .

The left hand is now pdi0 ` pd ´ 1qpi1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` in q, i1 , . . . , in q, while the right hand is pdpd ´ 1q, 0, . . . , 0q `
pi0 , i1 , . . . , in q . It is now easy to prove that they coincide.

Example 2.2.18 (Rational normal curves). Consider the Veronese map νd : P1k - Pd . Its image is a
k
curve C, defined by quadric equations
Zi Zj ´ Zi´1 Zj`1

if on Pdk we put homogeneous coordinates rZ0 , . . . , Zd s. Not all the equations are independent, though. The
curve C is called the rational normal curve on degree d on Pdk . More generally, we will call rational normal
curve any image of ψ ˝ νd , where ψ is a projectivity of Pdk . Alternatively, we can say that a rational normal
curve is the image of a map
P1 - Pdk

given by rx0 , x1 s - rA0 px0 , x1 q, . . . , Ad px0 , x1 qs where Ai px0 , x1 q is a basis of homogeneous polynomi-
als of degree d in the variables x0 , x1 . For example, consider the map ν3 : P1k - P3 given by
k
rx0 , x1 s - rx0 , x0 x1 , x0 x1 , x1 s. The image of ν1 is given by quadric equations Q1 :“ Z0 Z2 ´ Z12 “ 0,
3 2 2 3

Q2 :“ Z0 Z3 ´ Z1 Z2 “ 0, Q3 :“ Z1 Z3 ´ Z22 “ 0 and it is called the twisted cubic curve in P3k .

Exercise 46. Consider the Veronese map νd : Pnk - PN . Prove that the image νd pV pF qq, of any
k
hypersurface V pF q of degree d in Pnk , is the intersection of Vn,d with an hyperplane of PN
k . (we say that it
is a hyperplane section of Vn,d ).

Exercise 47. Consider the Veronese map νd : Pnk - PN . Prove that the image νd pXq of any projective
k
variety X Ď Pnk is the intersection of the Veronese variety with a linear subspace of PN
k . Deduce that
any projective variety is isomorphic to a (schematic) intersection of quadrics. (Hint: prove first that any
homogeneous ideal I “ pl1 , . . . , lr q, where where li is of degree 1, can be written can be written as I “
pq1 , . . . , qr q, where qi is of degree 2. (Not quite: but one can make the extensions pq1 , . . . , qr qe the same as
I e in each ring krx0 , . . . , xn sxi This means that the ideals can differ only over the origin in k n`1 . ). ).

Exercise 48. Prove rigorously that the twisted cubic curve is given by Q1 X Q2 X Q3 and it can’t be given
by the intersection of two of them (prove that the intersection of two distinct quadrics Qi and Qj is given by
the union of a line and the curve C. Prove that if you take 4 distinct points on C, then the corresponding
vectors in k 4 are independent. Deduce that if you take three distinct point on C they are never collinear.

Exercise 49. Prove that any distinct d ` 1 points on a rational normal curve of degree d in Pdk are inde-
pendent. (Hint: use Van der Monde determinant).

42
Example 2.2.19 (Projections). Let L be a d-dimensional linear subspace in Pn and let M be a n ´ d ´ 1
linear subspace such that L X M “ H. Prove that the projection πL : Pn zL - M » Pn´d´1 of center L is
ˇ
a morphism. Deduce that, for any quasi-projective variety X Ď Pn such that X X L “ H, πL ˇX : X - M
is a morphism.

Exercise 50. In the hypothesis of the preceding example, suppose that E is a linear subvariety of Pn such
that E X L “ H and such that pL _ Eq X X “ H. Prove that πL pEq is a linear subvariety of M such that
πL pXq X πL pEq “ H. What is the dimension of πL pEq?

Exercise 51. In the same hypothesis of the example above, if L “ L1 _ L2 , where Li are linear subvarieties
of L, such that L1 X L2 “ H, then πL “ πL1 ˝ πL2 . The same when restricted to a subvareity X Ď Pn , such
that X X L “ H.

Example 2.2.20. More generally, consider a projective subvariety Y of Pn given by an homogeneous ideal
I “ pF0 , . . . , Fl q, where Fi are homogeneous polynomials of the same degree. Suppose that X is an quasi-
projective subvariety X Ď Pn such that X X Y “ H. Prove that the map f : Pn zY - Pl given by
ˇ
rxs - rF0 pxq, . . . , Fl pxqs is a morphism and its restriction f ˇX : X - Pl is a morphism.

2.2.4 Homogeneization and Dehomogeneization

Proposition 2.2.21. Consider the affine subspace Ank , with coordinates px1 , . . . , xn q and embed it in the
projective space Pnk , with homogeneous coordinates rx0 , . . . , xn s, via the morphism (open immersion):
Ank Ă - Pnk
px1 , . . . , xn q - r1, x1 , . . . , xn s .
Consider an affine algebraic variety X in Ank given by the radical ideal IX “ pg1 , . . . , gh q, gi P krx1 , . . . , xn s.
Then the Zariski closure X of X in Pnk is the projecive variety given by the radical ideal IX “ pG1 , . . . , Gh q,
where the homogeneous polynomial Gi P krx0 , . . . , xn s is obtained by gi by homogeneization: that is

Gi px0 , . . . , xn q “ xdeg
0
gi
gi px1 {x0 , . . . , xn {x0 q .

Moreover, if gi is decomposed as
di
ÿ
gi “ gi,j
j“0

in homogeneous components, where di “ deg gi , then the variety X X H8 is defined by the (possibly nonrad-
ical) ideal px0 , g1,d1 , . . . , gh,dh q and, as a projective subvariety of H8 » Pn´1
k , by the homogeneous (possbly
nonreduced) ideal pg1,d1 , . . . , gh,dh q.
r Ď Pn defined by homogeneous polynomials G1 , . . . , Gr P
Proposition 2.2.22. Consider a projective variety X k
krx0 , . . . , xn s. Consider the affine space Ank with coordinates px1 , . . . , xn q embedded in Pnk via the open im-
mersion
j : Ank Ă - Pnk
px1 , . . . , xn q - r1, x1 , . . . , xn s .
Then X :“ j ´1 pXq
r is the affine variety defined by the ideal IX “ pg1 , . . . , gr q, where

gi px1 , . . . , xn q :“ Gi p1, x1 , . . . , xn q .
r the Zariski closure of X in Pn is given by X “ X.
Moreover, if H8 is not an irreducible component of X, r
k

43
2.3 Products
Let X be an affine variety X “ V pIq, with I an ideal I Ď krx0 , . . . , xn s. Consider the inclusion

i : krx1 , . . . , xn s Ă - krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s (2.2)

and the extension ideal I e in krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s, generated by ipIq in krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s. We

have that
krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s krx1 , . . . , xn s
e
» ry1 , . . . , ym s “ krXsry1 , . . . , ym s . (2.3)
I I
Remark 2.3.1. The variety X e :“ V pI e q is a cylinder in An`m k over the variety X in Ank . In other words,
n`m
if x P X if and only if all the subspace txu ˆ Am e
k is in X Ď Ak . This is the geometric meaning of the
isomorphism (2.3). The map (2.2) induces a map

krXs Ă - krXsry1 , . . . , ym s

which is, by theorem ??, associated to the restriction

ˇ
π ˇX e : X e - X
ˇ
of the projection π : An`m
k
- An . The projection π ˇ e : X e
k X
- X is the projection of the cylinder X e
onto its base X.
One can also, more generally see the extension X e as the closed subset of An`m
k given by the pre-image
´1 n`m m
π pXq of X via the projection π : A - A .
k k

Definition 2.3.2. Let X be an affine variety X “ V pIq, with I an ideal I Ď krx0 , . . . , xn s. Let Y “ V pJq be
an affine variety in kry1 , . . . , ym s. Let I e and J e the extensions of the ideals I, J in krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s.
The product X ˆ Y of the affine varieties X and Y is by definition the affine variety X e X Y e “ V pI e ` J e q
in An`m
k defined by the ideal I e ` J e in krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s. The set V pI e ` J e q is exactly X ˆ Y Ď
Ank ˆ Am
k »
bij
An`m
k .

Remark 2.3.3. The product is equipped with two surjective projection morphisms πX : X ˆ Y - X,
πY : X ˆ Y - Y.

Remark 2.3.4. We continue with the notations of the previous remark. Fix a point a P Am k . Then the
e
inclusion ia : X - X ˆ tau is clearly a morphism. Denote with ja : X - X the morphism i ˝ ia , where
e ˚ e
i : X ˆ tau Ă - X . The pull-back ja : krX s - krXs is well defined and a morphism of k-algebras. It
sends the class of xi in the class of xi and the class of yi in ai P k. Hence it is surjective.
Remark 2.3.5. The Zariski topology of the product X ˆ Y is definitely finer than the product topology.
n`m
Indeed, as topological spaces Ank ˆ Am
k “ Ak , but the Zariski topology on An`m
k is finer than the product
topology in Ank ˆ Am
k .

Theorem 2.3.6. Let X and Y be affine varieties (in Ank , Am

k , respectively). Then

krX ˆ Y s » krXs bk krY s .

Proof. Let X “ V pIq Ď Ank , Y “ V pJq Ď Am

k , where we suppose that I and J are reduced ideals in
krx1 , . . . , xn s and kry1 , . . . , yn s, respectively. Then krXs “ krx1 , . . . , xn s{I, krY s » kry1 , . . . , ym s{J. Con-
sider the surjective k-bilinear application

krx1 , . . . , xn s ˆ kry1 , . . . , ym s - krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s

44
sending pP pxq, Qpyqq - P pxqQpyq. Compose it with the projection krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s - krX ˆ
Y s. Indicate the composition with β. It is clear that I e ` J e is in the kernel of β. Hence β induces a bilinear
application β̂ : krXs ˆ krY s - krX ˆ Y s. By the universal property of the tensor product it factors
through a k-linear map γ : krXs b krY s - krX ˆ Y s. The map is easily proven to be surjective. Indeed,
if h P krX ˆ Y s, then h is the restriction of a polynomial h “ P px1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym q in n ` m variables. If
ÿ
P “ cα,β xα y β ,
n
αPNm
βPN
ˇ ˇ
then h is the image of α,β cα,β xα ˇX b y β ˇY in krXs b krY s. We then just have to prove that γ is injective;
ř

but this is equivalent to the fact that if fi , i P I is a finite set of independent vectors in krXs and gj , j P J
is a finite set of independent vectors in krY s, then fi gj , pi, jq P I ˆ J is a set of independent vectors in
ř
krX ˆ Y s. Consider a linear combination i,j cij fi gj “ 0 which is zero in krX ˆ Y s. Take a point a P Y and
consider the map ja˚ : krX ˆ Y s - krXs. We have
ÿ ÿ
0 “ ja˚ p cij fi gj q “ cij fi gj paq
i,j i,j

in the ring krXs. But, since fi are independent in krXs, this means that, for any i the sum
ÿ
cij gj paq “ 0
j
ř
is zero in k. Since a is arbitrary in Y , this means that the function j cij gj is zero in krY s. Hence cij “ 0
for all i, j, since gj is a linearly independent set of krY s.

Remark 2.3.7. The previous theorem shows that the tensor product — over k — of two finitely generated
reduced k-algebras is a finitely generated reduced k-algebra.

Exercise 52. Prove that the product X ˆ Y of two affine varieties satisfies the following universal property.
If Z is an affine (reduced) algebraic variety, then, given two morphisms g : Z - X, h : Z - Y , there
exists a unique morphism f : Z - X ˆ Y such that πX ˝ f “ g, πY ˝ f “ h. In other words, for any
reduced affine variety Z, we have a bijection

MorpZ, X ˆ Y q - MorpZ, Xq ˆ MorpZ, Y q ,

given by f - pπX ˝ f, πY ˝ f q.

Remark 2.3.8. Let X and Y quasi-affine varieties, X “ V pIqzV pI 1 q Ď Ank , Y “ V pJqzV pJ 1 q Ď Am

k . The set
X ˆ Y has naturally the structure of quasi-affine variety inside An`m
k , since

X ˆ Y “ pV pIq ˆ V pJqqzrpV pI 1 q ˆ V pJqq Y pV pIqzV pJ 1 qqs .

The projections πX , πY are morphisms.

Exercise 53. Let X, Y quasi-affine varieties. Let f : X - k a regular function. Then the function f ˝ πX
is regular over X ˆ Y .

Exercise 54. Let X, X 1 , Y , Y 1 quasi-affine varieties and let ϕ : X - X 1 , ψ : Y - Y 1 isomorphisms.

Then ϕ ˆ ψ : X ˆ Y - X 1 ˆ Y 1 is an isomorphism of quasi-affine varieties.

45
Proposition 2.3.9. Let X and Y be reduced algebraic varieties. There exist a product X ˆ Y , in the sense
that there exists a univerasal reduced algebraic variety X ˆ Y , unique up to isomorphism, equipped with
projections πX : X ˆ Y - X, πY : X ˆ Y - Y , with the following universal property: for any other
reduced variety Z and for any morphims f : Z - X, g : Z - X, there exists a unique morphism
ϕ:Z - X ˆ Y such that πx ˝ ϕ “ f , πY ˝ ϕ “ g.

Proof. Let U :“ pUi qiPI an affine atlas for X, with charts ϕi : Ui - U 1 and V :“ pVj qjPJ an affine
i
atlas for Y , with charts ψj : Vj - V 1 . Let Uij “ Ui X Uj and U 1 “ ϕi pUi X Uj q, Vlk “ Vl X Vk and
j ij
Vlk1 “ ψl ˝ ϕ´1
k pVlk q.
š
It is easy to see that the set X ˆ Y is in bijection with il Ui1 ˆ Vl1 { „, where „ is the relation given
by px, yq „ px1 , y 1 q if there exists i, j P I, l, k P J such that x P Uji
1 1 1
, x P Uij , and x1 “ ϕj ˝ ϕ´1
i pxq and
y P Vlk1 , y 1 P Vkl and y 1 “ ψk ˝ ψl´1 pyq. It is easy to see that „ is well defined and an equivalence relation.
š
But now, by the proof of proposition 8 the set ij Ui1 ˆ Vl1 { „ inherits the structure of algebraic variety (it
is the glueing of all U 1 ˆ V 1 via the isomorphisms ϕi ˝ ψk : U 1 ˆ V 1
i l ji
- U 1 ˆ V 1 ). Hence X ˆ Y has the
lk ij kl
structure of algebraic variety with affine charts Ui1 ˆ Vk1 .
š
With the same notations of exercises 33 and 34 It is clear that we have morphisms X ˆY » il Ui1 ˆVl1 { „
π1 š 1 š 1 1 π2 š 1 š 1 1
š 1
i Ui { „IU » X and X ˆY » il Ui ˆVl { „ i Vi { „IV » Y induced by il Ui ˆVl i Ui
- - -
š 1 1
š 1
and il Ui ˆ Vl -
l Vl .
We just need to prove the universal property. Let Z be an algebraic variety and let f : Z - X,
g:Z - Y morphisms. Let Wi,j open sets of Z, covering Z, such that f pWi,j q Ď Ui , gpWi,j q Ď Vj (take
Wij “ f ´1 pUi q X g ´1 pVj q: this is possible because affine open subsets form a basis for the Zariski topology
(see proposition 2.1.43). The opens sets Wi,j form an open cover W of Z. Then we can build morphisms
ϕi ˆψj
Wij - Ui ˆ Vj - Uj1 ˆ Vj1 .

These local morphisms, by exercise 34 glue to a global morphism

ž ž
Z» Wij { „IW - Ui1 ˆ Vj1 { „» X ˆ Y .
ij i,j

Unicity of the morphism. Let h : Z - X ˆ Y another morphism such that πX ˝ h “ f , πY ˝ h “ g.

ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
But hence πX ˝ hˇWij coincides with f ˇWij and πY ˝ hˇWij “ g ˇWij and hence h can be reconstructed from
ˇ ˇ
f ˇW and g ˇW and hence has to coincide with the morphism built above.
ij ij

Exercise 55. Prove that if f : X - X 1 and g : Y - Y 1 are morphism, then there the map f ˆ g :
X ˆY - X 1 ˆ Y 1 is a morphism.

Exercise 56. Let X, Y , W algebraic varieties, with morphisms f : W - X, W - Y . If h :

W - X ˆ Y is a map such that πY ˝ h “ f , πY ˝ h “ g, then h is a morphism.

Exercise 57. Let X, Y , W algebraic varieties. A map h : W - X ˆ Y is a morphism if and only if

πX ˝ h and πY ˝ h are morphisms.

2.3.1 The Properness Theorem

Definition 2.3.10. A morphism f : X - Y of algebraic varieties is closed if it sends closed subsets to
closed subsets, that is, if C Ď X is a closed subset of X, then f pCq is a closed subset of Y .

46
Example 2.3.11. A closed immersion is closed.

Definition 2.3.12. A morphism f : X1 - X2 between algebraic varieties is universally closed if, for any
variety Y , the morphism f ˆ idY : X1 ˆ Y - X2 ˆ Y is closed.

Definition 2.3.13. An algebraic variety X is proper if the constant morphism X - tptu is universally
closed.

Theorem 2.3.14 (Properness Theorem). Projective varieties are proper. In other words, if X is a projective
variety and Y any variety, then the second projection πY : X ˆ Y - Y is closed.

Proof. Step 1. Case X “ Pnk , Y “ Apk . We have to prove that the second projection π : Pnk ˆ Apk - Apk is
closed. Consider the projection p : k n`1 zt0u - Pnk . Consider a closed subset F Ď Pnk ˆ Apk and its inverse
image G “ pp ˆ idApk q´1 qpF q inside pk n`1 zt0uq ˆ Apk . The closed subset G has to be clearly k ˚ -invariant, for
the action of k ˚ on the factor k n`1 zt0u. Hence, it is the zero locus of polynomials H1 px, yq, . . . , Hr px, yq,
where Hi is homogeneous in the variable x P k n`1 of degree di . Fix y P Apk and denote with Hi,y the
polynomial of degree di over k n`1 given by x - Hi px, yq.
Let’s now prove that Apk zπpF q is open. Indeed, if y0 R πpF q, then VpH1,y0 , . . . , Hr,y0 q “ H, which implies,
by the projective Nullstellensatz, that

ms0 Ď xH1,y0 , . . . , Hr,y0 y (2.4)

for some natural s ą 0. Denote with Sm :“ krx0 , . . . , xn sm the polynomials over k n`1 of degree m and
consider the k-linear map of finite dimensional vector spaces:

σy : ‘ri“1 Ss´di - Ss
řr
sending pQ1 , . . . , Qr q -
i“1 Qi Hi,y , for y fixed in Apk . The condition (2.4) is actually equivalent to the
fact that σy0 is surjective. But this implies that σy is surjective for y in a Zariski neighbourhood of y0 : hence
there is a neighbourhood V of y0 in the Zariski topology such that V Ď Apk zπpF q. Hence Apk zπpF q is open.
Step 2. Case X “ Pnk , and Y be an affine variety, Y Ď Apk . Consider a closed subset F Ď X ˆ Y . The
map ι : Y Ă - Ap is a closed immersion, and hence closed. Hence πpF q is closed in Y if and only if pι ˝ pqpF q
k
is closed in Apk . But pι ˝ pqpF q is exactly the image of the composition
idX ˆι π
X ˆY Ă - X ˆ Ap - Ap .
k k

But the first is a closed immersion, hence closed, and the second is closed by Step 1. Hence pι ˝ pqpF q is
closed and hence πpF q is closed in Y .
Step 3. Case X “ Pnk , Y an arbitrary algebraic variety. Let tUi uti“1 an affine atlas for Y . Let F be a
closed subset of X ˆ Y . In order to prove that πpF q is closed in Y , we just have to prove that πpF q X Ui
is closed in Ui for all i “ 1, . . . , t. But πpF q X Ui is exactly the image of F X Ui for of the restriction map
ˇ
π ˇXˆUi : X ˆ Ui - Ui . By the first step this map is closed, since Ui is isomorphic to an affine space.
Step 4. Case X arbitrary projective and Y arbitrary. Suppose that X admits a closed immersion
j : X - Pnk , for some n P N˚ . We just have to note that the projection π : X ˆ Y - Y factors through

X ˆY Ă - Pnk ˆ Y - Y .

The first is a closed immersion, hence closed; the second is closed by Step 3.

47
Theorem 2.3.15. Let X be a projective variety. Then

dimk OX pXq “ 7tconnected components of Xu .

In particular, if X is projective and connected, then OX pXq » k.

Proof. Consider a projective variety X and let f : X - k a regular function: it is a morphism. We can
embed k into P1k , by considering it as a A1k . The composition f

X - k Ă - P1k

factors through its graph

X Ă - X ˆ P1k - P1k

where the first is the map sending x - px, f pxqq — a closed immersion — and the second is the projection.
Hence the map
f :X - P1k

is closed by the Properness Theorem. But the image can’t be the whole P1k , because 8 is not in the image,
hence it is a finite set of points in k. Hence the original f : X - k is locally constant and all the other
statement follow.

2.3.2 The Segre embedding

Definition 2.3.16. Consider two finite dimensional vector spaces V and W over k. The map

V zt0u ˆ W zt0u - V b W zt0u

is pk ˚ ˆ k ˚ , k ˚ q-equivariant and hence descends to an injective map

σ : PpV q ˆ PpW q - PpV b W q

called the Segre map 12 .

Definition 2.3.17. A tensor u P V b W is of rank 1 if the induced linear map V ˚ - W , in the

˚
identification V b W » Homk pV , W q, is of rank 1.

Remark 2.3.18. If f : V - W is a linear map and ei is a basis of V , the corresponding tensor in V ˚ b W

ř ˚
is i ei b f pei q. Each linear map f can be expressed in this way. On the other hand, any tensor in V ˚ b W
ř
can be written as i e˚i b wi . The associated linear map then sends ei - f pei q “ wi .
Remark 2.3.19. A tensor in V b W is of rank 1 if and only if it is of the form v b w, for v P V and w P W .
Indeed if it is of this form, the linear map has image the vector space xwy. On the other hand, writing a
ř ř
tensor u as u “ i ei bwi , it is clear that rk u “ dimxw1 , . . . , wn y. Hence u can be written as u “ i λi ei bw,
for a fixed w, and hence as u “ v b w.

Proposition 2.3.20. Let V and W vector spaces over the field k of dimension n and m, respectively. The
set of tensors of rank 1 in V bW zt0u is an affine cone (minus the origin), whose associates projective variety
in PpV b W q is called the Segre variety denoted with ΣV,W , or, more simply, Σn,m .
12 Named from Corrado Segre, 1863 - 1924. The Segre map, or a slight generalization of it, is used in quantum mechanics to
explain entangled states, in quantum information theory and in algebraic statistics.

48
Proof. Tensors of rank 1 correspond to nonzero linear maps V ˚ - W of rank 1, and, once fixed basis on
V and W , and hence coordinates in V b W , this can be expressed by the vanishing of all minors of order
2 of the corresponding nonzero matrix Since the minors are polynomials in the entries, the equations are
equations of an algebraic varieties in the affine space V b W . It is trivial to prove that, up to adding the
origin, this closed is a cone with vertex containing the origin in V b W . Hence its projectivization (quotient
by k ˚ ) is a projective variety.

Proposition 2.3.21. The Segre map is a closed embedding of PpV q ˆ PpW q onto the Segre variety ΣV,W .

Proof. The Segre map is clearly injective and its image coincides with ΣV,W . Indeed, it is clear that the
image consists of classes of tensors of rank 1; on the other hand, if rv b ws is a class of a tensor of rank 1, it
surely comes from an element prvs, rwsq in PpV q ˆ PpW q.
Let’s now prove that the Segre map is a morphism. Take a basis ei , i “ 1, . . . , n of V and a basis fj ,
nm`n`m
j “ 1, . . . , m in W . In the identifications PpV q » Pnk , PpW q » Pm
k and PpV b W q » Pk given by the
basis ei b fj , the Segre map is given by

prx0 , . . . , xn s, ry0 , . . . , ym sq - rx0 y0 , x0 y1 , . . . , xn ym s

which is better written in matrix form as

» fi
x0 y0 x1 y0 ¨¨¨ xn y0
— ffi
— x0 y1 x1 y1 ¨¨¨ xn y1 ffi
prx0 , . . . , xn s, ry0 , . . . , ym sq - — ffi
— . .. .. ..
— ..
ffi
– . . . ffi
fl
x0 ym x1 ym ... xn ym

Note that the matrix on the right is exactly the matrix associated to the linear map V ˚ - W associated
to p i xi ei q b j yj fj . The projective space Pknm`n`m is covered by fundamental affine open sets Wij
ř ř

defined by wij ‰ 0 (if wij are the homogeneous coordinates in Pnm`n`m

k . It is sufficient to prove that
ˇ ´1
σ σ´1 pW q : σ pWij q
ˇ - Wij is a morphism, for any i, j. Now the open set σ ´1 pWij q is exactly given by
ij

the condition xi ‰ 0 and yj ‰ 0, that is, σ ´1 pWij q “ Ui ˆ Vj if Ui are the fundamental the affine open sets
n`m
in Pnk and Vj are the fundamental affine open sets in Pm n m
k . Identifying Ui ˆ Vj with Ak ˆ Ak “ Ak , the
ˇ n m
Segre map σ Ui ˆVj : Ak ˆ Ak
ˇ - Wij is given by
» fi
X1 Y1 X2 Y1 ¨¨¨ Xi Y1 Y1 Xi`1 Y1 ¨¨¨ Xn Y2
— ffi
— X1 Y2 X2 Y2 ¨¨¨ Xi Y2 Y2 Xi`1 Y2 ... Xn Y2 ffi
— ffi
— .. .. .. .. ffi
—
— . . . . ffi
ffi
— ffi
- — X1 Yj X2 Yj ... Xi Yj Yj Xi`1 Yj ¨¨¨ Xn Yj
— ffi
pX1 , X2 , . . . , Xn qˆpY1 , . . . , Ym q ffi .
—
— X1 X2 ... Xi 1 Xi`1 ¨¨¨ Xn ffi
ffi
— ffi
— X1 Yj`1 X2 Yj`1 ... Xi Yj`1 Yj`1 Xi`1 Yj`1 ¨¨¨ Xn Yj`1 ffi
— ffi
— .. ffi
—
– . ffi
fl
X1 Ym X2 Ym ... Xi Ym Ym Xi`1 Ym ... Xn Ym

It is immediate to see that the components (the affine components are the entries in degree different from
i ` 1, j ` 1) are regular functions and hence the map is a morphism.

49
 Let’s now define the inverse morphism τ : Σn,m - Pnk ˆ Pmk . In order to do this, we just have to define
n m
two morphisms u : Σn,m - Pk and v : Σn,m - Pk and then verify that

u ˆ v ˝ σ “ idPn ˆPm
σ ˝ u ˆ v “ idΣn,m

The variety Σn,m consists of classes rAs of matrices n ˆ m of rank 1, in the identification

V b W » HompV ˚ , W q » Hompk n , k m q » Mnˆm .

Let wij are homogeneous coordinates in Pnm`n`m´1

k . Let’s now give the morphism u : Σn,m - Pn . Over
k
the (affine) open set Wij X Σn,m we define it as

rwij s - rwi0 , . . . , win s

This defines globally the morphism u, since, over Wij X Wlm X Σn,m we have

wih wlk “ wik wli

since, over Σn,m the rows pwi0 , . . . , win q and pwl0 , . . . , wln q are proportional, since the matrix pwij qij has
rank 1. Analogously, we define the morphism v : Σn,m - Pn over Wij X Σn,m by
k

rwij s - rw0j , . . . , wmj s .

As before, one can prove that it defines globally a morphism Σn,m - Pn . Hence we have a morphism
k
u ˆ v : Σn,m - Pnk ˆ Pm k . It is now easy to prove that u ˆ v is inverse to σ.

Corollary 2.3.22. The product of a finite number of projective varieties is a projective variety.

Proof. Let X Ď Pnk and Y Ď Pmk be projective varieties. The immersions i : X

Ă - Pn and j : Y Ă - Pm
k k
n m
induce a closed embedding (isomorphism onto the image) X ˆ Y Ă - Pk ˆ Pk , hence X ˆ Y can be
seen a subvariety of the product Pnk ˆ Pm
k . By composing with the Segre embedding σ, the morphism
σ ˝piˆjq : X ˆY Ă - Σn,m exibits X ˆY as isomorphic to a subvariety of Σn,m and hence of Pnm`n`m . k

Corollary 2.3.23. The nonsingular quadric Q in P3k is isomorphic to P1k ˆ P1k .

Exercise 58. Consider the projection u : Σn,m - Pn . Prove that its fibers are linear subspaces of
Pnm`n`m´1 of dimension m. Deduce, as a corollary, that the quadric surface Q in P3 is a ruled surface (that
is, projects surjectively onto P1k (in general, a smooth curve) and all the fibers are lines.

Exercise 59. Let P P Pm n

k . Prove that σpPk ˆ tP uq is a linear subspace of dimension n in P
nm`n`m´1
.

Exercise 60. Consider the Segre threefold Σ2,1 inside P5k . Prove that the intersection of Σ2,1 with any
3-plane E inside P5 is a twisted cubic curve inside E » P3k .

Exercise 61. Consider the diagonal morphism δ : Pnk - Pn ˆ Pn . Prove that the image of σ ˝ δ :
k k
2
Pn - Pn `2n is the Veronese map ν2 .
k k

50
Exercise 62. The projection

π : pk n`1 zt0uq ˆ pk m`1 zt0uq - Pnk ˆ Pm

k

is precisely the quotient projection for the action of k ˚ ˆk ˚ and it is a morphism. (Use that k s`1 zt0u - Ps
k
is always a morphism for any s ě 0). Hence, if X is a closed in Pnk ˆ Pm
k the set π
´1
pXq is a closed in
pk n`1 zt0uq ˆ pk m`1 zt0uq with the following property. If λ, µ P k ˚ , one has that pv, wq P π ´1 pXq if and
only if pλv, µwq is in π ´1 pXq. Prove that π ´1 pXq is given by V pIq X pk n`1 zt0uq ˆ pk m`1 zt0uq, where I
is an ideal in krx0 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s generated by bihomogeneous elements , that is, by polynomials F in
krx0 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym s verifying the condition

F pλx0 , . . . , λxn , µy0 , . . . , µym q “ λd µe F px0 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , ym q ,

for fixed d, e P N. We say that F is bihomogeneous of degree pd, eq in the two sets of variables px0 , . . . , xn
and y0 , . . . , ym q.
Prove, on the other hand, that if X̃ is a closed in pk n`1 zt0uqˆpk m`1 zt0uq of the form V pIqXpk n`1 zt0uqˆ
pk m`1 zt0uq, with I an ideal of krx0 , . . . , xn , y0 , . . . , ym s generated by bihomogeneous polynomials, then πpX̃q
is a closed of Pnk ˆ Pm
k .

2.3.3 Separation
Definition 2.3.24. Let X an algebraic variety. We call diagonal morphism the unique morphism δ :
X - X ˆ X such that π1 ˝ δ “ idX , π2 ˝ δ “ idX . Its image is the diagonal ∆ in X ˆ X. The diagonal
∆ is always a subvariety of X ˆ X isomorphic to X, as the next remarks show.

Remark 2.3.25. If X is affine, then ∆ is a closed subset in the product X ˆ X and hence a closed subvariety.
Indeed, let’s prove that X ˆ Xz∆ is open. Take px, yq P X ˆ Xz∆. Hence x ‰ y in X. Hence there exists
f P mx such that f R my (because mx ` my “ 1 in krXs, because ideals of a point are maximal ideals).
Hence f1 ´ f2 :“ π1˚ f ´ π2˚ f does not vanish in px, yq, hence px, yq P pX ˆ Xqf1 ´f2 , which is an (affine) open
set of X ˆ X. Moreover pX ˆ Xqf1 ´f2 X ∆ “ H and hence pX ˆ Xqf1 ´f2 Ď X ˆ Xz∆. The projection
π1 : ∆ - X (or π2 ) is the inverse morphism of δ.
Remark 2.3.26. Consider now an arbitrary variety X and a finite affine atlas pUi qiPI . We have that ∆i :“
∆ X pUi ˆ Ui q “ δpUi q is a closed subset of Ui ˆ Ui and hence an affine variety. As in the previous remark
π1 : ∆i - Ui is an isomorphism, which we will take as an affine chart for ∆. It is now immediate to prove
that the change of charts are exactly the change of charts for X. Consider the open set V “ YiPI pUi ˆ Ui q
of X ˆ X. Prove that ∆ is a closed subset (and hence a closed subvariety) of V (which gives another proof
that it is an algebraic variety).

Exercise 63. Consider an arbitrary variety X. Try to prove that ∆ is closed in X ˆ X, and fail. Where
does the proof exactly fail? To understand well, do the next exercise.

Exercise 64 (A line with two origins). Consider two copies Y1 and Y2 of the affine line A1k . Let U1 “ Y1 zt0u
and U2 “ Y2 zt0u. Glue Y1 and Y2 along the isomorphism idA1k zt0u : U1 - U2 . to obtain an algebraic
variety X. Prove that the diagonal ∆ in X ˆ X is a subvariety of X ˆ X but it is not closed. Build a V like
in the previous exercise. What is the closure ∆ of ∆ in X ˆ X?

51
Exercise 65. Let X be a topological space. Put on X ˆ X the product topology. Prove that the set
∆ “ tpx, xq P X ˆ X x P Xu is closed in X ˆ X if and only if X is Hausdorff.

Definition 2.3.27. We say that an algebraic variety X is separated if ∆ is a closed subvariety of the product
X ˆ X, or, equivalently, if the diagonal morphism δ : X - X ˆ X is a closed immersion.

Remark 2.3.28. It follows from a previous remark that any affine variety is separated.

Exercise 66. Let X be a separated variety. Why X is not Hausdorff, in general? (even if ∆ Ď X ˆ X is a
closed subset?)

Proposition 2.3.29 (Criterion for a variety to be separated). Let X be an algebraic variety with a finite
affine atlas pUi qiPI and isomorphisms ϕi : Ui - Vi , with Vi “ V pIi q Ď Ani (embedded) affine varieties.
k
Then X is separated if and only if, for any i, j P I, i ‰ j, the graph of ϕj ˝ϕ´1 : ϕi pUi XUj q - ϕj pUi XUj q
i
is closed in the product Vi ˆ Vj .

Proof. The open sets Ui ˆ Uj cover X. Hence ∆ is closed in X ˆ X if and only if ∆ X pUi ˆ Uj q is closed
in Ui ˆ Uj for any i, j. But under the isomorphisms ϕi ˆ ϕj : Ui ˆ Uj - Vi ˆ Vj the set ∆ X pUi ˆ Uj q
corresponds in Vi ˆ Vj to the graph of the transition functions ϕj ˝ ϕ´1
i : ϕi pUi X Uj q - ϕj pUi X Uj q.
Hence ∆ is closed in X ˆ X if and only if the graph of the transition functions ϕj ˝ ϕ´1
i is closed in Vi ˆ Vj .
But this is surely true if i “ j. Hence the statement.

Exercise 67. Apply the previous criterion to the line with two origin to see what happens.

Exercise 68. Prove that Pnk is separated. Do the case n “ 1 first.

Exercise 69. An open subset of a separated variety is separated. A closed subvariety of a separated variety
is separated.

Exercise 70. Let X be a separated variety. Let U1 , U2 two affine open sets of X. Prove that U1 X U2 is
affine.

Exercise 71. Build the plane with two origins (similarly to what done with the line with two origins). Call
it X. Is it possible to find two affine open subsets of X such that its intersection is (nonempty) and affine?

2.3.4 Fibered Products

From now on all varieties are supposed to be separated.

Definition 2.3.30. Let f : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic variety. Let Z be a subvariety of Y (not

necessarily closed). Then f ´1 pZq Ď X has the structure of subvariety of X. It is called the inverse image
of the subvariety Z.

Exercise 72. Prove that f ´1 pZq has the structure of subvariety of X. Of course if Z is a closed subvariety
of Y , then f ´1 pZq is a closed subvariety of X.

Exercise 73. Prove that, for any algebraic variety S and for any morphism h : S - X such that f ˝ h
factorizes through Z, the morphism h factorizes uniquely through f ´1 pZq.

52
Proposition 2.3.31 (Kernels of double maps). Let X, Y algebraic varieties. Consider morphism f :
X - Y, g :X - Y . Then there exists a unique closed subvariety Z of X such that, for any algebraic
variety S, and for any morphism u : S - X such that f ˝ u “ g ˝ u, there is a unique morphism
g:S - Z such that i ˝ g “ u.

Proof. Consider the map f ˆ g : X - Y ˆ Y and the diagonal (which is a closed subvariety) ∆Y in Y ˆ Y .
Define Z as the closed subvariety Z :“ pf ˆ gq´1 p∆Y q. Use the preceding exercise for the inverse image.

Definition 2.3.32. Let X, Y , Z, S four algebraic varieties. A commutative diagram of morphisms

h -
Z X

k f
? g ?
Y - S

is said to be cartesian if for any variety T and for any pair of morphisms u : T - X, v : T - Y such
that f u “ gv there exists a unique morphism t : T - Z commuting with all the others (that is, ht “ u,
kt “ v).

Proposition 2.3.33. Let X, Y , Z three algebraic varieties. There exists a unique variety X ˆS Y , naturally
πX
a subvariety of X ˆ Y , naturally equipped with projections πX : X ˆS Y Ă - X ˆ Y - X, πY :
πY
X ˆS Y - X ˆY - Y , such that the diagram

πX -
X ˆS Y X

πY f
? g ?
Y - S
is cartesian.

Proof. Consider the two maps h : X ˆ Y - Y - S and k : X ˆ Y - Y - S and let X ˆS Y be

the kernel of the two maps. It easily satisfies the universal property in the statement.

2.3.5 Graphs
Definition 2.3.34. Let f : X - Y a map between sets. The graph of the map f is the subset

Γf :“ tpx, yq P X ˆ Y | y “ f pxqu .

Proposition 2.3.35. Let f : X - Y be a morphism between two algebraic varieties. The graph Γf of
the morphism f has the structure of a closed algebraic subvariety of the product X ˆ Y .

Proof. The first way to see it is to understand the graph Γf as the kernel of the two maps
π2
X ˆY - Y
f ˝π1
X ˆY - Y

53
Alternatively, one can see the graph as the fibered product
π2 -
Γf Ď X ˆ Y Y

π1 id
? f - ?
X Y

Exercise 74. Let f : X - Y a morphism of varieties. Prove that the map X Ă - X ˆ Y given by
ˇ
x - px, f pxqq is a closed immersion with image Γf . Prove that πX ˇΓ : Γf - X is an isomorphism.
f

2.3.6 The Grassmannian

Definition 2.3.36. Let V be a vector space of dimension n. Let k an integer, 0 ď k ď n. The grassmannian
Grpk, V q is the set of vector subspaces of V of dimension k:

Grpk, V q :“ tW | W vector subspace of V , dim W “ k .

The aim of this subsection is to prove that the grassmannian is a separate projective variety locally isomorphic
to an affine space of dimension kpn ´ kq and hence of dimension kpn ´ kq. In order to do so, we have

• give a structure of algebraic variety over Grpk, V q, that is, to find a finite algebraic atlas;

• prove that it is separated;

• prove that Grpk, V q is isomorphic to a subvariety of the projective space.

Proposition 2.3.37. The grassmannian Grpk, V q has a natural structure of algebraic variety.

Proof. Step 1: affine charts. Let W P Grpk, V q a vector subspace of dimension k in V . Consider a
complementary vector subspace K in V , that is, a subspace such that W ‘ K “ V . Set

UK :“ tH P Grpk, V q | H X W “ t0uu .

By construction, all subspaces H P UK are complementary to K, that is H ‘ K “ V . Hence, if H P UK ,

we can consider the projection π H : V - K of kernel H; here by projection, we mean a linear map
ˇ
π : V - K such that π ˇ “ K. On the other hand, if π : V
K
- K is a projection, in the above
definition, take H “ ker π, and hence H X K “ t0u, hence H P UK . Hence we have a bijection
bij ˇ
UK - tπ : V - K | π linear and π ˇ “ idK u .
K

Consider now the set on the right. Fix a H1 complementary to K : then in the decomposition in direct sum
W ‘ K - K, a projection onto K has matrix
´ ¯
A idK

where A P HompH1 , Kq. Hence, we have a bijection

bij
UK - HompH1 , Kq

54
where H1 is a fixed element in UK , that is, a fixed subspace transversal to K. It is actually not necessary to
choose such a H1 : indeed consider the map

HompV, Kq - HompK, Kq
ˇ
given by the restriction f - f ˇ . The set of projections onto K is actually the kernel AK of this map:
K
of course it is isomorphic to HompH1 , Kq if we choose to describe HompV, Kq as

HompV, Kq “ HompH1 ‘ K, Kq “ HompH1 , Kq ‘ HompK, Kq .

So in particular AK is a vector space of dimension pdim H1 qpdim Kq “ pn ´ kqk. We take the maps
UK - AK
H - πH
as our affine charts. Even if it is not necessary to fix a complementary subspace H1 , seeing UK as isomorphic
to HompH1 , Kq has an important intuitive meaning: all vector subspaces ”close to” H1 are parametrized by
HompH1 , Kq: they can be seen as graphs of of some f P HompH1 , Kq. This point of view can actually be
useful and handy later on, when computing the tangent space of the Grassmannian at a point H1 .
Step 2: transition functions. Consider a point W P UK1 X UK2 , with K1 ‰ K2 . Then W X K1 “
ˇ
t0u “ W X K2 . Consider π W P AK1 . Since W X K2 “ t0u, we have that π W ˇK2 : K2 - K1 is an
isomorphism. Therefore, the image of UK1 X UK2 in AK1 are projection π : V - K1 onto K1 such that
ˇ
π ˇK : K2 - K1 is an isomorphism. We call this image AK1 ,K2 . Analogously AK2 ,K1 , the image of
2 ˇ
UK1 X UK2 in AK2 are projections π : V - K2 such that π ˇ : K1 - K2 is an isomorphism. The
K1
transition function
AK2 ,K1 - UK1 X UK2
- AK1 ,K2
ˇ
takes a projection π : V - K2 onto K2 inducing an isomorphism π ˇ : K1
K1
- K2 , takes its kernel
W “ ker π, which is, by construction transverse to K2 and K1 , and sends it to the projection π ker π :
V - K1 .

It is now clear that the composition

i π
K1 - V » W ‘ K2 - K2
ˇ ˇ
is the isomorphism π ˇK1 : K1 - K2 . Therefore, the map W ‘ K1 - W ‘ K2 given by idW ‘ π ˇ gives
K1
an isomorphism, which actually coincides with idV 13 . It is now clear that the following diagram commutes:
π -
W ‘ K2 K2
6 6
ˇ
idV “ idW ‘ πK1 π ˇ
K1

W
π
W ‘ K1 - K1

since pW is zero on W and idK1 on K1 . Hence the transition function AK2 ,K1 - AK1 ,K2 is given by

- π ˇ´1 ˝ π
ˇ
π K1
ˇ
idW ‘π ˇ
13 we K1
want to say that the composition V » W ‘ K1 - W ‘ K2 » V coincides with idV .

55
which is clearly an invertible map, but it is also a morphism of open sets of affine spaces, since it is given,
fixing basis of V , K1 and K2 by multiplication and inversion of matrices, and hence with entries made of
regular functions. We then found an affine atlas for Grpk, V q.
Step 3. Topology. The affine atlas we found induces naturally a topology on Grpk, V q. Indeed, if
W P Grpk, V q, and W P UK , we can take as a basis of neighbourhoods around W the image of a basis of
neighbourhoods of π W in AK for the inverse map AK - UK . Of course the basis of neighbourhoods
found in this way do not depend on the chosen K, since, for another K 1 , the transition functions

AK,K 1 - AK 1 ,K

are homeomorphisms.
Step 4. Noetherianity. In order for Grpk, V q to be a noetherian topological space, it is sufficient to
prove that we can choose a finite algebraic atlas, since each affine chart is noetherian. In order to do this,
fix a basis e1 , . . . , en on V , and consider for any I Ď t1, . . . , nu, |I| “ n ´ k, the subspace KI : xei , i P Iy
generated by elements ei , i P I. Of course KI has dimension n ´ k and HJ has dimension k. We claim that
the open subsets UI :“ UKI cover the Grassmannian Grpk, V q. Indeed, a vector subspace W P Grpk, V q is
surely described by n ´ k independent equations in k n , that is, as a kernel of a linear map A : V - k n´k ,
which, using the basis ei , we can identify as a matrix A, of shape n ´ k ˆ n, of rank n ´ k. Since A is
surjective, there has to be a nonzero maximal minor. Suppose that the minor is given choosing the columns
ci , i P I, for some I Ď t1, . . . , nu |I| “ n ´ k as above. Then it is clear that W X KI “ t0u and W P UI .
Step 5. Separation. In order to prove that Grpk, V q is separated, we use criterion 2.3.29: we just have
to prove that the graph of transition functions

AK2 ,K1 - AK1 ,K2

is closed in AK2 ˆ AK1 . We claim that the graph is exactly the set of couples pp, qq such that
ˇ
π ˇK ˝ q “ p . (2.5)
1

ˇ´1
If pp, qq is in the graph, then q “ π ˇK ˝ p and hence the above relation is true. On the other hand, if
1

pp, qq P AK2 ˆ AK1 such that (2.5) holds, then

ˇ ˇ ˇ
π ˇK1 ˝ q ˇK2 “ pˇK2 “ idK2
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
π ˇK1 “ π ˇK1 ˝ q ˇK1 “ pˇK2
ˇ ˇ ˇ
which imply that both q ˇK2 and pˇK1 are invertible, hence pp, qq P AK2 ,K1 ˆ AK1 ,K2 . Now, inverting π ˇK1 we
get that
ˇ´1
q “ π ˇK1 ˝ p
ˇ
hence pp, qq is in the graph of the transition map. Now the set tpp, qq P AK2 ˆ AK1 | p “ π ˇK1 ˝ qu is easily
a closed subset in the affine space AK2 ˆ AK1 .

Exercise 75. In the preceding description of the grassmannian, we priviliged the parametrization of a
subspace W as a kernel of some projection in Step 1, or, equivalently, as given by n ´ k independent
equations, in Step 4. Try to work out another description of the affine charts of the Grassmannians and the
Noetherianity from the paramentrization of W as the image of an injective linear map k k - V . More

56
precisely, Let W P Grpk, V q. Then, as it is evident from the proof above, there exists a subspace H such
- H over H restricts to an isomorphism over W , that is pˇ : W »- H.
ˇ
that the projection p : V W
Inverting this isorphism, we have that W is obtained as the graph of a linear map H - H ‘ K, where K
ˇ
is a complementary of H. One can then set VH “ tW P Grpk, V q | π ˇW : W - H is invertible/surjectiveu.
Show that VH are affine, they cover Grpk, V q and they give an algebraic structure over Grpk, V q compatible
with the one we gave above.

Exercise 76. Consider the set A of injective linear maps A : k k - V . The image of such a map is
a k-dimensional vector space W of V , and hence an element of the Grassmannian Grpk, V q. If we take
ϕ P GLk pkq, the image of A ˝ ϕ is still W . Consider the left acton of GLk pkq over A given by

pA, ϕq - A ˝ ϕ´1 .

Prove that, as sets

Grpk, V q » A{GLk pkq .

Observe how this construction generalizes the description of the projective space PpV q “ Grp1, V q as
k n`1 zt0u{k ˚ .

Exercise 77. Let W be a h -dimensional vector subspace of a n-dimensional vector space V . Let K be a
complementary subspace of W . Prove that, for any 0 ď k ď h the decomposition in direct sum V “ W ‘ K
induces a decomposition in direct sum

Λk V “ ‘ki“0 Λi W b Λk´i K .

Hence the vector space Λk W injects naturally in Λk V . If k “ h, then Λk W is a one-dimensional subspace,

that is, a line of Λk V .

Proposition 2.3.38. The grassmannian Grpk, V q is a projective variety.

Proof. Consider the natural map

ϕ : Grpk, V q - PpΛk V q
W - Λk W
We will now prove that ϕ is a closed immersion of algebraic varieties. First of all, set a basis e1 , . . . , en of
V . Then, if
Ik “ tI Ď t1, . . . , nu, | |I| “ ku

the set of multivectors eI , I P Ik :

eI :“ ei1 ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ eik I “ ti1 , . . . , ik u, i1 ă ¨ ¨ ¨ ă ik

is a basis of Λk V . So in PpΛk V q we have homogeneous coordinates rxI sIPIk and affine open sets

UJ “ trxI sI P PpΛk V q | xJ ‰ 0u .
řk
Suppose that W has basis wi “ j“1 aj,i ej . The matrix A “ paj,i qj,i has shape n ˆ k and has rank k. Hence
there is a nonzero k ˆ k-minor. The subspace Λk W is one dimensional. Its basis is iven by
ÿ
w1 ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ wk “ AI e I
I

57
where AI are, up to sign, the k ˆ k-minors of A, and AI is, up to sign, the k ˆ k minor obtained extracting
the rows with indexes in I. By the previous discussion there exists I0 such that AI0 ‰ 0. This discussion also
says that the projection p : V - HI , where HI “ xei , i P I0 y, sends isomorphically W to HI and hence,
0 0 0

taking KI “ xei , i R Iy, we have that W X KI “ t0u. Hence W P UKI0 . Indeed, W , in the decomposition
in direct sum HI0 ‘ KI0 is of the form pLx, M xq where x P HI0 , L P HompHI0 , HI0 q, L invertible, and
M P HompHI0 , KI0 q. If pLx, M xq P 0 ‘ KI0 , then Lx “ 0 and hence x “ 0, since L is invertible. So we
proved that
ϕ´1 pUI0 q “ UKI0

and that the restriction

ˇ
ϕˇU : UKI0 - UI
0
KI
0

is given by
paj,i qj,i - rAI sIPI .
k

But AI are polynomials in the ai,j : hence ϕI are regular and ϕ is a morphism.
We understood that the matrix AI0 is invertible. Take now, as basis of W , the vectors w11 , . . . , wk1 given
by
pw11 , . . . , wk1 q “ pe1 , . . . en qA ˝ A´1
I0 .

where AI0 here is the k ˆk-matrix obtained by extracting the rows in I0 . Set B “ pbj,i qj,i the matrix A˝A´1
I0 .
The matrix BI0 is now the identity. The corresponding homogeneous components in UI are rBI sI , where
BI “ AI {AI0 . Set Ji,j “ pI0 ztiuq Y tju if i P I0 , j ­ inI0 . Since BI0 is the identity, it is easy to see that

BI0 “ ˘1

BJi,j “ ˘bj,i

and that any other minor BI , I ‰ I0 , I ‰ Ji,j is a polynomial

BJ “ pJ pbj,i q

in the bj,i , and hence in the BJj,i . This proves that the image is a closed subset C of PpΛk V q. It also allows
to define a regular map
UI0 - UK
0

which restricted to C X UI0 gives the inverse isomorphism from C X UI0 to UKI0 . This proves that the map
Grpk, V q - C is injective and locally an isomorphism. Since it is injective, we have a set-theoretic inverse
C - Grpk, V q: the fact that ϕ is locally an isomorphism shows that this set-theoretic inverse is actually
a morphism.

Exercise 78. Work out in detail the case of Grp2, V q with dim V “ 4. Prove that the image of Grp2, V q in
PpΛ2 V q » P5k is given by the quadric surface defined by the quadratic form

Λ2 V - Λ4 V

sending
v - v^v .

58
Definition 2.3.39. Let V be a vector space of dimension n ` 1. We call the projective Grassmannian of
k-dimensional subspaces the set

Grpk, PpV qq :“ tL Ď Pnk | L is a projecive k-dimensional subspace of Pnk u .

Since
Grpk, PpV qq “ tPpW q | W P Grpk ` 1, V qu

and the last one is in bijection with Grpk ` 1, V q, then from the bijection

Grpk, PpV qq » Grpk ` 1, V q

the projective grassmannian inherits the structure of a projective variety of dimension pk `1qpn`1´k ´1q “
npk ` 1q.

Exercise 79. Let V a n ` 1 dimensional subspace. Let L be a r-dimensional projective subspace of V. Let
k P N, r ď k ď n. Consider the subset of Grpk, PpV qq.

tW P Grpk, PpV q | L Ď W u .

Show that it is a closed subset of the projective Grassmannian, and hence a closed subvariety of that. Denote
this closed subset as GrL pk, V q. Show that

GrL pk, PpV qq » Grpk ´ r, V {Lq ,

and that the natural map

Grpk ´ r, V {Lq Ă - Grpk, PpV qq

sending
W - W ` L “ π ´1 pW q

— where π : V - V {L — is a closed immersion with image Grpk, PpV qq.

2.3.7 The Fano variety of k-dimensional subspaces

Definition 2.3.40. Let X be a projective variety, embedded in PpV q. We define the Fano variety of
k-dimensional subspaces inside X as the set:

Fk pXq “ tL P Gpk, PpV q | L Ď Xu .

We prove that it is a closed subvariety of the projective Grassmannian Grpk, PpV qu.

Proposition 2.3.41. Let X be a projective variety, embedded in PpV q. Then Fk pXq is a closed subvariety
of the projective Grassmannian Grpk, PpV qq.

Proof. Consider a subspace K of dimension n ´ k in V and the affine cover UK described in the previous
subsection. It is sufficient to prove that Fk pXq X UK is closed for any I P Ik,n`1 if dim V “ n ` 1. Fix
a complementary subspace H to KI , so that we can decompose V “ H ‘ K. Then UK is the open set of
subspaces W such that W X K “ t0u. As we know UK is parametrized by LpH, Kq, and any such W can be
seen as the graph of a linear map a P LpH, Kq. Set αa : H - V the map h - h ‘ aphq P H ‘ K “ V .

59
Fix now a basis e0 , . . . en in V so that we can fix coordinates x0 , . . . , xn in V and homogeneous coordinates
rx0 , . . . , xn s in PpV q. The variety X is equal to Vpg1 , . . . , gr q with gi homogeneous polynomials over V . Then
a subspace W is inside X if and only if, for any a P H, we have

g1 pαa phqq “ 0 “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ gr pαa phqq

for any h P H. Now each of the gi pαa phqq is a polynomial in h (taken some coordinates over H) with
coefficients gi,γi paq in a P LpH, Kq, where γi is a multiindex of order deg gi . Hence, Fk pXq is in UK , the
closed subset of equations

gi,γi paq “ 0 i “ 1, . . . , r γi P Ndim H , |γi | “ deg gi .

Exercise 80. Consider the quadric Q : xy ´ zw “ 0 in P3k . Find the equations for the Fano variety of lines
F1 pQq. Prove that it is the union of two conics.

2.4 Sheaves of ideals: a glimpse of the underlying schematic struc-

ture

2.5 Irreducibility
Definition 2.5.1. A nonempty topological space X is said to be reducible if it can be written as the union
X “ F1 Y F2 , where Fi are proper and distinct closed subsets. If X is not reducible, we say it is irreducible.

Remark 2.5.2. It is equivalent to say that X is irreducible if, whenever X “ F1 Y F2 with Fi closed in X,
then we have X “ F1 or X “ F2 .

Exercise 81. Let X be a topological space. The following are equivalent:

i) X is irreducible;

ii) every nonempty open subset of X is dense;

iii) two nonempty open subsets of X have nonempty intersection.

X
Solution. i) ùñ ii). Let U be a nonempty open subset of X. Suppose U is not dense. Hence U Ĺ X. Set
X
F1 “ U ; F2 “ XzU . Then F1 and F2 are proper and distinct, and F1 Y F2 “ X. Hence X is reducible.
Absurd.
ii) ùñ iii). Suppose U1 and U2 are two nonempty open subsets of X such that U1 X U2 “ H. Hence
X
U1 X U2 “ H and hence U1 can’t be dense in X.
iii) ùñ i). Suppose X “ F1 Y F2 , with Fi proper and distinct closed subsets. Consider U1 “ XzF1 ,
U2 “ XzF2 . Then U1 , U2 are proper nonempty open subsets of X, but U1 X U2 “ H.

The following proposition gives us an algebraic interpretation of irreducibility for affine varieties.

Proposition 2.5.3. Let X be an reduced affine variety. Then X is irreducible if and only if the k-algebra
of regular function krXs is an integral domain.

60
Proof. Suppose X is reducible, X “ V pI1 q Y V pI2 q, with Ii ideals in krx1 , . . . , xn s, such that V pI1 q ‰ V pI2 q
and V pIj q proper closed of X. We can suppose that Ii are reduced ideals. The condition that V pIi q are
proper and distinct, together with the reduced condition, that I1 Ę I2 and I2 Ę I1 . Hence we can take
ˇ
f1 P I1 zI2 , and f2 P I2 zI1 . But f1 f2 vanishes identically over V pI1 I2 q “ X, while fi ˇX not. Hence fi ‰ 0 in
ˇ ˇ
krXs, but f1 ˇX f2 ˇX “ 0. Hence krXs is not a domain.
On the other hand, if krXs is not a domain, there exists nonzero functions f1 , f2 over X such that
ˇ
f1 f2 “ 0 over X. Suppose X “ V pJq, with J a reduced ideal. The fact that fi ˇX are not identically zero
implies that the closed subsets Fi “ X X V pfi q “ V pJ, fi q are proper closed subsets. Moreover F1 Y F2 “
V pJq X V pf1 , f2 q “ V pJq “ X, since f1 f2 P J. We just have to prove that Fi are distinct, but this is clear,
since Fi is proper, and F1 Y F2 “ X. Hence X is reducible.

Proposition 2.5.4. Let X be a topological space. Then

X
i) If Y is an irreducible subspace of X, then Y is irreducible.

ii) Every irreducible subspace of X is contained in a maximal irreducible subspace.

iii) The maximal irreducible subspaces of X are closed and cover X.

Proof. i). Suppose Y irreducible. if Y “ F1 Y F2 , with Fi distinct closed subsets of Y , then Y “ pF1 X Y q Y
pF2 Y Y q, where Fi X Y are closed in Y . Since Y is irreducible, then Y “ F1 X Y , or Y “ F2 X Y . Suppose
the former. Then Y Ď F1 and hence Y Ď F1 , which implies Y “ F1 . Hence Y is irreducible.
ii). We use Zorn’s Lemma on the set

Y “ tC Ď X | C irreducible in X ; Y Ď Cu .

Y ‰ H, since Y P Y. The set Y is partially ordered with inclusion. Let’s prove it is inductive. If K Ď Y is
a totally ordered subset of Y, set M “ YZPK Z. It obvioulsy contains Y . We just have to prove that M is
irreducible. Suppose it is not. Set M “ F1 Y F2 , with Fi distinct proper closed in M . Consider a Z P K
such that Z X F1 ‰ Z X F2 . For all other Z 1 in K containing Z, we still have Z 1 X F1 ‰ Z 1 X F2 . We have
Z “ pZ X F1 q Y pZ X F2 q, and since Z is irreducible, we have Z “ Z X F1 or Z “ Z X F2 . Suppose the
former: then Z Ď F1 . For any other Z 1 in K containing Z, we still have, for the same argument Z 1 Ď F1 , or
Z 1 Ď F2 . But if we suppose the latter, then we would have Z 1 “ Z 1 X F2 , which would imply Z “ Z X F2 ,
which is not true, since Z X F2 ‰ Z X F1 . Hence for all Z 1 P K containing Z, we have Z 1 Ď F1 . But this
means that M Ď F1 . But this is absurd, since Fi are supposed to be proper. Hence M is irreducible. Hence
M P Y and is a upper bound for K in Y. Hence the set Y is inductive and hence admits, by Zorn’s lemma,
a maximal element.
iii) Let Y be a maximal irreducible subspace of X. If Y were not closed, then Y Ď Y , but Y is irreducible,
and would contradict the maximality of Y . Of course the maximal irreducible subspaces cover X, since for
any point x P X there is a maximal irreducible subspace containing x.

Exercise 82. Let X be a topological space. If U1 , U2 are two irreducible open subsets of X, then U1 Y U2
is irreducible.

Proposition 2.5.5. Let f : X - Y a continuous map between topological spaces. If X is irreducible,

then f pXq is irreducible.

61
Proof. Left as an exercise for the reader.

Proposition 2.5.6. The product of two irreducible algebraic varieties is irreducible.

Proof. Let X and Y be irreducible algebraic varieties. Suppose that X ˆ Y “ Z1 Y Z2 , where Zi are proper
and distinct closed subsets of X ˆ Y . Consider

Yi “ ty P Y | X ˆ tyu Ď Zi u :

the subspaces Yi are closed in Y and cover Y , that is Y “ Y1 Y Y2 . That they cover Y is obvious. To prove
that they are closed in Y , it is sufficient to prove that their complemetary is open. Take y0 P Y zY1 : by
definition πY´1 py0 q Ę Z1 . Hence there exists x0 P X such that px0 , y0 q P X ˆ Y zZ1 , which is open in X ˆ Y .
Then U :“ tx0 u ˆ Y X pX ˆ Y zZ1 q is open in tx0 u ˆ Y , which projects isomorphically to Y via πY . Hence
πY pU q is an open set of Y containing y0 and contained in Y zY1 . Hence Y1 is closed in Y . Same argument
for Y2 .
Moreover, the subspaces Y1 , Y2 are distinct, Y1 ‰ Y2 . But Y is irreducible, hence one of the two can’t be
proper. Hence Y1 “ Y or Y “ Y2 . Suppose the first: this means that X ˆ Y Ď Z1 and Z1 is not proper.
Absurd.

Proposition 2.5.7. There is a inclusion reversing bijection between irreducible subspaces of Ank and prime
ideals of krx1 , . . . , xn s.

Proof. If p is a prime ideal of the polynomial algebra krx1 , . . . , xn s, then X :“ V ppq is an irreducible closed
subset of Ank , since its ring of regular functions krXs » krx1 , . . . , xn s{p is a domain. On the other hand, if
X “ V pIq, I radical, is a irreducible closed subset of Ank , then krx1 , . . . , xn s{I has to be a domain, hence
I “ IpXq has to be a prime. Hence the functions V : I - V pIq and I : X - V pXq induce a inclusion
reversing bijection between prime ideals of krx1 , . . . , xn s and irreducible closed subsets of Ank .

More generally we have:

Proposition 2.5.8. Let X be an affine variety. There is a inclusion reversing correspondence between prime
ideals of krXs and irreducible closed subsets of X.

Proof. Suppose X Ď Ank . Irreducible subspaces of X are in bijection with prime ideals of krx1 , . . . , xn s
containing IpXq; these prime ideals, by the Correspondence Theorem, are in bijection with prime ideals of
krx1 , . . . , xn s{IpXq » krXs, an hence with prime ideals of krXs. Of course the first bijection is inclusion
reversing.

Definition 2.5.9. Let X be a noetherian topological space. An irreducible component of X is a maximal

irreducible subspace of X.

Theorem 2.5.10. A noetherian topological space has a finite number of irreducible components. Moreover,
any irreducible subspace is contained in a irreducible component.

Proof. Let’s prove first that any closed subspace of X is a finite union of irreducible subspaces. Suppose
that this is not true and consider the family F of closed subspaces which are not finite union of irreducible
ones. The family F is, by absurd, not empty; but X is noetherian, hence F has a minimal element Y . The

62
closed subspace Y can’t be irreducible (otherwise it would be the union of irreducible subspaces). Hence
Y “ Y1 Y Y2 , where Yi are proper distinct closed subsets in Y (and hence in X).
Now, at least one of Y1 or Y2 has to be in F, otherwise, Y would be a finite union of irreducible. But
then Y would not be minimal in F. Absurd.
Hence X is a finite union of irreducible subsets, and hence of irreducible components (taking the maximal
ones in the union). We can write X “ X1 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ Y Xr , where we can suppose that Xi is not contained in Xj .
Take now Z a irreducible subspace of X. We have
ď
Z“ pZ X Xj q
j

and applying several times the definition of irreducibility, we get that there exists j0 such that Z “ Z X Xj0 ,
which means that Z Ď Xj0 . Hence any irreducible subset is contained in an irreducible component of the
kind X1 , . . . , Xr . This also proves that the irreducible components are just X1 , . . . , Xr .

Corollary 2.5.11. Let X be an affine variety and krXs its ring of regular functions. The irreducible
components Xi of X are in bijection with the minimal primes pi of krXs.

Proof. It follows immediately from the preceding discussion.

Remark 2.5.12. Let X be an affine variety and krXs its ring of regular functions. Suppose that X is inside
Ank and that krXs » krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX . Minimal primes in krXs are of the form pi :“ pi {IX , where pi are
minimal primes in krx1 , . . . , xn s containing IX . On the other hand the union

X “ X1 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ Y Xr

can be expressed, in terms of ideals of krx1 , . . . , xn s, as

IX “ IpXq “ IpX1 q X ¨ ¨ ¨ X IpXr q “ p1 X ¨ ¨ ¨ X pr

or, in terms of ideals of krXs, as

p0q “ p1 X ¨ ¨ ¨ X pr .

These writings are the primary decompositions of the ideal IX in krx1 , . . . , xn s or of the ideal p0q in krXs.

Exercise 83. A subset S of an algebraic variety is irreducible if and only if S is ireducible.

Exercise 84. Prove that if f : X - Y is a morphism of algebraic varieties, then it sends irreducible
subsets in irreducible subsets.

2.6 Rational functions and maps

2.6.1 Rational functions
Definition 2.6.1. Let X be an algebraic variety. Consider the set A :“ tpU, f q | U is a dense open set of X, f P OX pU qu.
The relation „ on A defined as
ˇ
pU, f q „ pV, gq ðñ f ˇU XV “ gU XV

63
is an equivalence relation. We define the set of rational functions over X the quotient set:

RpXq :“ A{ „ .

The set of rational functions has a natural structure of k-algebra.

Exercise 85. Prove that the intersection of two dense open subsets is nonempty. Prove that the above
defined relation is an equivalence relation.

Remark 2.6.2. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety. Over X any nonempty open subset is dense. Hence
a rational function over X is simply a couple pU, f q, where U is an open subset of X and where f is a regular
function over U .

Proposition 2.6.3. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety. Then RpXq is a field extension of k.

Proof. We just have to prove that any nonzero element is invertible. Consider a rational function pU, f q,
with U a nonempty open set of X and f a nonzero regular function on U . The set V “ tx P U | f pxq ‰ 0u
is a nonempty open set of X, hence dense. But 1{f is a regular function over V , and p1{f q ¨ f “ 1 over
U X V “ V . Hence pV, 1{f q is the inverse of pU, f q. Hence RpXq is a field containing k.

Exercise 86. Let X be an algebraic variety and U be a dense open set of X. Prove that RpXq » RpU q as
fields over k. In particular this is true if X is irreducible and U is any nonempty open set of X.

Exercise 87. Prove that RpPnk q » RpAnk q.

Remark 2.6.4. Let X and algebraic variety, and let X1 , . . . , Xr its irreducible components. Then we have
the isomorphism of k-algebras RpXq » RpX1 q ˆ ¨ ˆ RpXr q. In particular RpXq is the direct product of a
finite number of fields extensions over k (and clearly not a field if r ą 1).

Exercise 88. Prove that X is an irreducible variety if and only if, for any nonempty open set U of X,
OX pU q is an integral domain.

Theorem 2.6.5. Let X be an irreducible affine variety, with A :“ krXs the k-algebra of regular functions
over X. Of course A is an integral domain. Then RpXq is isomorphic to the field of fractions KA of the
algebra A:
RpXq » KA “ KkrXs .

In this case we will denote with kpXq the field of rational functions over X.

Proof. The natural morphism of k-algebras

A :“ krXs Ă - RpXq

sending f - pX, f q has the property that any nonzero element of A becomes invertible in RpXq. By the
universal property of the field of fractions of A, it induces a field injection

KA Ă - RpXq

sending a fraction of regular function h{g to the rational function x - hpxq{gpxq, defined over the open
set Xg :“ tx P X | gpxq ‰ 0u.

64
 To prove that this map is surjective, take a rational function pU, f q. The open set U surely contains an
ˇ
open set of the form Xg , for some regular function g P A “ krXs. Then, in RpXq we have pU, f q “ pXg , f ˇX q.
ˇ g

But now f ˇXg is a regular function over Xg , and we know by proposition 2.1.40 that krXg s “ krXsg , that
is, any regular function over Xg can be expressed as an element of krXsg , that is, a fraction p{g m , m P N˚ ,
p P krXs. Therefore
ˇ h
f ˇX “ m
g g
for h P A and
ˇ h
pU, f q » pXg , f ˇX q “ pXg , m q .
g g
Hence pU, f q comes from the element h{g m P KA . This proves the surjectivity of the map.

Exercise 89. Prove that RpPnk q “ kpAnk q » kpx1 , . . . , xn q.

2.6.2 Rational maps

Definition 2.6.6. Let X and Y be algebraic variety. A rational map X - Y between the varieties X and
Y is an equivalence class rpU, f qs of couples pU, f q, where U is a dense open subset of X and f : U - Y
is a morphism, for the equivalence relation „ defined as
ˇ ˇ
pU, f q „ pV, gq ðñ f ˇU XV “ g ˇU XV

is an equivalence relation.

Proposition 2.6.7. Let f : X - Y a rational map between two irreducible algebraic varieties, with dense
image (we also say that f is dominant). Then f induces, by pull-back a morphism of field extensions of k:

f ˚ : RpY q Ă - RpXq .

Proof. Suppose f is the equivalence class rpU, f qs with U a open set of X and f : U - Y a morphism.
The fact that f has dense image means that f pU q is dense in Y , and this means that f pU q X V ‰ H for any
nonempty open subset V of Y . This implies that f ´1 pV q is nonempty in X and hence dense. If ϕ P RpY q,
defined in some open set V , then then ϕ ˝ f is defined in f ´1 pV q, and hence gives an element rf ´1 pV q, ϕ ˝ f s
in RpXq. Of course the map is a homomorphism of fields.

Exercise 90. Try to relax the irreducibility hypothesis of Y and/or of X in the previous proposition.

Theorem 2.6.8. Let X and Y be irreducible algebraic varieties. Any homomorphism of fields over k :
ϕ : RpY q - RpXq is induced by the pull-back of a unique dominant rational map f : X - Y.

Proof. Let V an affine open subset of Y and let ψ : V - V pIq Ď Am an affine chart. We have that
k
krV s » krx1 , . . . , xn s{I (if I is radical, but we can always suppose this). Let αi the images of xi in krV s:
they are regular functions over V generating, as a k-algebra the algebra krV s: krV s “ krα1 , . . . , αm s. Then
βi :“ ϕpαi q are rational functions over X, defined in some nonempty open set Ui . Take U “ Yi Ui : then βi
are all defined regular functions over U , which is dense in X, of course. The injective map of k-algebras
ˇ
ϕˇkrV s : krV s “ krα1 , . . . , αm s - OX pU q

65
sending
αi - ϕpαi q “ βi

defines, by theorem 2.1.46, a dominant morphism of algebraic varieties

f :U - V ĎY

and hence a dominant rational map

f :X - Y .
ˇ ˇ
Moreover, the restriction ϕˇkrV s : krV s - OX pU q, and hence the restriction ϕˇ
Ă : krV s Ă - RpXq
krV s ˇ
coincides with the pull-back f . By the universal property of the field of fractions kpV q, ϕˇkrV s “ f ˚ induces
˚

a morphism f ˚ : kpV q - RpXq fitting in the commutative diagram:

˚
ϕ “ f-
krV s Ă RpXq
X -
ϕ
˚ “
f
?
kpV q “ KkrV s

Now the inclusion i : V - Y induces an equality i˚ : RpY q » kpV q. The map f ˚ : RpY q
Ă - RpXq
»
induced by the rational map rpU, f qs clearly factors through the restriction i˚ : RpY q - kpV q:

RpY q » kpV q Ă - RpXq

ˇ ˇ
but the second is exactly ϕˇkpV q and the first sends a couple pW, γq in pW XV, γ ˇW XV q. Hence the composition
is exactly ϕ.
We now prove that the rational map f : X - Y is uniquely induced by ϕ. If f 1 : X - Y would be
another rational map inducing ϕ, then we could find an affine subset V 1 of Y and an open set U 1 of X such
that f 1 could be seen as a morphism
f1 : U1
- V1 .
ˇ
Since the pull-back by f 1 induces ϕ, this means that ϕˇkrV 1 s pkrV 1 sq Ď OX pU 1 q.
Consider the open set V X V 1 and a nonempty affine subset W Ď V 1 X V . It is dense in Y . Take
Ũ “ f ´1 pW q, Ũ 1 “ pf 1 q´1 pW q. Consider a nonempty affine open subset U
p Ď Ũ X Ũ 1 .
The restrictions of the morphisms f and f 1 of affine varieties:
ˇ
f ˇUp : U p - W
ˇ
f 1 ˇUp 1 : U
p1 - W

define two homomorphisms

f˚
krW s - krU
ps
1˚
f
krW s - krU
ps

˚
which have to be equal, since coinciding with ϕ over krW s. Since f ˚ “ f 1 over krW s, with W a nonempty
affine subset of Y , then we have that
f “ f1

66
over U
p , which is a dense open subset of X: hence, as rational maps:
ˇ ˇ
rpU, f qs “ rpU p , f 1 ˇ p qs “ rpU 1 , f 1 qs .
p , f ˇ p qs “ rpU
U U

Theorem 2.6.9. Let X and Y be irreducible varieties with k-isomorphic fields of rational functions RpXq
and RpY q. Then there exists open sets U of X and V of Y such that U is isomorphic to V .

Proof. Consider a k-isomorphism ϕ : RpXq - RpY q of fields of rational functions. Then ϕ is induced by a
rational map f : X - Y defined over an open set Ũ of X. The inverse isomorphism ϕ´1 , by the previous
theorem, is also induced by a rational map g : Y - X, defined over an open set Ṽ of Y . Consider the
open set U :“ f ´1 pV q. Over U , we have gpf pxqq “ x for each x P U , since the pull-bakc of the composition
g ˝ f has to be the identity of RpY q. Take now V “ g ´1 pU q. Over V we have f pgpyqq “ y, since the pull-back
of f ˝ g has to be the identity of RpXq. Moreover, if x P U , then f pxq P V , since gpf pxqq “ x. Hence
f : U - V and g : V - U are morphisms inverse one of the other, hence isomorphisms.

Definition 2.6.10. Two irreducible varieties X and Y are said to be birational if their fields of rational
functions RpXq and RpY q are k-isomorphic, or, equivalently, if there exists dominant rational maps f :
X - Y and g : Y - X such that f ˝ g “ idY as rational maps and g ˝ f “ idX as rational maps.

Exercise 91. Let Z be an irreducible hypersurface in Am`1 , with coordinates px1 , . . . , xm , tq, given by the
zeros of an irreducible polynomial P px, tq P krx1 , . . . , xm srT s, irreducible in krx1 , . . . , xm srT s, of the form

P px, tq “ tn ` a1 pxqtn´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 pxqt ` an pxq “ 0 ,

where ai pxq P krx1 , . . . , xm s. Prove that

kpZq » kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s{pP q .

Solution. The projection on the first factor — induced by Am`1 - Am , given by px1 , . . . , xn , tq - px1 , . . . , xn q
— Z - Am is surely dominant, being surjective on the open set Yn´1 m m
i“0 Aai pxq “ tx P A | ai pxq ‰ 0 | Di “
m Ă -
1, . . . , nu. . Hence the pullback defines a field extension kpA q kpZq. A rational function over Z
ˇ
is given, in an adequate open set, by a fraction f px, tq{gpx, tqˇZ , where f and g are polynomial in Am`1 .
Hence, for sure kpZq is generated by the rational (regular) functions xi and t (seen as functions over Z).
The functions xi over Z are pullback of coordinate functions in Am , hence in the image of the extension.
Hence consider the map
ϕ : kpAm qrT s » kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s - kpZq
ˇ
extending the injection kpAm q Ă - kpZq and such that the variable T is sent to the function tˇ . For sure
Z
ϕ is surjective, after what we said about kpZq being generated by xi and t. The polynomial P is surely in
the kernel. But it is irreducible in krx1 , . . . , xm s and monic, hence irreducible in kpx1 , . . . , xn qrT s, and hence
we necessarily have that ker ϕ “ pP q, that is, P is the minimum polynomial of t over kpx1 , . . . , xm q. Hence
kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s{pP q » kpZq.

Proposition 2.6.11. An irreducible variety X of dimension m is birational to an irreducible hypersurface

in Am`1 .

67
Proof. Considering an affine open subset of X, it is sufficient to assume that X is affine X Ď An , irre-
ducible of dimension m. Then, by definition of dimension, kpXq has a (separable) transcendence basis
x1 , . . . , xm P kpXq; this means that xi are algebraically independent over k and that the field extension
kpx1 , . . . , xm q Ă - kpXq is algebraic and separable. Since kpXq is finitely generated, the previous extension
is finite. By the Primitive Element Theorem, kpXq is a simple kpx1 , . . . , xm q-extension, that is, there exists
ξ P kpXq, algebraic over kpx1 , . . . , xm q such that kpXq » kpx1 , , xm qrξs. Let now P pT q P kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s
the minimum polynomial of ξ over kpx1 , . . . , xm q. It is clear that we have

kpXq » kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s{pP q .

Write now
P px, tq “ tn ` α1 pxqtn´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αn´1 pxqt ` α0 pxq ,

with αi pxq P kpx1 , . . . , xm q rational functions in the variables x1 , . . . , xm . Now αi “ γi pxq{δi pxq, where δi pxq
are nonzero polynomials. Let Qpxq the least common multiple of δi . Hence we can write

P px, tq “ Rpx, tq{Qpxq

where Rpx, tq P krx1 , . . . , xm srT s, necessarily irreducible, because Rpx, tq irreducible in kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s and
primitive. Let now Z be the irreducible hypersurface in Am`1 , with coordinates px1 , . . . , xm , tq, defined by
Rpx, tq “ 0. The first projection π : Z - Am is dominant, since the leading coefficient of Rpx, tq is Qpxq,
and hence out of V pQq Ď Am , p is surjective (of course if k “ k̄). Then the pullback π ˚ defines an extension
of fields
π ˚ : kpx1 , . . . , xm q Ă - kpZq .

As done in 91, it is clear that kpZq is generated by the regular functions xi and t, and hence the map
πx˚ : kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s - kpZq, extending π ˚ and sending T to t, is surjective. Of course the polynomial
P px, T q is in the kernel, and since it is irreducible it has to be a generator. Hence ker πx˚ “ pP q and

kpZq » kpx1 , . . . , xm qrT s{pP q » kpXq .

Therefore, Z and X have to be birational.

2.7 Finite Morphisms

The reader is advised to study, or review, the definitions and results about integral dependence between
commutative rings listed in the appendix.

Definition 2.7.1. A morphism f : X - Y of affine varieties is finite if the morphism of k-algebras

f ˚ : krY s - krXs is integral, or, equivalently, if krXs is integral over krY s via f ˚ .
A morphism f : X - Y of arbitrary varieties is finite if Y has a (finite) affine covering pVi qi such that
ˇ
f ´1 pVi q is affine for every i, and such that f ˇf ´1 pVi q : f ´1 pVi q - Vi is finite morphism of affine varieties.

Remark 2.7.2. Let X and Y affine closed algebraic subsets of k n and k m , respectively, with k not necessarily
algebraically closed. We say that f : X - Y is finite if the morphism of k-algebras f ˚ : krY s - krXs
is integral. Remember notation 2.1.17 and remark 2.1.25.

68
Example 2.7.3. Consider an algebraically closed field k and the affine variety X in k 2 defined by x2 `y 2 “ 1
and the variety Y “ k. The projection
π:X - Y

sending px, yq to x is finite. Indeed the pull-back

krx, ys
π ˚ : krY s “ krxs - “ krx̄, ȳs “ krXs
px2 ` y 2 ´ 1q

sending x to x̄ is an integral morphism of k-algebras. Here it is sufficient to see that ȳ is integral over krxs.
Indeed ȳ satisfies the monic equation
ȳ 2 ´ x2 ´ 1 “ 0

with coefficients coming from krxs.

Example 2.7.4. Consider the same example as before, but with k “ R. Is it true that the morphism
π : X - Y is finite, in the sense that f ˚ : krY s - krXs is an integral morphism ?

Definition 2.7.5. A morphism of algebraic varieties f : X - Y is called affine if for any affine open
subset V of Y , the preimage f ´1 pV q is affine.

We will now prove that finite morphism are affine. We begin with a couple of lemmas.

Lemma 2.7.6. Let f : X - Y a finite morphism between affine varieties. Then

ˇ
i) if g P krY s, then f ´1 pYg q “ Xg˝f is affine and the induced morphism f ˇX : Xg˝f - Yg is finite.
g˝f

ˇ
ii) for any affine open subset V of Y , the pre-image f ´1 pV q is affine and the induced morphism f ˇf ´1 pV q :
f ´1 pV q - V is a finite morphism.

Proof. Let’s prove i). Let A “ krXs, B “ krY s. By hypothesis the morphism A - B is an integral
morphism of k-algebras. The fact that f ´1 pYg q “ Xg˝f is trivial (comes directly from the definition); hence
f ´1 pYg q is affine. Moreover the pull-back
ˇ
pf ˇX q˚ : krYg s - krXsg˝f
g˝f

is the exactly the morphism

Bg - Af ˚ pgq

obtained by taking the morphism

f˚ : B - A

and inverting g and f ˚ pgq, that is, applying the functor S ´1 , where S “ t1, g n | n P Nu. The result follows
from proposition .6.6.
We now prove ii). We cover the affine open subset V with principal open subsets Ygi “ Vgi , i “ 1, . . . , h,
ˇ
such that xgi , i “ 1, . . . , hy “ p1q in krY s and, by restriction, xgi ˇV , i “ 1, . . . , hy “ krV s. Note that this
follows automatically from the fact that Vgi is a cover of V because k is algebraically closed, see proposition
ˇ
2.1.49. The preimages f ´1 pYgi q “ Xf ˚ pgi q are affine and the restrictions f ˇX ˚ : Xf ˚ pgi q - Ygi are
f pgi q
finite morphism by the previous point. Since Ygi coincide with the principal affine open sets Vgi , The result
follows from the next proposition.

69
Proposition 2.7.7. Let f : X - Y a morphism of algebraic varieties, with Y affine. Suppose we can
cover Y with principal open affine subsets Ygi , i “ 1, . . . , h such that

i) the preimages Xi :“ f ´1 pYgi q are affine

ˇ
ii) the morphisms f ˇXi : Xi - Yg finite.
i

Then X is affine and f is finite.

Proof. Let A “ rY s, and B “ OX pXq. We have by proposition ?? that OY pYgi q “ Agi and that, by
proposition ??, OX pXi q “ OX pXf ˚ pgi q q “ Bf ˚ pgi q . The morphism

fi˚ : Agi - Bf ˚ pg q
i

is obtained, by localization (inversion of gi ) from the morphism

f˚ : A - B.

So knowing that Xf ˚ pgi q are affine and that fi˚ are finite, we have to prove that X is affine and f ˚ is finite.
Since the fi˚ are finite, the k-algebras Af ˚ pgi q are finitely generated as Bgi -modules, and since the elements
of the form 1{gim are in Bgi , we can find a finite set of generators for the Bgi -module Af ˚ pgi q of the form
aj P A, j “ 1, . . . , k. Now take a v P A. It lives in Agi as well. Hence, in Agi we can write:
k
ÿ βj
v“ mj aj
g
j“1 i

and hence, in A we have, for a certain ni P N˚ :

k
ÿ
gini v “ γj aj (2.6)
j“1

with γj P B. If k is an algebraically closed field, then the fact that

Yi Ygi “ Y

implies that the ideal of B generated by gini is the whole B:

xgini , i “ 1 . . . , y “ B ,

by the Nullstellensatz14 . Hence there exists ui P B such that

ÿ
ui gini “ 1
i

and summing relations (2.6) we have

ÿ k
ÿÿ
v“ ui gini v “ pui γj qaj
i i j

14 Prove this fact in detail!

70
and this means that A is a finitely generated module over B. This also means that A is a finitely generated
(reduced) k-algebra over k. But this means that A is the algebra of regular functions of an affine variety X 1 :

A “ OX pXq “ krX 1 s .

This means that there exists a morphism ϕ : X - X 1 inducing the identity ϕ˚ “ id : A “ krX 1 s - OX pXq “
A over the algebra A “ OpXq “ OpX 1 q. Moreover, seeing A as krX 1 s, the morphism B - A is obtained
by the pull-back of a morphism f 1 : X 1 - Y , but

ϕ˚ ˝ pf 1 q˚ “ pf 1 ˝ ϕq˚ “ f ˚

and hence
f1 ˝ ϕ “ f

as morphism from X - Y (because Y is affine, see theorem ??). Now, f ˚ pgi q “ ϕ˚ pf 1 ˚ pgi qq “ f 1 ˚ pgi q
in A. Hence ϕ sends ϕ : Xf ˚ pgi q - Xf1 1 ˚ pgi q , but this is an isomorphism, since it induces the identity at
the pull-back level (since both X 1 1 ˚
f
and Xf ˚ pg q are affine): ϕ˚ : Af ˚ pg q
pgi q i
- Af ˚ pg q . Hence ϕ is an
i i

isomorphism everywhere, since the affine open subsets Xf ˚ pgi q cover X. Hence X is affine. Moreover, the
morphism f : X - Y is finite, since A is finitely generated as B-module.

We can finally prove that finite morphisms are affine.

Proposition 2.7.8. Let f : X - Y be a finite morphism of algebraic varieties. Then f is affine, that is,
if V is an affine open subset of Y , then f ´1 pV q is affine. Moreover, for any affine open subset V of Y , the
ˇ
induced morphism f ˇ ´1 f
: f ´1 pV q - V is finite.
pV q
ˇ
Proof. Cover Y with affine open subsets Vi such that f ´1 pVi q are affine and the morphisms f ˇf ´1 pVi q :
f ´1 pVi q - Vi are finite. Let V an affine open subset of Y . Then V “ Yi pVi X V q. Cover Vi X V with
principal affine open subsets pVi qgj , j “ 1, . . . ,. Hence the family of open affine subsets tpVi qgj ui,j is an affine
ˇ
open cover for V . Now f ´1 ppVi qgj q is affine and the morphism f ˇf ´1 ppV q q : f ´1 ppVi qgj q - pVi qgj is finite.
i gj
ˇ
By the previous lemma, since the pVi qgj cover V , we have that f ´1 pV q is affine and f ˇf ´1 pV q : f ´1 pV q - V
is finite.

Proposition 2.7.9. Over an arbitrary field k the composition of two finite morphisms is a finite morphism.

Proof. It is a direct consequence of the previous proposition.

Proposition 2.7.10. Let f : X - Y be a finite morphism.

ˇ
• Then for any Z Ď X closed subvariety, the restriction f ˇZ : Z - Y is finite.

• If W is a closed subvariety of Y such that f pXq Ď W , then f : X - W is finite.

ˇ
Proof. For the first, note that a closed immersion Z Ă - X is finite. Hence the composition f ˇ :
Z
Z Ă - X - Y is finite.
For the second, we can find a affine atlas for W given by W X Ui , where Ui is an affine atlas for Y . then
´1
f pUi q is affine, but f ´1 pUi q “ f ´1 pW X Ui q if f pXq Ď W . Hence f ´1 pW X Ui q is affine. To prove that
ˇ
fˇ f ´1 pW XUi q
: f ´1 pW X Ui q - W X Ui is finite, we have to prove that

f ˚ : krW X Ui s - krf ´1 pUi qs

71
is integral. But krW XUi s “ krUi s{IW XUi , because W XUi is closed inside Ui , and f ˚ : krUi s - krf ´1 pUi qs
is integral. Hence the results follows from proposition .6.5.

Proposition 2.7.11. Let f : X - Y a finite morphism of algebraic varieties. Then, for any y P Y , if
´1 ´1
f pyq is not empty, then f pyq is finite.
Proof. By definition of finite morphism of arbitrary varieties, it is sufficient to prove it for affine varieties
ˇ
f :X - Y . Suppose X Ď An , and krXs » krx1 , . . . , xn s{IpXq » krt1 , . . . , tn s, where ti “ xi ˇ . The ti
X
are, by definition, integral over krY s via f ˚ , hence they satisfy monic equations

ppti q “ tni ` f ˚ pai qtn´1

i ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` f ˚ pan´1 qti ` f ˚ pan q “ 0

as functions over X. Take y0 P Y and suppose that f ´1 py0 q ‰ H. Take x0 P f ´1 py0 q. Evaluating the
previous function over x0 P X, we get:

ppti qpx0 q “ ti px0 qn ` f ˚ pai qpx0 qti px0 qn´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` f ˚ pan´1 qpx0 qti px0 q ` f ˚ pan qpx0 q
“ ti px0 qn ` ai py0 qti px0 qn´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an´1 py0 qti px0 q ` an py0 q
“0

that is, the possible coordinates ti px0 q “ xi px0 q of x0 are roots of a polynomial with coefficient ai py0 q, for
fixed y0 , and hence finite in number. Hence f ´1 py0 q is finite.
Variant. Assume, as before, that X and Y are affine. The set f ´1 pyq is a closed subset of X, and hence
a subvariety (which we will consider as reduced). Hence we can write f ´1 pyq “ Z1 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ Y Zl , where Zi are
the irreducible components of f ´1 pyq. The Zi are irreducible subvarieties of X, and hence the ideals IpZi q
are prime pi such that pf ˚ q´1 ppi q “ my (because the image of Zi is y). But then, since f ˚ : krY s - krXs
is integral, the pi is a maximal, by corollary .6.8 and hence Zi have to be points.

Proposition 2.7.12. Let f : X - Y a finite and dominant morphism. Then f is surjective.

Proof. Take an open affine cover pVi qi of Y as in the definition of finite morphism. It is clear that all
restrictions f ´1 pVi q - Vi are dominant. Hence it is sufficient to take X and Y affine. The morphism of
rings f ˚ : krY s - krXs is integral and injective. Take P P Y and consider the maximal ideal mP P krY s.
There exists a maximal ideal n of krXs such that pf ˚ q´1 pnq “ mP . But k is algebraically closed and
considering the point Q :“ V pnq, we hence have that f pQq “ P and hence f pQq “ P .

Remark 2.7.13. Suppose that X and Y are affine algebraic varieties, reduced, over a non-necessarily closed
field k. The above proposition proves that if f ˚ : krY s - krXs is an integral morphism of k-algebras,
then the map induced on the maximal spectrums

fp : SpecpkrXsq - SpecpkrY sq

given by
fppmq “ pf ˚ q´1 pmq
is always surjective, for k an arbitrary field. However, surjectivity at the spectrum level does not mean
surjectivity of the map f : X - Y , if the field k is not algebraically closed.
Proposition 2.7.14. Let f : X - Y a finite morphism. Then f is closed.
ˇ
Proof. Let Z be a closed of X. Consider f ˇZ : Z Ă - f pZq. It is a dominant finite morphism. Hence it is
surjective. Hence f pZq “ f pZq.

72
2.8 Noether’s Normalization Lemma
Proposition 2.8.1. Let L a linear subvariety of Pn and X a closed nonempty algebraic subvariety of Pn
such that X X L “ H. Let E a complementary linear subvariety of L inside Pn . Then the projection of
center L: πL : X - E is a finite morphism.

Proof. Step 1. Let’s prove first the case in which L “ Q is a point. Let E be a complementary variety of
Q in Pn (it is sufficient to take an hyperplane not containing Q). We can find homogeneous coordinates
rx0 , . . . , xn s in Pn such that Q “ r0, . . . , 0, 1s and such that the complementary variety E has equation
xn “ 0: take for example, a projective frame P0 , . . . , Pn , U , such that P0 “ Q, Pi P E for i “ 1, . . . , n.
Hence the coordinates rx0 , . . . , xn´1 s are natural homogeneous coordinates on E » Pn´1 . The projection
πQ : Pn zQ - Pn´1 sends rx0 , . . . , xn s to rx0 , . . . , xn´1 s. Let I “ pF1 , . . . , Fl q be the homogeneous ideal15
defining X. One of the Fi can’t necessarily vanish on Q, otherwise Q P X. Suppose that F1 pQq ‰ 0, and
set F :“ F1 . Hence X Ď V pF q and Q R V pF q. To prove the proposition, it is sufficient to prove that
πQ : V pF q - E » Pn´1 is a finite morphism. Suppose that F is, of course homogeneous, of degree d.
Since F pQq ‰ 0, the monomial xdn has to have a nonzero coefficient, hence F can be written as
ÿ
F px0 , . . . , xn q “ xdn ` Ai px0 , . . . , xn´1 qxd´i
n
i

with Ai px0 , . . . , xn q homogeneous of degree i. Let Ui the fundamental affine open set in Pn defined by xi ‰ 0,
and Vi the fundamental affine open set of Pn´1 defined by xi ‰ 0, for i “ 0, . . . , n´1. It is clear that, if Q R Ui ,
for i “ 0, . . . , n, and hence that πQ defines projections πQ : Ui - Vi , for all i “ 0, . . . , n ´ 1. Identifying
Ui with An and Vi with An´1 , the projection πQ : An » Ui - Vi » An´1 sends coordinates py1 , . . . , yn q
to py1 , . . . , yn´1 q (do the computation)16 . Now V pF q X Ui is defined by the polynomial fi py1 , . . . , yn q “
F py1 , . . . , yi , 1, yi`1 , . . . , yn q “ 0. Now fi py1 , . . . , yn q “ ynd ` i Ai py1 , . . . , yi , 1, yi`1 , . . . , yn´1 qynd´i . Hence
ř

krV pfi qs » kry1 , . . . , yn s{pfi q, and hence the map πQ : V pfi q “ V pF q X Ui - An´1 » Vi induces a
pull-back
˚
πQ : kry1 , . . . , yn´1 s - kry1 , . . . , yn´1 , yn s{pfi q ,

sending yi to yi if i ď n ´ 1. Hence yi P krV pfi qs, i “ 1, . . . , n ´ 1 are all integral over kry1 , . . . , yn´1 s. The
element yn is also integral over kry1 , . . . , yn´1 s since it satisfies the monic equation
ÿ
ynd ` Ai py1 , . . . , yi , 1, yi`1 , . . . , yn´1 qynd´i “ 0
i

with coefficients (coming from) kry1 , . . . , yn´1 s. Since krV pfi qs is generated by integral elements, the whole
ring is integral over kry1 , . . . , yn´1 s » krVi s. Hence, for any i “ 0, . . . , n ´ 1 the morphism of affine varieties
πQ : V pF q X Ui - Vi is finite and hence πQ : V pF q - E is finite. Hence πQ : X - E is finite.
Step 2. Any projection πL of center L of dimension r is a composition of projections from (independent)
points Q0 , . . . Qr P L, r “ dim L (see proposition 1.3.9). Use induction.

Theorem 2.8.2 (Noether’s Normalization Lemma). 1. (Projective Version). Let X Ď Pn a projective

variety. Then there exists a linear subvariety L of Pn such that L X X “ H such that, if E is a
15 we do not need that this ideal is reduced
16 Indeed py1 , . . . , yn q is identified with the point ry1 , . . . yi , 1, yi`1 , . . . , yn s, which is projected to ry1 , . . . yi , 1, yi`1 , . . . , yn´1 s
and hence can be identified with the point py1 , . . . , yn´1 q in An´1 .

73
 complementary linear subvariety of L inside Pn , the projection πL : X - E of center L is finite
surjective.
2. (Affine Version). Let X Ď An an affine variety over an infinite field, not necessarily algebraically
closed. Then there exists a finite and dominant morphism f : X - Am , for some m ď n, surjective
if k is algebraically closed. The morphism f can be realized as a parallel projection (a projection from
a linear subvariety L at infinity) onto an affine subspace.
3. (Algebraic Version). Let A be a finitely generated k-algebra. Then there exists x1 , . . . , xl P A, alge-
braically independent over k such that the inclusion krx1 , . . . , xl s Ă - A is integral.

Proof. 1. Projective Version. If X “ Pnk , there is nothing to prove. Suppose that X ‰ Pnk . Then it is a
proper closed of Pnk . Take a point Q in Pnk zX and a complementary hyperplane H. Consider the projectin
πQ : Pnk zQ - H of center Q onto H and restrict to X. The Properness Theorem assures us that πQ pXq
is a closed subset of H. The previous proposition assures us that
ˇ
πQ ˇX : X - H

is finite. If πQ pXq “ H, we are done, otherwise, work by inductively on the reduce projective variety
πQ pXq Ď H. The process surely stops after a finite number of steps.
2a. Affine Version. If X “ Ank , there is nothing to prove. Suppose not, embed Ank in the projective space
Pnk via the map

Ank Ă - Pnk
px1 , . . . , xn q - r1, x1 , . . . , xn s .

Consider now the Zariski closure X of X in Pnk ; if X Ď Ank , then X X H8 Ď H8 . Consider then a point
Q P H8 zX and project X from Q over a complementary hyperplane H. The intersection HXAnk is isomorphic
to an affine subspace E “ An´1
k of Ank , moreover πQ pXq Ď E and πQ pXq “ πQ pXq X E is a closed algebraic
subset (affine subvariety) of E. But
πQ : X - H

is finite, hence
´1
πQ : πQ pEq “ X - E

is finite as a morphism of affine varieties. If it is not surjective, then use induction on πQ pXq inside E. The
process surely stops after a finite number of steps. Note that πQ pXq Ď E is the affine subvariety defined by
the kernel of the integral map π ˚ : kry1 , . . . , yn´1 s - krXs.
Q
2b. Affine Version, k not necessarily algebraically closed, but infinite. In the previous case, we used the
projective case to prove that πQ pXq is closed in E. Here we refine the previous argument to circumvent the
properness theorem, which does not hold if k is not algebraically closed. As in 2, we can consider the case in
which X Ĺ Ank . Hence X Ĺ Pnk and X XH8 Ĺ H8 . Hence there is Q P H8 zX. The homogeneous coordinates
of Q are r0, β1 , . . . , βn s, with one of the βi ‰ 0. By permutation of coordinates, we can suppose that βn ‰ 0,
so that Q “ r0, α1 , . . . , αn´1 , 1s. Remember, that, over any field k, if X had equations pg1 , . . . , gh q, then
the equations of X X H8 are given by pg1,d1 , . . . , gh,dh q where gi,di is the homogeneous component of gi of
maximum degree. Hence if Q R X X H8 , then gi,di pQq ‰ 0 for some i. Here we need the hypothesis on the

74
infinity of k. Suppose now, without loss in generality, that gh,dh pQq ‰ 0. Set gh “ gh,dh ` u and set f :“ gh .
Hence, setting krXs “ krx̄1 , . . . , x̄n s “ krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX , then

f px1 , . . . , xn q “ 0

and

f px1 ` α1 xn , . . . , xn´1 ` αn´1 xn , xn q “ gh,dh px1 ` α1 xn , . . . , xn´1 ` αn´1 xn , xn q ` upx1 ` α1 , . . . , xn´1 ` αn´1 xn , xn q
“ xdnh gh,dh pα1 , . . . , αn , 1q ` lower terms in xn

Dividing by gh,dh pα1 , . . . , αn , 1q, we have that, over X:

dÿ
h ´1

0 “ xdnh ` ai px1 , . . . , xn´1 qxin

i“0

which says that xn is integral over krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s via the map

krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s - krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX “ krx1 , . . . , xn s “ krXs

given by
xi - xi ` αi xn .
ˇ˚
But this map is the pullback πQ ˇX of the projection
ˇ
πQ ˇX : X - An´1
k

where An´1
k is the affine subspace with coordinates xn “ 0 in Ank . Of course, here we indicate with πQ the
projective projection of center Q onto Pn´1
k “ Hxn “0 , of homogeneous coordinates rx0 , . . . , xn´1 s. So we
ˇ n´1
proved that πQ ˇX : X - Ak is a finite morphism. We have that the Zariski closure

ˇ Akn´1
X1 “ im πQ ˇX
ˇ ˇ˚
of im πQ ˇX in An´1
k is given by the kernel of the map πQ ˇX : krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s - krXs above. If the kernel
is p0q, and hence the image is dense, then there is nothing more to prove, otherwise, we continue, quotienting
by the kernel, we get the integral map
˚
πQ
krX1 s “ krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s - krXs

ˇ Pn´1
and we continue the process taking a Q2 P H8 X Pn´1
k
k , such that Q2 R im πQ ˇX . In the end we will have
an injective of integral morphisms
˚ ˚ ˚
πQ πQr´1 πQ πQ
r 2
krx1 , . . . , xl s - krx1 , . . . , xl`1 s “ krXr´1 s - ... - krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s “ krX1 s - krXs

which are pull-back of projections from points at infinity. Since compositions of projections from points is a
projection of center a subspace, and since a projection of center a subspace at infinity is a parallel projection,
the whole composition is the dominant parallel projection

pL : X - Alk

75
of direction L “ Q _ Q1 _ ¨ ¨ ¨ _ Qr , r “ n ´ l, identifying subspaces at infinity in H8 with vector subspaces
of k n “ Ank . Note that we do not need X to be reduced, that is, the ideal pg1 , . . . , gh q to be radical.
3. Algebraic Version. Any finitely generated k-algebra is of the form krx1 , . . . , xn s{I, where I is an ideal
of krx1 , . . . , xn s: here k is not necessarily algebraically closed. The ideal I defines an affine variety in Ank .
The geometric proof above show how to get an injective integral morphism

krx1 , . . . , xl s - krx1 , . . . , xn s “ krx1 , . . . , xn s{I ,

where krx1 , . . . , xl s is a polynomial ring. The statement is then proven.

Remark 2.8.3. Over a non-algebraically closed field k, it is not true that a dominant finite morphism is
surjective (on k-rational points)17 . The third statement holds in general, whatever is the field k, even not
infinite.

2.9 Dimension
2.9.1 Dimension as Transcendence Degree of the field of rational functions
Remark 2.9.1. Let X be an irreducible variety. Then RpXq is a finitely generated as a field over k.

Proof. Take a nonempty affine open set U of X. Then the restriction i : U Ă - X induces an isomorphism
„
of k-algebras; RpXq - kpU q. Now U is an affine variety, hence U » V pIq Ď An , for some radical
k
ideal I of krx1 , . . . , xn s. Hence krU s » krx1 , . . . , xn s{I, and, taken αi the images of xi in krU s, then
krU s “ krα1 , . . . , αn s and
RpXq » kpU q » kpα1 , . . . , αn q .

Definition 2.9.2. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety. Its dimension is the transcendence degree of
its field of rational functions RpXq over k:

dim X :“ trdegk RpXq .

Let now Y be an algebraic variety, non necessarily irreducible, and let Y1 , . . . , Yn be its irreducible
components. We define the dimension of Y at the point y P Y the maximum:

dimy Y :“ max dim Yi .

i | Yi Qy

We define the dimension of Y as

dim Y “ max dimy Y “ max dim Yi .

yPY i“1,...,n

An algebraic variety Y such that all irreducible components are of the same dimension is called equidi-
mensional.
17 Consider for example the morphism S 1 Ď A2R - A1R , induced by the projection onto the x-axis. It is surely finite and
dominant but not surjective.

76
Example 2.9.3. The affine space Ank and the projective space Pnk are of dimension n. Indeed, as we already
know,
RpPnk q “ RpAnk q “ kpx1 , . . . , xn q

and x1 , . . . , xn are algebraically independent over k, hence they form a transcendence basis over k; then

dim Pnk “ dim Ank “ trdegk kpx1 , . . . , xn q “ n .

Exercise 92. Prove that if X is an irreducible variety X and U is an open set of X, then dim X “ dim U .

Exercise 93. Let X and Y two algebraic varieties, not necessarily irreducible. Prove that

dim X ˆ Y “ dim X ` dim Y .

Begin with the hypothesis that X and Y are irreducible.

Exercise 94. Prove that if f : X - Y is a finite morphism between irreducible affine algebraic varieties,
then kpXq is algebraic over kpY q and hence dim X “ dim Y .

Hint: Prove that if ϕ : A - B is an injective integral morphism of integral domains, then ϕ induces an
Ă

injective morphism ϕ : KA Ă - KB making KB an algebraic extension of KA .

2.9.2 Krull dimension

Definition 2.9.4. A noetherian topological space is said to be of finite Krull dimension if the length of all
possibles strict chains of irreducible closed subsets

H Ĺ X0 Ĺ X1 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ Xr Ĺ X

is bounded above. The maximum of the lenghts of all these chains is called the Krull dimension of X,
denoted with dimKrull X.

Exercise 95. Let X be a noetherian topological space and X1 , . . . , Xr its irreducible components. If X has
finite Krull dimension, then each of the Xi has finite Krull dimension and

dimKrull X “ max Xi .
i“1,...,n

Exercise 96. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety. Prove that, if U is an open subset of X, then
dimKrull X “ dimKrull U .

We will now prove that for an algebraic variety, Krull dimension equals dimension. We begin with the
following geometric transposition of Cohen-Seidenberg Lemma.

Lemma 2.9.5 (Cohen-Seidenberg). Let f : X - Y a finite surjective morphism of irreducible algebraic

varieties. Then
i) For any irreducible closed subset Z of Y , there exist a closed irreducible closed subset F of X such that
f pF q “ Z.
ii) If F and G are two irreducible closed subsets of X such that f pF q “ f pGq “ Z, then

F Ď G ùñ F “ G .

77
Proof. i). Consider the closed subset f ´1 pZq in X and decompose it in irreducible components Fi , i P I, I
finite. Then
f ´1 pZq “ Yi Fi .

Then, since f is surjective, then

Z “ f pf ´1 pZqq “ Yi f pFi q .

Since f is finite, then f is closed, and f pFi q are closed for any i. But Z is irreducible, then Z “ f pFi0 q for
some i0 P I.
ii). Take F and G two irreducible subsets of X such that f pF q “ f pGq “ Z, with Z irreducible, and
with F Ď G. We cover Y with a finite number of affine subsets Vi ; we know that f ´1 pVi q are affine, since
a finite morphism is affine. It is sufficient to prove that F X f ´1 pVi q “ G X f ´1 pVi q. Hence,up to replacing
X with f ´1 pVi q and Y with Vi , we can suppose that X and Y are affine irreducible varieties. Consider the
ˇ
restriction f ˇG : G - Y : it is still a finite morphism, that is the pull-back

f ˚ : krY s - krGs

is integral. Then if F Ĺ G, then there exists u P krGs vanishing over F but not over G. Now u is integral
over krY s, via f ˚ : this means that u satisfy a monic polynomial equation

ur ` f ˚ pa1 qur´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` f ˚ par´1 qu ` f ˚ par q “ 0 (2.7)

over G, with ai P krY s. We can suppose that this relation is of minimal degree. If f ˚ par q “ 0, then, since
krGs is an integral domain (G is irreducible), this would imply that u would satify another monic polynomial
relation, of lower degree over krGs. But we took a relation of minimal degree: then f ˚ par q ‰ 0 over G.
Hence, there exists p P G, such that f ˚ par qppq “ 0. But

0 ‰ f ˚ par qppq “ ar pf ppqq “ ar pf pqqq

for some q P F , since f pF q “ f pGq. Hence

0 ‰ f ˚ par qppq “ ar pf ppqq “ ar pf pqqq “ f ˚ par qpqq “ 0

hence absurd. The last equality follows from the fact that q P F and over F the function u vanishes, implying
f ˚ par qpqq “ 0 by equation (2.7).

Exercise 97. Prove that if f : X - Y is a closed and surjective morphism of algebraic varieties, then, if
Z is an irreducible closed subset of Y , there exists an irreducible closed subset F of X such that f pF q “ Z.

Proposition 2.9.6. Let f : X - Y a finite surjective morphism of irreducible algebraic varieties. Then
dim X “ dim Y and dimKrull X “ dimKrull Y

Proof. i) In order to prove that dim X “ dim Y , consider the (injective) morphism of field extensions of k:

f ˚ : RpY q - RpXq .

Take an affine open subset V of Y and set U “ f ´1 pU q: then U is affine and f : U - V is finite, hence
ˇ
f ˚ ˇ : krV s Ă - krU s is integral. Then by exercise 94, we have
V

dimX “ trdegk RpXq “ trdegk kpU q “ trdegk kpV q “ trdegk RpY q “ dim Y .

78
 ii). Consider an increasing sequence of irreducible closed subsets in Y :

Z0 Ĺ Z1 Ĺ Z2 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ Zr .

Consider by Cohen-Seidenberg Lemma i), an irreducible closed subset Fr in X such that f pFr q “ Zr . The
ˇ
morphism f ˇFr : Fr - Zr is finite and surjective, hence the same argument can be applied to the closed
irreducilbe subset Zr´1 in order to find an irreducible subset Fr´1 Ď Fr such that f pFr´1 q “ Zr´1 . Of
course Fr´1 Ĺ Fr . Continuing like this, we can find a sequence of irreducible closed subsets

F0 Ĺ F1 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ Fr´1 Ĺ Fr

such that f pFi q “ Zi . This proves that dimKrull X ě dimKrull Y .

Consider now a strict increasing sequence of closed irreducible subsets

F0 Ĺ F1 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ Fr´1 Ĺ Fr

in X. Since Zi “ f pFi q are closed, we get a sequence of irreducible closed subsets

Z0 Ď Z1 Ď Z2 Ď ¨ ¨ ¨ Ď Zr .

We just have to prove that the sequence is strict. But if Zi “ f pFi q “ f pFi`1 q “ Zi`1 , we would have that
by Cohen-Seidenberg ii), that Fi “ Fi`1 , which is absurd. Hence dimKrull X ď dimKrull Y .

Theorem 2.9.7. Let X be an algebraic variety. Then dim X “ dimKrull X.

Proof. Since, for an arbitrary variety X both Krull dimension and dimension satisfy

dim X “ max dim Xi dimKrull X “ max dimKrull Xi

i i

if Xi are irreducible components of X, in order to prove that dim X “ dimKrull X, we can reduce to the case
that X is irreducible. Take an open affine subset U of X. We have

dim U “ dim X

and dimKrull U “ dimKrull X by exercises ??, ??. So it is sufficient to prove the theorem for irreducible affine
varieties. Let X be an affine subvariety of Ank . Let’s prove the theorem by induction over n. For n “ 0, it
is true, since X “ A0k is a point, and 0 “ trdegk k “ dim X and the only nonempty closed subset in X is X
itself. Suppose n ą 0 and that the theorem is true for m ă n and let’s prove it for n. Suppose first X Ĺ Ank .
Then by Noether normalization there exists a finite surjecitve morphism π : X - - Am , with m ă n. Then
k

dim X “ dim Am m
k “ dimKrull pAk q “ dimKrull X

by induction. So we just have to prove the case X “ Ank . Let x1 , . . . , xn coordinates over Ank . Of course

V px1 , . . . , xn q Ď V px1 , . . . , xn´1 q Ĺ V px1 q Ď Ank

is a strict increasing sequence of irreducible subsets of Ank , hence

dimk pAnk q ě n “ dim Ank .

79
We have to prove that dimKrull pAnk q ď n .Take a strictly increasing sequence Z0 Ĺ Z1 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ Zr´1 Ĺ Ank of
irreducible closed subsets of Ank . Then

r ´ 1 ď dimKrull Zr´1 ,

but now, for Zr´1 there exists a finite morphism p : Zr´1 - Am , with m ă n: hence, by induction
k

r ´ 1 ď dimKrull Zr´1 “ dimKrull Am

k “m

and hence r ď m ` 1 ď n, therefore dimKrull Ank ď n.

Theorem 2.9.8 (Projective Noether Normalization, refined version). Let X Ď Pn a projective variety of
dimension d. Then there exists a linear subvariety L of Pn of dimension n ´ d ´ 1 such that L X X “ H
and such that the morphism πL : X - E, where E is a complementary variety of L in Pn , is finite and
surjective.
Moreover, for any other linear subvariety L1 of dimension n ´ d ´ 1 such that L1 X X “ H, with a
complementary linear subvariety E 1 , the morphism πL1 : X - E 1 is finite and surjective.

Corollary 2.9.9. Let X Ď Pn a projective variety of dimension d. If L is a linear subvariety of Pn such

that L X X “ H, then dim L ď n ´ dim X ´ 1. Hence

dim X “ maxtn ´ r ´ 1 | D L linear subvariety of Pr of dimension r such that L X X “ Hu

2.10 Intersections of algebraic varieties: Krull’s theorem and ap-

plications
2.10.1 Krull’s theorem
Theorem 2.10.1 (Krull’s lemma). Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety and f P OX pXq a global regular
function over X, such that f ‰ 0, f not invertible. Then all irreducible components of the closed subvariety
VX pf q have dimension dim X ´ 1.

Proof. It is clear that it is sufficient to prove that for any open subset U of X such that VX pf q X U ‰ H,
we have that VU pf q “ U X VX pf q has the desired property. Hence we can reduce to the case in which X
is affine and irreducible (since such U is irreducible) and f P krXs is a regular function, not zero and not
invertible over X.
Now, if X Ď An , and f P krXs, restriction of a polynomial f , such that f ‰ 0 over X, f not invertible,
we can think of An as a fundamental open subset U0 for the projective space Pn . If F px0 , . . . , xn q :“
xdeg
0
f
f px1 {x0 , . . . , xn {x0 q is the homogeneization of f , and if X is the Zariski closure of X in Pn , then
VX pf q :“ VX pF q X U0 “ V pF q X X X U0 . But dim VX pF q X U0 “ dim VX pF q. Moreover, we have that f not
zero and not constant over X if and only if deg F ą 0 and X Ę V pF q. Hence we are reduced to prove the
following theorem about intersection in the projective space.

Theorem 2.10.2. Let X be an irreducible projective variety of dimension n in Pm . Let V pF q a hypersurface

of Pm such that X Ę V pF q. Then all irreducible components of X X V pF q have dimension n ´ 1.

80
Proof. Step 1. Let d “ deg F be the degree of the hypersurface V pF q. Let νd : P n Ă - PN the Veronese
embedding of degree d. Then νd pV pF qq “ Vn,d X HF , where HF is a hyperplane determined by F . Hence
νd pX X V pF qq “ νd pXq X HF . Since X X V pF q » νd pX X V pF qq “ νd pXq X HF , replacing X with νd pXq
and Pm with PN , we are reduced to proving the following version of the theorem on hyperplane sections.

Theorem 2.10.3. Let X be an irreducible projective variety of dimension n in Pm . Let H be an hyperplane

of Pm such that X Ę H, then all irreducible components of X X H have dimension n ´ 1.

Step 2. Let ’s prove that, in the hypothesis of the theorem, dim X X H “ n ´ 1. Since X Ę H, then
X X H Ĺ X. Hence dim X X H “ dimKrull X X H ň dimKrull X “ dim X. Hence dim X X H ď n ´ 1.
Denote with X H :“ X X H. Hence there surely exists a linear subspace L Ď H of H, of dimension
pm ´ 1q ´ pn ´ 1q ´ 1 “ m ´ n ´ 1, such that L X X H “ H. Hence L X X “ H. Since dim L “ m ´ n ´ 1,
if E is a complementary linear variety of L inside Pm , the projection of center L: πL : X - E is a finite
surjective morphism, by the last version of Noether normalization theorem. Denote with π the projection of
center L inside H: π : X H - E H , where E H “ E X H is the complementary linear variety of L inside
H. It is a finite morphism; we want to prove that it is surjective. By definition of the morphisms involved,
we have the following diagram

XH Ă - X

π πL
? ?
?
H
E Ă - E
ˇ ˇ
- EH Ď
Since, by definition π ´1 pEH q “ XH , because π “ πL ˇX H , because L Ď H, and because πL ˇHzL : HzL -
H, then the first vertical map is surjective and hence, necessarily, dim X H “ dim E H “ n ´ 1.
Step 3. The previous step proves, in particular, that X H has at least one irreducible component of
dimension n ´ 1. We have to prove that all irreducible components of X H have dimension n ´ 1. Let
Y Ď X H such an irreducible component. Since the restriction π : Y - E H is surely finite, it is sufficient
to prove that π : Y - E H is surjective, or, equivalently, since π is finite, that it is dominant. Let H 1 any
hyperplane of E different from E H . Then E H zH 1 is affine. It is sufficient to prove that for such arbitrary
H 1 , the morphism of affine varieties π : Y zπ ´1 pH 1 q - E H zH 1 is surjective.
Since any such H 1 is obtained as E XM , where M is an hyperplane of Pm , containing L and different from
H (take M “ L _ H 1 ), and since Y zπ ´1 pH 1 q “ Y zM , it is sufficient to prove that for an arbitrary hyperplane
M of Pm , containing L and different from H, the morphism of affine varieties π : Y zM - E H zM is
surjective.
Fix now such an M , hyperplane of Pm , containing L and different from H. We now choose coordinates
rx0 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , yn´m s on Pm such that L has equation x0 “ 0 “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ xn , E has equations y1 “
0 “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ yn´m , H has equations xn “ 0, M has equations x0 “ 0. Then Pm zM is an affine space Am
with coordinates px1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , yn´m q, EzM “ An with coordinates px1 , . . . , xn q, E H zM “ An´1 with
coordinates px1 , . . . , xn´1 q. For brevity’s sake, denote X0 the irreducible affine variety X0 :“ XzM , Y0
the irreducible affine variety Y0 :“ Y zM , X0H the affine variety X0H :“ X H zM . Finally, note that the
projection of center L, πL , is defined over Pm zM and hence defines a map πL : Am - An , sending

81
px1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , yn´m q - px1 , . . . xn q. Hence we have the diagrams of morphisms of affine varieties:

Y0 Ă - X0H Ă - X0 Ă - Am

π πL πL πL
? ?
? ? ?
n´1 id- n´1 ?
- An id - ?
A A Ă An
“ “
where Y0 and X0 are irreducible, all vertical maps are finite morphisms, the second and third surjective,
and where all horizontal maps are closed immersions. This diagram correspond to a dual diagram of finitely
generated reduced k-algebras:
“ - krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s “
krx1 , . . . , xn s - krx1 , . . . , xn s - - krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s
X X X

˚ ˚ ˚
πL πL πL π˚
? ? ? ?
krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , yn´m s - krX0 s
- - krX0H s
- - krY0 s
-
This diagram allows us to see everything inside the affine space Am ; hence all regular functions of the affine
varieties involved are all restrictions of polynomials over Am . The surjectivity of π in the morphism of affine
varieties is equivalent to the injectivity of π ˚ in the diagram of k-algebras.
Suppose that π is not surjective. This means in particular that Y is not the only irreducible component
of X0H . This also means that the image of π, that is, πpY q is contained in a proper closed subset of
equation P “ 0, P px1 , . . . , xn1 q a nonzero polynomial in krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s. In other words π ˚ P “ 0 as a
˚
function over Y0 . We can lift this polynomial to a nonzero element P px1 , . . . , xn´1 q “ πL P px1 , . . . , xn´1 q
P krx1 , . . . , xn´1 , y1 , . . . , yn´m s (with the same expression, seen how the horizontal maps of k-algebras are
defined), and hence we can consider P as a nonzero regular function over X0 . That it is nonzero it comes
ˇ ˇ
˚
from the fact that πL : krx1 , . . . , xn´1 s Ă - krX0H s is injective, and hence P ˇX H ‰ 0. Hence P ˇX0 ‰ 0.
0
When restricted to X0H , P vanishes over Y0 , since π ˚ P “ 0. Since X0H is not irreducible, there exists a
proper closed Y 1 , Y 1 ‰ Y0 , such that X0H “ Y0 Y Y 1 ; hence there exists a nonzero regular function Q over
ˇ
krX0H s such that QˇY 1 “ 0. Hence P Q is zero over X0H . the regular function Q is restriction of a polynomial
Q P krx1 , . . . , xn , y1 , . . . , yn´m s and hence of a nonzero regular function Q in krX0 s. Consider the product
P Q in krX 0 s: it is nonzero because krX0 s is domain and P and Q are nonzero over X0 . But when projecting
P Q over X0H we get zero. Now krX0H s “ krX0 s{pxn q; hence xn  P Q in krX0 s. But pxn , P q “ 1, since
P “ P px1 , . . . , xn´1 q.
Now the extension krx1 , . . . , xn s - krX0 s is an integral extension of commutative domains, where the
one at the left is a UFD. Since xn  P Q we get from .6.15 that xn  Qk in krX0 s for some k P N˚ . Hence
ˇ
QˇX H “ 0 which is absurd.
0

Theorem 2.10.4 (Krull). Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety and f1 , . . . , fk non-invertible regular
functions over X. Then all irreducible components of VX pf1 , . . . , fk q have dimension at least ě dim X ´ k.
In other words all irreducible components of VX pf1 , . . . , fk q have codimension k in X.

Theorem 2.10.5. Let X, Y be irreducible projective varieties inside Pn . Then any (eventual) irreducible
component of X X Y have at least dimension dim X ` dim Y ´ n. In particular if dim X ` dim Y ě n, we
have that X X Y ‰ H.

82
Proof. The variety X ˆ Y Ď Pn ˆ Pn is irreducible of dimension dim X ` dim Y . Then X X Y » ∆ X pX ˆ Y q,
where ∆is the diagonal in Pn ˆ Pn , given by n-bihomogeneous equations ∆ “ V px0 ´ y0 , . . . , xn ´ yn q. Hence
every irreducible component of X X Y has at least dimension

dim X ˆ Y ´ n “ dim X ` dim Y ´ n .

Remark 2.10.6. Warning: it is false, in general, that if X is an irreducible variety of dimension n and
Ş ř
Y1 , . . . , Yr subvarieties of X, then codimX i Yi ď i codimX Yi . To have this we need the smoothness of
X and, in particular, the fact that ∆ is locally the zero of exactly n-functions. See Mumford, Red Book,
example I. (the example consist of a three-dimensional irreducible quadric cone X in A4k : inside X, we find,
as subvarieties, two dimensional planes Y and Z intersecting in a point. The inequality for codimX Y X Z
is obviously false. Equation (4) in Shafarevich, BAG1, page 76 suggests instead that it is true without
hypothesis on X. That’s not true unless X is smooth).

2.10.2 Applications

2.11 Dimension of the fibers of a morphism

Proposition 2.11.1. Let f : X - Y a dominant morphism of algebraic varieties. Then dim X ě dim Y .

Proof. Suppose first that X and Y are irreducible. The pull-back defines an injection of fields of rational
functions f ˚ : RpY q Ă - RpXq from which we conclude that

dim X “ trdegk RpXq ě trdegk RpY q “ dim Y .

Suppose now X and Y are not-necessarily irreducible. Decompose Y in irreducible components Y1 Y

¨ ¨ ¨ Y Yr ; suppose the decomposition is minimal. Take f ´1 pYi0 q and decompose it in irreducible components
X1 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ Y Xs . Since the map
f ´1 pYi0 q - Yi
0

has to be dominant, otherwise the image of f would be inside the proper closed subset Yi‰i0 Yi , and since
ď Yi0
f pXi q “ Yi0
i
ˇ
it follows from the fact that Yi0 is irreducible, that there exists a Xi0 such that the restriction f ˇXi :
0
Xi0 - Yi0 is dominant. Then dim Yi0 ď dim Xi0 by the preceding point. Hence

dim Y “ max dim Yi ď max dim Xj “ dim X .

i j

Exercise 98. Let X, Y be algebraic varieties. The projection πX : X ˆ Y - Y is open.

Theorem 2.11.2. Let f : X - Y a dominant morphism of irreducible algebraic varieties. Then dim X ě
dim Y and

83
 i) dimx f ´1 pf pxqq ě dim X ´ dim Y , for all x P X;
ii) there exists an open set U in X and V in Y such that f pU q “ V and for each x P U

dimx f ´1 pf pxqq “ dim X ´ dim Y .

Proof. The statement dim X ě dim Y follows from the previous proposition. Let’s prove i). Since Y is
irreducible, taking an affine open set W of Y , we have dim Y “ dim W , and f ´1 pW q is an open set of X,
hence irreducible of dim X. then we can replace Y with W and X with X with f ´1 pW q, we can assume
that Y is affine irreducible. Then, by Noether Normalization, we can find a finite surjective morphism
π:Y - Am , with m “ dim Y . Consider the composition
k

π˝f :X - Am
k .

We have that, as closed subvarieties:

f ´1 pyq Ď pπ ˝ f q´1 pπpyqq

hence, since g is finite, a irreducible component of f ´1 pyq is among irreducible components of pπ ˝ f q´1 pπpyqq
if x P f ´1 pyq, then

dimx f ´1 pf pxqq ď dim f ´1 pyq ď dimpπ ˝ f q´1 pπpyqq ď dim X ´ m

where the last inequality is exactly Krull theorem 2.10.4.

In ordert to prove ii), we proceed as in i), take an affine open subset W of Y an an affine open subset
W of f ´1 pW q; replacing Y with W and X with W 1 , we can suppose that f : X
1 - Y is a dominant
morphism of affine irreducible algebraic varieties. Then consider the field extension f ˚ : RpY q Ă - RpXq:
set d “ trdegRpY q RpXq and consider a transcendence basis x1 , . . . , xd of RpXq over RpY q. Hence the
extension g ˚ : RpY qpx1 , . . . , xd q Ă - RpXq is algebraic. We obtain a dominant rational map

g:X - Y ˆ Adk

such that πY ˝ g “ f , as rational maps. Consider more in detail the monomorphism of fields

g ˚ : RpY qpx1 , . . . , xd q Ă - RpXq .

Let x̃i the images of xi in RpXq: they are rational functions. Restricted to krY srx1 , . . . , xd s the morphism
g ˚ sends
ÿ ÿ
aα xα - f ˚ paα qx̃α
α α

where aα P krY s. Therefore, if U is an affine open subset of X where x̃i are defined as regular functions for
all i, the morphism g ˚ restricts to a morphism of k-algebras

g ˚ : krY srx1 , . . . , xd s - OX pU q

and hence comes from a morphism of algebraic varieties

g:U - Y ˆ Adk
ˇ ˇ
such that πY ˝ g ˇU “ f ˇU . The algebra OX pU q is finitely generated over k. Consider generators uj of the
algebra over k. The elements uj are surely algebraic over krY srx1 , . . . , xd s, but over an adequate principal

84
open subset V of Y ˆ Adk they become integral (explain in detail why). Consider now W “ g ´1 pV q X U .
Since U is affine (can be taken as principal) and g ´1 pV q is the pre-image of a principal open subset and
hence principal, then W is a principal open subset of X, and hence affine. Over W we have a commutative
diagram of morphisms
ˇ
g ˇW
XĚW - V Ď Y ˆ Adk

ˇ
πY ˇV

ˇˇ
f
W

-
?
Y
ˇ
By construction the morphism OY ˆAdk pV q - OX pW q is integral, hence the morphism g ˇ is finite and
W ˇ
dominant, hence surjective. Let x P W and consider y P Y , such that y “ f pxq. The morphism g ˇW induces
a finite morphism18
ˇ ˇ´1
g ˇ ˇˇ´1 : f ˇW pyq “ W X f ´1 pyq - π ´1 pyq X V
f pyq Y
W

which is still dominant and hence surjective. Hence

dimx f ´1 pyq “ dimgpxq πY´1 pyq X V “ d ,

since πY´1 pyq X V is isomorphic to an open subset of Adk . By the preceding exercise, πY pV q is an open subset
of Y .

Corollary 2.11.3. Let f : X - Y a morphism of algebraic varieties. The function over X:

x - dimx f ´1 pf pxqq

is upper semicontinuous.

Proof. We first show that if the theorem is true for X and Y irreducible, then it is true for arbitrary X and
ˇ
Y . Indeed, decompose X in irreducible components Xi and denote with fi the restriction f ˇ . We have
Xi
ď
f ´1 pf pxqq “ fi´1 pfi pxqq
i

and hence
dimx f ´1 pf pxqq “ max dimx fi´1 pfi pxqq .
i

Consider now, for a fixed natural number `, the subset

F :“ tx P X | dimx f ´1 pf pxqq ě `u .

It is clearly the union of the subsets

Fi :“ tx P Xi | dimx f ´1 pf pxqq ě `u

in Xi . The statement is equivalent to the fact that F is closed, but this follows if we know that all Fi are
closed in Xi . Hence the general statement in the theorem follows if we know the statement for X irreducible.
18 prove
ˇ´1
that g ´1 pπ ˇV pyqq “ W X f ´1 pyq

85
But if this is the case f pXq will be inside an irreducible component of Y , so that the statement of the
theorem is true if we know the statement for X and Y irreducible.
We now prove the theorem by induction on the dimension of X. The case dim X “ 0 is obvious.
Suppose that dim X ě 1 and that the theorem is true for any morphism g : A - B of varieties where
dim A ă dimX. To prove the theorem for X, we can, by the previous step, suppose that X (and hence Y )
are irreducible. By the previous theorem, there exists an open subset U of X where the function above is
ˇ
constant of minimum value d :“ dim X ´ dim Y . Take Z :“ XzU . Consider the restriction f ˇZ : Z - Y .
ˇ
We have that dim Z ă dim X. The theorem works for f ˇZ : Z - Y . Consider the set F defined above:

F :“ tx P X | dimx f ´1 pf pxqq ě `u .

If ` ď d, then F “ X, which is closed in X, and if ` ą d, then F Ď Z, and

ˇ´1 ˇ
F “ tz P Z | dim f ´1 pf pxqq ě `u “ tz P Z | dim f ˇZ pf ˇZ pxqq ě `u

but the last one is a closed subset of Z by induction on dimension. Hence F is always a closed subset of X
and then the function
x - dimx f ´1 pf pxqq

is upper semicontinuous.

Corollary 2.11.4. Let f : X - Y a morphism of algebraic varieties, closed and surjective. Then the
function over Y :
y - dim f ´1 pyq

is upper-semicontinuous. In particular there exists an open set V of Y such that for any y P U ,

dim f ´1 pyq “ d :“ min dim f ´1 pyq @y P U .

yPY

Finally, if X is irreducible and the fibers f ´1 pyq are irreducible for y in an open subset V of Y , then
d “ dim X ´ dim Y .

Proof. Indeed
dim f ´1 pyq “ sup dimx f ´1 pf pxqq .
xPf ´1 pyq

Take a natural ` P N. The set G` “ ty P Y | dim f ´1 pyq ě `u is the image of F` “ tx P X | dimx f ´1 pf pxqq ě
`u, because the map f is surjective. Since F` is closed by the previous theorem, and the fact that f is closed,
then G` is closed for every `. Hence the function

y - dim f ´1 pyq

is upper semicontinuous.
For the second statement, take y0 P Y such that dim f ´1 py0 q “ `0 is of minimum dimension. Then
Y “ G`0 “ ty P Y | dim f ´1 pyq ě `0 u and G`0 `1 is a strict closed subset in Y . Take V “ Y zG`0 `1 .
If f ´1 pyq is irreducible for y P W , W open set, then for y P W X V , we have that dimy f ´1 pyq “
dimx f ´1 pf pxqq for any x P f ´1 pyq. If X is irreducible, then Y is irreducible and then we can use the first

86
theorem of this subsection: consider the open set U in the theorem, and take the open set f pU q X W X V of
Y . Then if y P Ũ “ f pU q X W X V , then

dimy f ´1 pyq “ dimx f ´1 pf pxqq “ dim X ´ dim Y .

Remark 2.11.5. We point out here a mistake in Shafarevich, chapter I, section 6.3. By Corollary follow-
ing Theorem 7 one deduces that if f : X - Y is a morphism of irreducible varieties, the function
y - dim f ´1 pyq is upper semicontinuous. This is not true, if f is not closed. Indeed, consider the
morphism
f : k3 - k3

given by px, y, zq - px, pxy ´ 1qy, pxy ´ 1qzq. Prove that it is surjective, and that the set

S “ ts P k 3 | dim f ´1 pf paqq “ 1u

is a closed surface of k 3 . Prove that the function y - dim f ´1 pyq is not upper semicontinuous. Prove
that f is not closed.

Theorem 2.11.6. Let f : X - Y a map of algebraic varieties, closed and surjective. Then if Y is
irreducible, and f ´1 pyq is irreducible of the same dimension d for every y P Y , then X is irreducible of
dimension dim X “ dim Y ` d.

Proof. Set X “ Yi Xi a decomposition in irreducible components of X. Of course, there exists i0 P I such that
ˇ
f pXi0 q “ Y , since f is closed and all the f pXi q are irreducible. For any i P I, consider fi :“ f ˇXi : Xi - Y
and the open set Vi of Y defined as Vi :“ Y zf pXi q if f pXi q Ĺ Y , and as in corollary 2.11.4, if f pXi q “ Y .
In this last case, for y P Vi , we have

dim fi´1 pyq “ di “ min dim fi´1 pyq

yPY

The intersection Xi Ui is dense in Y , because Y is irreducible. Take y0 P Xi Vi . Then f ´1 py0 q Ď Yi Xi and

since f ´1 py0 q is irreducible, there exists i0 P I such that f ´1 py0 q Ď Xi0 . But then

f ´1 py0 q Ď fi´1
0
py0 q

and the other inclusion Ě is trivial, hence f ´1 py0 q “ fi´1

0
py0 q and hence

d “ dim f ´1 py0 q “ dim fi´1

0
py0 q “ di0

Since fi´1
0
py0 q ‰ H, then fi0 : Xi0 - Y is surjective and closed. Then for any y P Y , we have that

fi´1
0
pyq Ď f ´1 pyq ;

moreover
dim f ´1 i0 ´1 pyq ě di0 “ di0 “ d .

take an irreducible component Zi0 ,y of dimension ě d of f ´1 i0 ´1 pyq: we have

Zi0 ,y Ď f ´1 i0 ´1 pyq Ď f ´1 pyq

87
but f ´1 pyq is irreducible of degree d, hence

Zi0 ,y “ f ´1 i0 ´1 pyq “ f ´1 pyq .

Since fi´1
0
pyq “ f ´1 pyq for each y P Y , we then have that

X “ Xi0

and hence it is irreducible.

Now we know that X is irreducible and all its fibers are irreducible. The last statement of corollary
2.11.4 says that dim X “ dim Y ` d.

Remark 2.11.7. The previous theorem works when f : X - Y is a dominant map of projective varieties,
such that Y is irreducible and all fibers are irreducible.

2.12 Incidence Varieties

In this section we describe a few important examples of incidence varieties. Incidence varieties are natural
subvarieties of some product varieties.

Definition 2.12.1. Consider the grassmannian Grpk, nq of k-dimensional subspaces in k n . Denote with
Λ “ tpL, xq P Grpk, nq ˆ k n | x P Lu. We prove below that it is a closed algebraic subset of Grpk, nq ˆ k n
and hence a subvariety of the product Grpk, nq ˆ k n . It is called the incidence variety of the Grassmannian.

Exercise 99. The incidence variety Λ of the Grassmannian is a closed subvariety of the product Grpk, nqˆk n .

Solution. Hint: Describe Λ in an affine open set of the form UKI ˆ k n : it will be given by some minors of
some matrix.

The fact that incidence varieties are subvarieties of the product of two varieties, give the possibility
to project the incidence variety over both of the factors of the product. Indeed call the first and second
projection from the product Grpk, nq ˆ k n to each to its factors with π and p. Consider the diagram

p - n
Grpk, nq ˆ k n Ě Λ k

π
?
Grpk, nq

The diagram will be very useful in proving the following.

Proposition 2.12.2. The incidence variety Λ is irreducible of dimension kpn ´ kq ` k.

Proof. The projection p : Λ - Grpk, nq is surjective, since any k-subspace contains a point, for sure. The
fiber p´1 pLq over a k-subspace L is just the set of points inside L: hence it is a subvariety of Λ irreducible of
dimension k. Since Grpk, nq is irreducible, then, by theorem ??, Λ is irreducible of dimension kpn´kq`k.

Exercise 100. Prove the preceding proposition using projection p.

88
Definition 2.12.3. The incidence variety of the projective grassmannian Grpk, nq is the closed subvariety

Λ “ tpL, xq P Grpk, nq ˆ Pnk | x P Lu

of the product Grpk, nq ˆ Pnk .

Similarly to the previous proposition, we can prove

Proposition 2.12.4. The incidence variety of the projective grassmannian Grpk, nq is an irreducible pro-
jective variety of dimension kpn ´ kq ` n.

The incidence variety allows us to prove the following.

Proposition 2.12.5. Let L be a subvariety of the projective grassmannian Grpk, nq. Then
ď
W “ L Ď Pnk
LPL

is a subvariety of the projective space Pnk . If L is irreducible, then W is irreducible.

Proof. Indeed, if π and p indicate the first and second projection of the product Grpk, nq, we have that

W “ ppπ ´1 pLqq .

Now π ´1 pLq is naturally a closed subset of the product Grpk, nq. Since Gpk, nq is projective, the properness
theorem implies that the projection p : Gpk, nqˆPn - Pn is closed. Hence W is naturally a closed subset of
k k
the projective space, and hence a subvariety of Pnk . If W is irreducible then π ´1 pLq is irreducible of dimension
dim W ` k by theorem ??, since all fibers are irreducible, and hence W “ ppπ ´1 pLqq is irreducible.

Definition 2.12.6. Let X Ď Pnk be a projective variety. The locus of k-projective subspaces intersecting X
is the closed subvariety of the projective grassmannian Grpk, nq defined by

Ck pXq “ tL P Grpk, nq | L X X ‰ Hu .

Proposition 2.12.7. The locus of k-projective subspaces intersecting a projective subvariety X is a closed
subvariety of the projective grassmannian. If X is irreducible, then Ck pXq is irreducible. If k ŋ codim X,
then Ck pXq “ Grpk, nq. Otherwise, suppose that k ď codim X. Then dim Ck pXq “ dim X ` kpn ´ kq.

Proof. Consider the diagram

p - n
Grpk, nq ˆ Pnk Ě Λ Pk

π
?
Grpk, nq

Then Ck pXq is easily iven by Ck pXq “ πpp´1 pXqq. But now p´1 pXq is a closed subset of Grpk, nq ˆ Pnk and
the projection π : Grpk, nq ˆ Pn - Grpk, nq is closed, since Pn is projective, by the properness theorem.
k k
Then Ck pXq is a closed subvariety of Grpk, nq. Suppose now that X is irreducible. Consider Ψ “ p´1 pXq.
ˇ
Consider the restriction pˇΨ : Ψ -- X. The fiber at each point is exactly the subset

tL P Grpk, nq | x P Lu

89
and hence isomorphic to Gpk ´ 1, n ´ 1q (prove it) and hence irreducible of dimension kpn ´ kq. Then Ψ is an
ˇ
irreducible subvariety of dimension dim X ` kpn ´ kq. Now the projection π ˇ : Ψ - Ck pXq is surjective.
Ψ
Since Ψ is irreducible, then Ck pXq is irreducible. It is clear that, if k ě codim X, then Ck pXq “ Grpk, nq, since
if L is any subspace of dimension k (and hence codimension n´k) then codim X XL ď pn´kq`codim X ď n
ˇ
and hence X X L ‰ H. Suppose that k ň codim X. We now just have to prove that π ˇ is generically finite.
Ψ
To prove this, it is sufficient to prove that there exists an open subset U of Grpk, nq such that for each L P U
then L X X is finite. A single L0 with this property can be built using the proof of Noether normalization.
ˇ´1 ˇ
This means that π ˇΨ pL0 q is of dimension zero. By corollary 2.11.4, since π ˇΨ : Ψ - Ck pXq is closed and
surjective, we get that there is an open set U of Ck pXq with the property that dim π ´1 pLq is zero dimensional
ˇ
for any L P U . Hence π ˇ is generically finite. This means that
Ψ

dim Ck pXq “ dim Ψ “ dim X ` kpn ´ kq .

2.13 Local Invariants

2.13.1 The local ring of an algebraic variety at a point
We advise the student to get some familiarity with inductive systems and direct limits: Matsumura [Mat89,
pae 269 to 271], or Atiyah-Macdonald [AM94, exercises 14 to 22, chapter 2] might be useful. See also results
in the appendix.

Definition 2.13.1. Let X be an algebraic variety and x P X. Let TX the collection of open sets of X as a
topological space. The set
tU P TX | x P U u

of opens sets of X containing x is a partially ordered directed subset with the containment relation Ě as
partial order ď, that is U ď V iff U Ě V . The collection pOX pU q, U qU Qx , where U ranges in TX , is a directed
system of k-algebras. We define the local ring of the variety X at the point x the directed limit

OX,x :“ lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q .
U Qx

It is a k-algebra and it admits homomorphisms

OX pU q - OX,x

for each U P TX , U Q x.

Remark 2.13.2. Elements in OX,x are equivalence classe rU, f s of couples pU, f q where U is an open set U
containing x and f : U - k is a regular map. Two classes rpU, f qs and rpV, gqs are equal if and only if
ˇ ˇ
f ˇW “ g ˇW for some other open set W contained in U X V and containing x. Hence we talk about a class
rU, f s in the local ring OX,x as a germ of a regular funciton f defined on a arbitrarily small open subset of
X containing x: indeed what determines rU, f s is the behaviour of f in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood
of x.

90
Remark 2.13.3. For any germ rU, f s in OX,x , the regular function f is defined at x and hence we can talk
about the evaluation map at x:
evx : OX,x - k

taking a germ rU, f s to f pxq. It is easy to prove that the evaluation is well defined. Hence we can talk about
evaluation of germs in OX,x at the point x, and hence of germs at x vanishing at x. It is also immediate to
prove that evx is a surjective homomorphism of k-algebras.

Proposition 2.13.4. Let X be an algebraic variety. The local ring OX,x of X at a point x P X is a local
k-algebra, that is, it has a unique maximal ideal mx , which coincides with the ideal of germs of regular
functions vanishing at x.

Proof. Consider the subset mx of germs in OX,x vanishing at x. Since it is, by definition, the kernel of the
evaluation map evx : OX,x - k, it is an ideal, and since the evaluation map is surjective, then we have
that the induced map on the quotient
„
OX,x {mx - k

is an isomorphism. This proves that mx is a maximal ideal of OX,x . To prove that it is the only maximal
ideal of OX,x , take a germ rU, f s not in mx . Then f pxq ‰ 0 and Uf “ U zV pf q “ tx P U | f pxq ‰ 0u is an
open set of X containing x over which f is invertible. The germ rUf , 1{f s is easily the inverse of rU, f s in
OX,x : hence any element which is not in mx is invertible. Suppose now that n is another maximal ideal of
OX,x different from m. Then n Ę m. This means that there exists rV, gs P n, but rV, gs R m: then gpxq ‰ 0
and rV, gs is invertible in OX,x and hence n “ p1q in OX,x but this is absurd.

Proposition 2.13.5. Let f : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic variety. Let x P X. Then the pull-back
by f induces a morphism of local rings

f ˚ : OY,f pxq - OX,x

such that f ˚ pmf pxq q Ď mx .

Proof. The map f defines a map of partially ordered directed subsets:

tV P TY | V Q f pxqu - tU P x | U Q xu

V - f ´1 pV q

and hence a map of directed systems

pOY pV q, V qV Qf pxq - pOX pU q, U Q xq

given by
f ˚ : OY pV q - OX pf ´1 pV qq .

Hence we have, by exercise 202 an induced morphism of directed limits:

OY,f pxq “ lim

ÝÑ
OY pV q - lim OY pU q “ OX,x .
ÝÑ
V Qf pxq U Qx

Concretely, the pull-back f ˚ sends a germ rV, ϕs in a germ rf ´1 pV q, ϕ ˝ f s. Therefore, if rV, ϕs P mf pxq , then
ϕpf pxqq “ 0, and hence rf ´1 pV q, ϕ ˝ f s P mx .

91
Proposition 2.13.6. Let X be an algebraic variety, x a point in X and U an arbitrary open set of X
containing x. Hence we have a natural isomorphism

OX,x - OU,x
ˇ
sending a germ rV, ϕs in rV X U, ϕˇV XU s.

Proof. Easy and left to the reader: once proven that the morphis is well defined, the rest is almost trivial.
The student can also use exercise 204, with T “ tW P TX | W Ď U, W Q xu and I “ tU P Tx | U Q xu.

Theorem 2.13.7. Let X be an algebraic variety, x P X. Let V be an affine subset of X containing x and let
A “ krV s, and let m be the maximal ideal in A of regular functions vanishing at x. Then we have a natural
isomorphism
„
OX,x - Am :“ pAzmq´1 A .

Before giving the proof of the theorem we make a remark and prove a lemma showing how Am is actually
an inductive limit of a natural inductive system.
Remark 2.13.8. Let A be a commutative ring and m a maximal ideal of A. The set Azm is naturally partially
ordered with the division relation: that is

f ď g ðñ f  g .

Moreover, the collection pAf , ϕqf PAzm with maps19

ϕf,g : Af - Ag

if f  g, defined as
ϕf,g pa{f k q “ pahk q{g k

if g “ hf , is an inductive system.

Lemma 2.13.9. Let A be a commutative ring and m a maximal ideal of A. Then

lim Af » Am .
ÝÑ
f PAzm

The isomorphism is explicit, sending a class of a fraction ra{f k s to the fraction itself a{f k in Am .

Proof. The natural map A - Am sends any f R m to an invertible element in Am : hence by universal
properties of the ring of partial fractions Af , it induces a homomorphims of rings

ψ f : Af - Am .

These homomorphism commute with the homomorphism ϕf,g : Af - Ag if f  g of the inductive system
pAf , ϕqf Azm , in the sense that
ψg ˝ ϕf,g “ ψf .
19 we recall that Af “ S ´1 A where S “ t1, f n | n P N˚ u.

92
Hence, by the universal property of the inductive limit .9.4, there exists a unique homomorphism of commu-
tative rings
Φ : lim
ÝÑ
Af - Am
f PAzm

such that ψf “ πf ˝Φ where πf : Af - lim ÝÑ Af is the natural map. Hence a class ra{f k sin lim ÝÑ Af ,
f PAzm f PAzm
k
since it comes from some Af , it has to be carried to ψf pa{f q by Φ: hence

Φpra{f k sq “ a{f k .

It is now clear that Φ has to be surjective, since any element in Am is of the form a{f for some f R m.
Let’s prove the injectivity. Take a class ra{f k s going to 0. Hence a{f k “ 0 in Am . Then, there exists u R m
such that ua “ f k ¨ 0 “ 0. But a{f k “ auk {f k uk and hence ϕf,f u pa{f k q “ auk {pf uqk “ 0 in Af u . hence
ra{f k s “ r0s in lim
ÝÑ
Af .
f PAzm

Proof of Theorem 2.13.7. Consider the partially ordered sets Λ “ tV P TX | V Q xu and M “ tUf P
TU | Uf Q xu: M is a subset of Λ, directed, and cofinal in Λ: hence the injection M Ă - Λ induces an
isomorphism of inductive limits:

lim OX pUf q “ lim

ÝÑ ÝÑ
OX pV q “ OX,x .
Uf Qx V Qx

Now the set M is in bijection with regular functions f P krU s, such that f pxq ­ 0. Now we pass from the set
M to the set Azm: We have an order preserving surjection

β : Azm -
- M

sending f to Uf between directed sets. The maps

αf
Af - OU pUf q “ OX pUf q

sending a fraction a{f k to the regular function over U given by p - appq{f k ppq for each p P Uf , provide
a homomorphism of inductive systems

pAf , f P Azmq - pOX pUf q, Uf P M q .

Indeed, if f  g, that is, if g “ f h, the diagram

αf-
Af OX pUf q

rest
? αf-
h
?
Af h OX pUf h q

where the first vertical map sends a{f k to ahk {pf hqk and the second vertical map is the restriction, is easily
commutative. Hence a morphism of inductive limits

Φ : lim Af - lim OX pUf q .

ÝÑ ÝÑ
f PAzm Uf Qx

93
Now the fact that β is surjective and αf : Af - OX pUf q is an isomorphism ??, imply that the morphism
Φ is surely surjective: indeed a class rUf , gs where g P OX pUf q comes surely from some ra{f k s on the left:
take any a{f k P Af such that αf pa{f k q “ g. Let’s prove that Φ is injective. If Φpra{f k sq “ 0, then

0 “ Φpra{f k sq “ rUf , a{f k s

But this means that further away, on some Uf h , we have rUf , a{f k s “ rUf h , 0s, that is
a ˇˇ
“0.
f k Uf h

On the other hand, OU pUf h q » Af h and the diagram

„
- OU pUf q
Af

? „ ?
Af h - OU pUf h q

commutes: hence a{f k passes through Af h and

ahk {pf hqk “ 0{pf hql

implying that pf hqs ahk “ 0 in A and hence ra{f k s “ rapf hqs hk {pf hqs`k s “ 0 in lim
ÝÑ
Af . By the previous
f PAzm
lemma
Am » lim
ÝÑ
Af » lim
ÝÑ
OX pUf q » lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q “ OX,x .
f PAzm Uf Qx U Qx

The isomorphism is explicit: take an element a{f in Am , with a P A “ krU s. Over the principal open set
Uf , a{f gives a regular function in OX pUf q. The germ rUf , a{f s gives the desired element in OX,x .

Proposition 2.13.10. Let X be an algebraic variety and x P X. The local ring OX,x is noetherian.

Proof. We can assume that X is affine. In this case OX,x » Am , where A “ krXs and m is the ideal of regular
functions vanishing at x. By proposition 7.3 in [AM94], if A is a noetherian ring and S is a multiplicative
subset of A, then S ´1 A is noetherian.

The definition of local ring of an algebraic variety at a point is a particular case of another notion.

Definition 2.13.11. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be an irreducible subvariety. We define the local
ring of the variety X along the subvariety Y as the inductive limit:

OX,Y :“ lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q ,
U XY ‰H

where the set tU P TX | U X Y ‰ Hu is ordered by reverse inclusion, as in the case of OX,x . The reader
can show that it is a local ring, in the sense that it has a unique maximal ideal mY of functions vanishing
identically on an open subset of Y .

Exercise 101. Prove that, if X is irreducible, then OX,X » RpXq.

94
Proposition 2.13.12. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be an integral subvariety. Let V be an affine
open subset of X such that V X Y ‰ 0. Set A “ krV s and let p the prime ideal of regular functions in A
vanishing over Y X V . Then
OX,Y :“ lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q » Ap .
U XY ‰H

Proof. Consider the set Λ “ tU P TX | U X Y ‰ Hu and the set T “ tU P TV | U X Y ‰ Hu. Of course

T Ď Λ, but T is cofinal in Λ: hence

OX,Y :“ lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q » lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q .
U XY ‰H U ĎV
U XY ‰H

So it is sufficient to prove that the last term is isomorphic to Ap . For each f P Azp, we have Af » OX pVf q.
These isomorphisms commute with maps Af - Af g if f g ­ inp and with maps OX pVf q - OX pVf g :
hence the morphisms of direct systems pAf , f P Azpq - pOX pVf q, Vf X Y ‰q. As in the previous proof,
we can prove the isomorphism
Ap » lim
ÝÑ f
A » ÝÑ
lim OX pVf q .
f Rp Vf XY ‰H

Now tVf P TV | Vf X Y ‰ Hu is a cofinal subset of T . Hence

Ap » lim
ÝÑ f
A » lim
ÝÑ
OX pVf q » lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q » lim
ÝÑ
OX pU q » OX,Y .
f Rp Vf XY ‰H U ĎV U XY ‰H
U XY ‰H

Exercise 102. Is it true that, in general OX,Y {mY » k? Try with X “ A2 , Y “ V pxq.

Definition 2.13.13. Let A be a commutative noetherian ring. The dimension of A is the lenght of a
maximal strict chain of prime ideals of A:

p0 Ĺ p1 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ pr .

Remark 2.13.14. It comes directly from the definition that if A is the finitely generated k-algebra and
X “ Specmax pAq, then
dim A “ dim X

where dim X is the dimension of the topological space X.

Remark 2.13.15. Let A be a commutative ring and S a multiplicative set in A. Rembemer we have a
coorespondence

tp | p is a prime ideal of S ´1 Au Ø tp | p is a prime ideal A — S Xp “ H u .

See [AM94, Proposition 3.11].

Remark 2.13.16. As a consequence of the previous remark, we have that, if X is an algebraic variety, then

dim OX,x “ dimx X .

Proposition 2.13.17. Let X be an integral variety and Y be an integral subvariety. Then OX,Y is an
integral domain such that it fraction field KOX,Y is isomorphic to RpXq.

95
Proof. Consider an affine open subset U of X intersecting Y and let p the ideal of Y XU in krU s “ A. Then U
is irreducible, and A is an integral domain. Since OX,Y » Ap and Ap is a localization of an integral domain,
then Ap is an integral domain. We already saw that RpXq » KA . The morphism Ap - KA “ pAzt0)´1 A
sends any element f P Ap , f ‰ 0 in an inversible element in KA . Hence we have a natural monomorphism

KAp Ă - KA

We just have to prove that this morphism in injective. But a fraction f {g, with f, g P A, g ‰ 0, surely comes
from a fraction in KAp , since, if A is integral the morphism A - Ap is injective.

2.13.2 Tangent and Cotangent space

Tangent lines in the affine or projective space

We begin here with the most intuitive description of the tangent space in terms of tangent lines to an affine
variety inside an affine space.

Definition 2.13.18. Let X Ď Ank be an affine variety (not necessarily reduced). Consider a point p P Ank
and consider a line ` of Ank through p, linearly parametrized by ` “ tp ` tv, t P ku, for some direction vector
v P k n . The map ϕp,v : k - Ank sending a - p`av is a morphism of algebraic variety. The ideal ϕ˚p,v IX
is an ideal of krxs, and hence generated by an irreducible polynomial g, because PID. The multiplicity of
intersection of X with ` at the point p is given by

mp pX, `q “ v0 pgq ,

where vp pgq is the multiplicity of the root 0 as root of the polynomial g. Of course it does not depend on
the linear parametrization of ` and on the choice generator of the ideal ϕ˚p,v IX .

Example 2.13.19. Consider the variety given by the ideal pz ´ x, z ´ x2 ` y 2 q in A3k . Take p “ 0. Consider
the line `v :“ tv “ pat, bt, ctq through 0. Then
#
2 2 2 2 ptq if c ‰ 0;
ϕ˚0,v IX “ pct ´ at, ct ´ a t ` b t q “ 2
pt q if c “ 0.

Hence mp pX, `v q “ 1 if v R tz “ 0u and mp pX, `q “ 2 otherwise.

Exercise 103. Prove, in general, that mp pX, `q “ 0 if and only if p R X and mp pX, `q “ 8 if and only if
` Ď X.

Definition 2.13.20. A line ` Ď Ank , through a point p, is tangent to a variety X at the point p if mp pX, `q ě 2.
The tangent space Tp X of the variety X at the point p is the set of all possible directions of tangent lines at
p, that is
Tp X “ tv P k n | mp pX, `p,v q ě 2u ,

where `p,v “ tp ` tv | t P ku.

The following easy exercise will imply that the tangent space is actually a vector subspace of k n .

96
Exercise 104. Let X be an algebraic variety in the affine space Ank and containing the origin O. Let IX be
generated by polynomials f1 , . . . , fr . Write the polynomiasl fi as

fi “ ai ` gi

where ai are linear forms (homogeneous of degree 1) and gi are sum of homogeneous components of fi of
degree ě 2. Then
Tp X “ tv P k n | a1 pvq “ 0 “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ ar pvqu

and hence a vector subspace of k n .

Exercise 105. Deduce by the previous exercise that if X is an affine variety of Ank , defined by an ideal
IX “ pf1 , . . . , fr q, and p P X, the tangent space of X at p is given by
n
ÿ Bfi
Tp X “ tpv1 , . . . , vn q P k n | ppqvj “ 0 @i “ 1, . . . , ru ,
j“1
Bxj

where Bfi {Bxj are standard partial derivatives of fi relative to the variable xj .

Exercise 106. Consider the variety C of ideal pxy, xz, yzq inside A3k . Prove that it is a curve and that T0 C
is the whole A3k .

Tangent space in terms of derivations, Zariski cotangent space

We will define the tangent space to an algebraic variety in the same way it is defined in differential geometry.
Remember that if M is a real/complex manifold, and p P M , a tangent vector Xp in Tp M defines a derivation
of the R-algebra CM,p :
CM,p - R

sending
f - Xp pf q :“ dp f pXp q .

This means that

Xp pf gq “ Xp pf qgppq ` f ppqXp pgq .

The derivation is actually an R-derivation, since Xp paq “ 0 for all constant functions a P R. Using Tay-
lor’s formula one can prove that the tangent space of M at p is actually isomorphic to the vector space of
derivations of CM,p with values in R (see ??).

Tp M » DerR pCM,p , Rq .

Definition 2.13.21. Let A be a commutative ring and M be an A-module. A derivation of A with values
in M is a map:
D:A - M

such that

Dpa ` bq “ Dpaq ` Dpbq

Dpabq “ Dpaqb ` aDpbq

97
for a, b P A. If A is an R-algebra, then a derivation D is an R-derivation if Dpr ¨ 1A q “ 0 for any r P R.
We denote with DerpA, M q the set of derivations of A with values in M and with DerR pA, M q the set of
R-derivations of A with values in M .

Exercise 107. Prove that, in the above definition, DerpA, M q is an A-module and, if A is an R-algebra,
DerR pA, M q is an A-submodule of DerpA, M q.

Definition 2.13.22 (Tangent Space). Let X be an algebraic variety. Let p P X one of its points. The field
k becomes an OX,p -module with the evaluation map evp : OX,p - k. We define the Zariski tangent space
of X at the point p as the module of k-derivations of the local algebra OX,p with values in k:

Tp X :“ Derk pOX,p , kq .

A derivation D P Tp X is a tangent vector at X in the point p.

Exercise 108. Let X be an algebraic variety. Let p P X one of its points. Let U be an affine open subset
of X containing p and let A “ krU s and m the ideal of regular functions in A vanishing at p. Prove that

Tp X “ Derk pAm , kq

where k acquires the structure of Am -module via the evaluation map at p.

Consider now k as an A-module via the evaluation evp . We denote this module as kp . Then prove that

Derk pAm , kq » Derk pA, kp q .

Indeed, prove that if D is any k-derivation D : Am - k, then D ˝ i : A - kp is a k-derivation, where

i : A - Am is the natural morphism sending a - a{1. On the other hand, prove that if d : A - kp
is a k-derivation, then it factors through Am as some d “ D ˝ i, for some D P Derk pAm , kq.

Theorem 2.13.23. Let X be an algebraic variety. Let p P X one of its points. Let mp the maximal ideal of
the local ring OX,p . Then, as vector spaces:
ˆ ˙˚
mp
Tp X » Homk pmp {m2p , kq “ .
m2p

Proof. Take a derivation D P Tp X “ Derk pOX,p , kq. Restrict it to mp : it defines a k-linear map D :
mp - k, since if c P k, then Dpcaq “ cDpaq. Now Dpm2p q “ 0: indeed, if f, g P mp , then Dpf gq “
f ppqDpgq ` gppqDpf q “ 0. Hence D induces linear map D : mp {m2p - k, and hence an element D P
Homk pmp {m2p , kq. This gives a linear map D
- D from Tp X to Homk pmp {m2p , kq.
On the other hand, take a linear map D : mp {m2p - k. Of course it is induced by a linear map
D : mp - k such that Dpm2p q “ 0. Now set, for any f P OX,p :

Dpf q :“ Dpf ´ f ppqq .

It is a k-derivation. Indeed, if c P k, it it trivial to prove that Dpcq “ 0. Now take f, g P OX,p . We have

Dpf gq “ Dpf g ´ f ppqgppqq “ Dpf g ´ f ppqg ` f ppqg ´ f ppqgppqq

“ Dppf ´ f ppqqg ` f ppqpg ´ gppqqq “ f ppqDpg ´ gppqq ` Dppf ´ f ppqqgq “ f ppqDpgq ` Dppf ´ f ppqqgq

98
Now

Dppf ´ f ppqqgq “ Dppf ´ f ppqqpg ´ gppqq ` gppqpf ´ f ppqqq “ Dpgppqpf ´ f ppqq

since Dpm2p q “ 0, hence

Dppf ´ f ppqqgq “ Dpgppqpf ´ f ppqq “ gppqDpf ´ f ppqq “ gppqDpf q .

Hence D is a k-derivation. The reader can easily show that the maps D - D are the inverse of one
another.

Exercise 109. Let X be an algebraic variety and p one of its points. Let U be an open affine subset of X
containing p and let A “ krU s be the k-algebra of regular functions over U . Let m the ideal in A of functions
vanishing over p.
Tp X “ pm{m2 q˚ “ Homk pm{m2 , kq .

The meaning of this formula is that we do not need to localize at p to compute the tangent (and cotangent)
space of X at p if we know the k-algebra of regular functions over an affine open subset containing p.

Definition 2.13.24. Let X be an algebraic variety and p one of its points. The Zariski cotangent space of
X at p is given by
mp
Tp X ˚ :“
m2p
where mp is the maximal ideal of the local ring OX,p .

Proposition 2.13.25. Let f : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties, sending a point p to f ppq.

Then f induces a map of tangent spaces

Tp f : Tp X - Tp Y

called the tangent map of f at the point p. and of cotangent spaces:

Tp˚ f : Tf ppq Y - Tp X ,

called the cotangent map of f at the point p. The maps are dual one of the other.

Proof. The construction of the tangent map is the same as in differential geometry. Indeed, take a derivation
D P Tp X “ Homk pOX,p , kq and set
Tp f pDq :“ D ˝ f ˚ .

The fact that D is a k-derivation and f ˚ is a morphism of k-algebras, imply that D ˝ f ˚ is a k-derivation of
OY,f ppq with values in k. Then the cotangent map is simply the dual of the tangent map.

Variant. The morphism f induces by pull-back a map of local rings f ˚ : OY,f ppq - OX,p sending
˚
f pmf ppq q Ď mp . Hence f ˚
pm2f ppq q Ď m2p and hence it induces a map of quotients (cotangent spaces):

Tp˚ f : Tf ppq Y “ mf ppq {m2f ppq - mp {m2p “ Tp˚ X .

Take Tp f as the dual of this map. As an exercise, prove that the two constructions given here coincide.

99
Exercise 110. Let X be an algebraic variety and p one of its points. Consider a regular function f :
U - k, where U is an open subset of X containing p. We define the differential dp f of f at p as the
tangent map Tp f : Tp X - k. Prove that dp f is exactly the class of f ´ f ppq mod m2p in the cotangent
space mp {m2p .

Exercise 111. Let f : X - Y, g :Y - Z morphisms of affine varieties. Let p P X. Prove that

Tp pg ˝ f q “ Tf ppq g ˝ Tp f .

Exercise 112. Prove that the map dp : OX,p - Tp˚ X sending f - dp f is a k-derivation.

Tangent space of affine varieties.

Proposition 2.13.26. Consider a point p of the affine space Ank . The map

Tp Ank - kn

given by
D - pDpx1 q, . . . , Dpxn qq

where x1 , . . . xn are the coordinates in Ank , is an isomorphism.

Proof. Use, for a shorter proof, that Tp Ank » Derk pkrx1 , . . . , xn s, kp q (see exercise ??). The above map
is surely k-linear. We just have to prove it is an isomorphism. Of course, if mp is now the ideal px1 ´
p1 , . . . , xn ´ pn q, where pi are the coordinates of the point p, we have that any D P Derk pkrx1 , . . . , xn s, kp q
satifies Dpm2p q “ 0. Take f P krx1 , . . . , xn s. Considering it a polynomial in the variables xi ´ pi such a
polynomial can be written as
n
ÿ
f px1 , . . . , xn q ´ f ppq “ ai pxi ´ pi q mod m2p .
i“1

Hence
n
ÿ n
ÿ
Dpf ´ f ppqq “ ai Dpxi ´ pi q “ ai Dpxi q ,
i“1 i“1

and hence that the map in the statement is injective and surjective.

Definition 2.13.27. We denote as Bxi ,p the basis of Tp Ank corresponding to the canonical basis ei under
the isomorphism of the previous map. Of course the student has understood that, in characteristic zero, if
f P krx1 , . . . , xn s we have that
Bf
Bxi ,p f “ ppq
Bxi
Bf
where Bxi are standard derivatives of f .

Definition 2.13.28. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. Let f P OX,p . We call the differential of the
germ of the function f at the point p and we denote it with dp f , the class of f ´ f ppq in mp {m2p , where mp
is the maximal ideal of the local ring OX,p .

100
Proposition 2.13.29. Let U and V open subsets of Ank , Am
k , respectively, and let f : U
- V a morphism
of algebraic varieties. Let fi : U - k the regular functions given by the components of f . Let p P
U . In the basis Bxi ,p and By,f ppq of Tp Ank and Tp Am
k , respectively, the matrix of the tangent map Tp f :
n m
Tp Ak - Tf ppq Ak is given by the Jacobian matrix:

Jp pf q :“ pBxj ,p fi q i“1,...,n .
j“1,...,m

Proof. Very easy and left to the reader. Just compute Tp f pBxj ,p q “ pBxj ,p ˝ f ˚ qpyi q in terms of Byi ,p .

Remark 2.13.30. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be a subvarietyby subvariety we always mean a
locally closed subvariety of X. Let p P Y . Then there exists an open subset U of X containing p and
regular functions f1 , . . . , fr P OX pU q such that Y X U is in U the zero of the functions f1 , . . . , fr : that is:
Y X U “ V pf1 , . . . , fr q. Such an open subset can be always taken as affine. If that’s the case, the ideal of
Y X U in U is exactly given by the ideal pf1 , . . . , fr q P krU s.

Proposition 2.13.31 (Tangent map of a closed immersion). Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be a
subvariety of X. Let p P Y . The tangent map of the inclusion i : Y - X at p

Tp i : Tp Y - Tp X

is injective. Suppose that Y is given, in some open subset U of p, by the zero locus of regular functions
f1 , . . . , fr P OX pU q. Then the image of the tangent map Tp i of the inclusion i at p is given by the kernel
tangent map in p of the morphism ϕf : U - k r given by x - pf1 pxq, . . . , fr pxqq.

Proof. As in the previous exercise, take an affine open subset U of X containing p and such that U X Y is
closed in Y : over U , the closed Y X U is defined as the zero of some regular functions f1 , . . . , fr P krU s “ A.
We can suppose that the ideal J “ pf1 , . . . , fr q of A is reduced (up to taking the radical). The affine variety
Y X U has krY X U s “ A{J as algebra of regular functions. By exercise ?? we have

Tp Y “ Tp pY X U q » Derk pA{J, kp q

while
Tp X “ Tp U » Derk pA, kp q .

Now, in the identifications Tp X “» Derk pA, kp q and Tp Y » Derk pA{J, kp q, the tangent map Tp i is given by
the linear map
Derk pA{J, kp q - Derk pA, kp q

sending D - D ˝ π, where π : A - A{J is the quotient projection. We leave to the reader to prove
it, but it’s easy, tracking down the isomorphism Derk pOX,p , kq » Derk pA, kp q in exercise ?? and using the
fact that π : A - A{J is nothing but the pull back i˚ : OX pU q - OY pY X U q. Let’s prove that Tp i is
injective. Indeed, if D1 ˝ π “ D2 ˝ π, then D1 “ D2 , since both pass to the quotient A{J - kp , and satifiy

Di pa ` Jq “ pDi ˝ πqpaq .

By what we proved, the image of Derk pA{J, kp q in Derk pA, kp q is given exactly by derivations in Derk pA, kp q
vanishing on J:
Tp ipTp Y q » tD P Derk pA, kp q | DpJq “ 0u .

101
 ř
Now DpJq “ 0 if and only if Dpfi q “ 0, for all i “ 1, . . . , r. Indeed, if h P J, h “ i αi fi ; then
ÿ ÿ
Dphq “ αi ppqDpfi q ` fi ppqDpαi q “ αi ppqDpfi q .
i i

So Tp ipTp Y q » tD P Derk pA, kp q | Dpfi q “ 0 @i “ 1, . . . , ru. On the other hand ker Tp ϕf is given by

ker Tp ϕf “ tD P Derk pA, kp q | D ˝ ϕ˚f “ 0u .

Now the condition D ˝ ϕ˚f “ 0 implies that if y1 , . . . , yr are coordinates in k r , then

pD ˝ ϕ˚f qpyi q “ Dpfi q

and hence Tp ipTp Y q Ě ker Tp ϕf . On the other hand if Dpfi q “ 0 for any i, then pD ˝ ϕ˚f qpyi q “ 0 for any i,
but this means that pD ˝ ϕ˚f qpP q “ 0 for any P P kry1 , . . . , yr s. Hence the statement is proven.

Exercise 113. Consider the variety X defined in A3k by xy “ 0, z ´ x “ 1. The tangent space of X at the
point p “ p0, 0, 1q is determined by the kernel of the matrix:
˜ ¸
y x 0
´1 0 1

in the point p0, 0, 1q and hence by

¨ ˛
0 0
˚ ‹
˚ 0 ‹
Tp X “ ker ˚ ‹ “ tpx, y, zq | z “ xu .
˚ ´1
˝ 0 ‹
‚
1

It is two-dimensional, even if the variety is a curve (prove it). Prove that in any other point it is one-
dimensional.

Exercise 114. Draw the variety C given by the equations y 2 ´ x3 ` x2 “ 0, z ` x ´ x2 “ 0. in k 3 , with k a

field of characteristic zero. Prove that the origin O is in C. Compute TO C and its dimension. Compute the
dimension of Tp C at any other point in C.

Proposition 2.13.32 (Cotangent map of a closed immersion). Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be a
subvariety of X. Let p P Y . The cotangent map of the inclusion i : Y - X at p

Tp˚ i : Tp˚ X - Tp˚ Y

is surjective. Suppose that Y is given, in some open subset U of p, by the zero locus of regular functions
f1 , . . . , fr P OX pU q. Then the cotangent map Tp˚ i realizes Tp˚ Y as the quotient of Tp˚ X by the relations dp fi ,
i “ 1, . . . , r:
Tp˚ Y » Tp˚ X{xdp f1 , . . . , dp fr y .

Proof. That the cotangent map Tp˚ i is surjective comes directly from the fact that the tangent map of the
closed immersion is injective. The cotangent map is built from the pull-back at the level of local rings

i˚ : OX,p - OY,p

102
 ˇ
sending pU, f q to pU X Y, f ˇY XU q. Check that this map is surjective. Of course this implies that the map
i˚ : mX,p - mY,p is surjective and induces the surjective cotangent map

Tp i˚ : mX,p {m2X,p - mY,p {m2Y,p .

We now check that Tp˚ ipdp fi q “ 0. But fi P OX pU q and they vanish over Y , hence i˚ pfi q “ 0 as germs in
OY,p . Hence dp fi are in the kernel. We just have to prove that if w P ker Tp˚ i, then w P xdp f1 , . . . , dp fr y.
On an affine open subset V inside U , if A “ krV s, the ideal of Y X V is given by pf1 , . . . , fr q (restricted to
V ). Hence krY X V s » A{pf1 , . . . , fr q. Localizing in p, we get that OY,p » OX,p {pf1 , . . . , fr q, where now fi
are thought as germs in OX,p . Then mY,p » mX,p {IY,p , where IY,p be the ideal pf1 , . . . , fr q inside OX,p . The
pull-back is indeed a projection onto the quotient:

i˚ : mX,p - mX,p {IY,p .

Now m2Y,p “ pm2X,p `IY,p q{IY,p . Let w “ dp g, for some g P mX,p . If Tp˚ ipwq “ 0 in mY,p {m2Y,p , then i˚ g P m2X,p
ř
mod IY,p , that is g “ h ` i βi fi in mX,p Ď OX,p . Then
ÿ ÿ ÿ
w “ dp g “ dp h ` fi ppqdp βi ` βi ppqdp fi “ βi ppqdp fi
i i i

and hence belongs to xdp f1 , . . . , dp fr y.

Scheme-theoretic interpretation.
The definition we gave for the tangent space of a variety X at a point p, as

Tp X “ Derk pOX,p , kq

also works for non-reduced varieties: that is, we do not have to assume that the local ideal of definition of X
in some affine space is radical. In all generality, if X is a not necessarily reduced affine variety in some affine
space Ank , we set, as generalized regular functions over X the k-algebra krXs “ krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX , even if IX
is non radical. An important example is the fat double point D: it is the point of A1k defined by the equation
x2 “ 0. It has, as k-algebra of regular functions, the ring B “ krxs{px2 q. Set ε the class of x in krxs{px2 q.
Hence B “ krεs, with the relation ε2 “ 0. This ring has a unique maximal ideal pεq, corresponding to the
point 0. It tangent space is

Tp D “ Derk pOD,0 , kq “ Derk pA, k0 q “ Homk pkrεs, kq » Homk ppεq{pε2 q, kq .

Now the vector space pεq “ pεq{pε2 q is one-dimensional. Hence Tp D is one dimensional. But the dimension
of D, which equals the dimension of the reduced variety (dimension is a topological property), is zero. Hence
D is a zero-dimensional variety consisting of a unique point, with a one-dimensional tangent space. It can be
intuitively seen as the collision of two points at the origin, and the tangent direction (space) is the direction
of collision. In more brutal terms, it consists of a point, corresponding to the maximal ideal pεq and the
direction Homk ppεq, kq: the choice of an element there will give a tangent arrow. But we already have a
distinguished element ε, which will give a basis element in Tp D (that is, the morphism sending ε to 1 will be
our distinguished vector). In euristic terms, we sort of found the “primitive” arrow, the most elementary,
nontrivial, tangent space. So, we now get creative, and we imagine that in order to give a tangent vector over

103
an algebraic variety, we just have to attach (with scotch-tape, if you want) our ”primitive” tangent vector we
found to our algebraic variety X. If we want a tangent vector at a point p of X, we want to make sure that
our point 0 in D goes to p in X. Then the chosen tangent direction will go to our tangent vector v P Tp X.
To do this rigorously we need the concept of scheme (or at least, affine scheme).
Here, for affine scheme over a field k, we intend the topological space SpecpAq, where A is a k-algebra.
By morphism of affine schemes over k we mean a continuous map f : SpecpAq - SpecpBq induced by a
morphism ϕ : B - A of k-algebras, in the sense that f ppq “ ϕ´1 ppq.
Suppose now X is an algebraic variety, and since things are local, set an affine open set U containing our
point p. Set A “ krU s. We already saw in theorem ??, that any morphisms of algebraic varieties Y - U is
determined by a morphism of algebras krU s - OY pY q. This works (and it actually is the rule) in scheme
theory: a morphism of schemes SpecpBq - SpecpAq “ U come always from a morphism of k-algebras
A - B. So if we want a morphism of schemes

f :D - U

we need a morphism of k-algebras ϕ : A - krεs. Since we want that f p0q “ p, we want to impose that
ϕ´1 ppεqq “ m, where m is the maximal ideal of regular functions over U vanishing at p. Then ϕ will induce
a surjective cotangent map
ϕ : m{m2 - pεq

and by dualization, an injection

Tp D - Tp U “ Tp X .

The image is a line in Tp X. Now, if we want, our preferred tangent vector, sending ε to 1, will give a
preferred tangent vector in Tp X.
Now, let’s see things algebraically: this point of view will become even more interesting. Note that
krεs “ k ‘ kε. Then a morphism ϕ : A - k ‘ kε decomposes as ϕ “ ϕ1 ‘ ϕ2 . Since ϕ´1 pεq “, the
component ϕ1 has to coincide with evp (prove it!). What will the other component give us?

Exercise 115. Let A - krεs “ k ‘ kε. Let ϕ : A - krεs a morphism of k-algebras such that
´1
ϕ pεq “ m. Decompose ϕ as ϕ “ ϕ1 ‘ ϕ2 . In the identification kε „ k,

ϕ2 : A - k

is a derivation in Derk pA, km q, where km is k with the structure of A-module coming from the projection
evm : A - A{m “ k. On the other hand, take a derivation D P Derk pA, km q and set

ϕ:A - k ‘ kε

as
ϕpf q “ evm pf q ‘ Dpf qε .

Then ϕ : A - krεs is a morphism of k-algebras.

Hint: Take f, g P A and consider ϕpf gq, decomposing ϕ “ ϕ1 ‘ ϕ2 , or, better for computations: ϕpf gq “
ϕ1 pf gq ` ϕ2 pf gqε “ evm pf q evm pgq ` εϕ2 pf gq. Use that ϕpf gq “ ϕpf qϕpgq and that ε2 “ 0.

The previous exercise proves the following

104
Proposition 2.13.33. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. Let A be the k-algebra of regular functions
defined in some fixed affine open set U of X containing p. There is a bijection between
• the subset Hom0Ñp pSpecpkrεsq, Xq of morphism of schemes in HompSpecpkrεsq, Xq such that the point
0 goes to the point p P X
• the tangent space Tp X at X in p, that is, the vector space of k-derivations Derk pOX,p , kp q.
εÑ0
• The set of k-algebras isomorphisms A - krεs, such that the composition A - krεs - k is evp

• The vector space of k-derivations Derk pA, kp q.

Kähler Differentials
Our last interpretation of the tangent space Tp X of an algebraic variety at a point p is in term of Kähler
differentials.

Theorem 2.13.34. Let R be a commutative ring, A be an R-algebra. There is a unique, up to isomorphism,

A-module ΩA{R , called of module of Kähler differentials of A over R equipped with an R-derivation d :
A - ΩA{R such that, for any A-module M any R-derivation D : A - M factors uniquely as T ˝ d,
where T is an A-linear map T : ΩA{R - M .

Sketch of the construction. One way of constructing ΩA{R is by considering the kernel I of the diagonal
homomorphism of rings A bR A - A and taking ΩA{R :“ I{I 2 and the derivation d : A - ΩA{R as
da “ 1 b a ´ a b 1. The A-module structure over I{I 2 is given by setting a ¨ px b yq “ ax b y in A bR A. Of
course if some i xi b yi P I, then ap i xi b yi q P I as well; moreover this actions sends I 2 to I 2 .
ř ř

Another way is to consider the commutative A-module generated by symbols da, a P A, with relations

dpa ` bq “ da ` db a, b P A
dpabq “ adpbq ` bdpaq a, b P A
dprq “ 0 rPR

In any case see [Mat89, pages 191,192] for more details.

Remark 2.13.35. As a consequence of the definition and universal property of the module of Kähler differ-
ential, we have that, for any A-module M :

DerR pA, M q » HomA pΩA{R , M q .

Let’s now go back at our tangent space: by what we said, we have:

Tp X “ Derk pAm , kq » HomAm pΩAm ,k , kq

if A “ krU s the ring of regular functions over an affine open set U containg p, and m the maximal ideal of
functions vanishing over p, or, also

Tp X “ Derk pA, kp q » HomA pΩA,k , kp q .

Remember now the following

105
Lemma 2.13.36 (Change of base for homomorphisms of modules). Let ϕ : R - A a morphism of
commutative rings. Let M, N be A-modules and P be an R-module. Then we have

HomR pM bA N, P q » HomA pM, HomR pN, P qq

where in the left hand term, N has naturally a structure of R-module.

Proof. Stacks Project tag 05G3 url: https://stacks.math.columbia.edu/tag/05G3.

As a consequence, we can give a better interpretation of our tangent space. Indeed, setting R “ k in the
previous formula we get

Tp X “ Derk pA, kp q » HomAm pΩAm ,k , kp q “ Homk pΩAm bAm kp , kp q

Now kp , as a k-module, has the same structure as k, so that

Tp X “ Derk pA, kp q » HomAm pΩAm ,k , kp q “ Homk pΩAm bAm kp , kq » pΩAm bAm kp q˚

as a vector space over k. Moreover, from the comparison of

Tp X » Homk pm{m2 , kq » Homk pΩAm bAm kp , kq

we get that the cotangent space Tp˚ X has a clear interpretation in terms of Kähler differentials:

Tp˚ X » m{m2 » ΩAm bAm kp » ΩA bA kp ,

where the last formula is obtained in the same way, starting form Derk pA, kp q for tangent space.
Remark 2.13.37. Consider a k-algebra A and the module of differentials ΩA{k . If S is a multiplicative subset
of A, then ΩS ´1 A,k » S ´1 ΩA,k . In particular, in the above setting, where A “ krU s, U being an affine subset
of X containing p, then ΩAm ,k » pAzmq´1 ΩA,k » Am bA ΩA{k .
Using sheaf theory one can build the sheaf of differentials ΩX,k over X as a global object. In particular,
over any affine open subset U , we would have that

ΩX{k pU q “ ΩkrU s{k .

As a result, one can take the inductive limit to get the stalk of the sheaf in a point p:

ΩX{k,p “ lim Ω
ÝÑ X{k
pU q .
U Qp

We do not do it here, but imagine this is done: to take the above inductive limit, one can always restrict
and start from an affine open subset U containing p: hence ΩX{k,p » ΩAm {k , where A “ krU s and m is the
maximal ideal of regular functions vanishing at p.

Exercise 116. Tracking the isomorphism

mp {m2p - ΩX,p bO kp
X,p

above, show what, if f P OX,p , then f ´ f ppq mod m2p goes to the class df mod mp ΩX,p in ΩX,p bOX,p kp
of the Kähler differential df P ΩX,p .

106
 We described in the previous subsection the shape of the contangent map of a closed immersion. We can
do the same for Kähler differentials.

Theorem 2.13.38 (Conormal sequence). Let X be an affine variety and Y be a closed subvariety. Let
A “ krXs, B “ krY s, and let IY be the ideal in A defining Y , so that B “ A{IY . Then we have the exact
sequence of A-modules:
IY {IY2 - ΩA,k - ΩB,k - 0.

Theorem 2.13.39 (Conormal sequence, vII). Let X be an algebraic variety, Y be a closed subvariety. Let
p P Y and IY,p the ideal of germs in OX,p vanishing over Y around p. Then we have the exact sequence of
OX,p -modules:
2
IY,p {IY,p - ΩX,p - ΩY,p - 0.

2.13.3 Tangent Cone

Affine description
We introduce the tangent cone of a variety at a point by begining, again, with an affine description in the
case X is affine. Here, again, we do not suppose that X is reduced. Although the interpretation is affine, it
is not so easy to get a clear picture of it, since we have to resort to initial ideals.

Definition 2.13.40. Consider an ideal I of krx1 , . . . , xn s containing m “ px1 , . . . , xn q. For each F P I, write
it as a sum of homogeneous components of degree i:

F “ fr ` fr`1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` fd

where d “ deg F and r ě 0 and fr ‰ 0. Define the initial form of F as

inF :“ fr .

Define the initial ideal of I, as the ideal generated by initial forms of I:

in I :“ xin F | F P iy .

Warning 1. The definition of initial ideal is pretty tricky and may lead to mistakes. It is NOT true
that if I “ pf1 , . . . , fr q, then in I “ pin f1 , . . . , in fr q. We just have an inclusion Ě. Indeed, take the ideal
I “ px2 ` y 3 ´ x5 , zq of krx, y, zs. It is clear that I “ px2 ` y 3 ´ x5 , zq “ pz ` x2 ` y 3 ´ x5 , zq, but
pin z ` x2 ` y 3 ´ x5 , in zq “ pzq, which is surely different from in I “ px2 , zq. For this reason in general it is
also NOT easy to compute in I and one has to resort to Gröbner Basis methods.

Definition 2.13.41. Let X be an affine variety inside Ank , defined by an ideal IX “ pf1 , . . . , fr q. Suppose
that X contains the origin O. The tangent cone CO X of the variety X at the origin is the (possibly
nonreduced) variety defined by the ideal in I.

Remark 2.13.42. Let v P CO X. Then, for any F P IX , if in F “ fr , r ě 1, since O P IX , then we have

F ptvq “ tr fr pvq ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` tdF fd pvq “ tr`1 fr`1 pvq ` optr`1 q

and hence v P TO X, since TO X is given by the vanishing of the initial forms in Fi of the generators Fi of I
such that in Fi are linear. Moreover, it is evident that CO X is a cone, since if v P CO X, then λv P CO X for
any λ P k. By translation to the origin, we can define the tangent cone in any point of the variety.

107
 The tangent cone of a variety at a point has a nice and easy geometric interpretation when X is an
hypersurface. We need the notion of multiplicity of a point p in a hypersurface.

Definition 2.13.43. Let X “ V pf q an hypersurface in the affine space Ank . Let p P X. The multiplicity
of the point p in the hypersurface X is given by the minimum of the multiplicities of intersections of lines
through p with the hypersurface:
mp pXq :“ minn mp pX, `p,v q .
vPk

Exercise 117. Compute the embedded multiplicities of the following varieties at the origin.

Exercise 118. Prove that if X is an hypersurface of Ank , and mp pXq ě 2 if and only if p is a singular point
of X.

Proposition 2.13.44. Let X “ V pF q be an hypersurface inside Ank and p a point of X. The tangent cone
Cp X of X at the point p is the set of directions

Cp X :“ tv P k n | mp pX, `p,v q ŋ mp pXqu .

Proof. For a principal ideal J “ pGq, then in J “ pin Gq (prove it!). Hence Taking

F pp ` tvq “ tr fr pvq ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` td fd pvq

Then the tangent cone is given by the unique equation fr pvq “ 0 in k n . Now it is elementary to prove
that mp pX, `p,v q “ r if v R V pfr q and that mp pX, `p,v q ŋ r if v P V pfr q. We deduce that mp pXq “ r and
tv P k n | mp pX, `p,v ŋ mp pXqu.

Remark 2.13.45. If X is of codimension ě 2, it is more difficult to define the multiplicity of a point p P X

and find a geometric interpretation of the tangent cone Cp X in terms of lines through p.

Example 2.13.46. The cubic curve y 2 ´ x3 ´ x2 “ 0 has tangent cone defined by the equation x2 ´ y 2 “ 0
at the origin: hence it consists of the union of two lines x ´ y “ 0, x ` y “ 0.

Example 2.13.47. Find the equation of the tangent cone of the surface x2 ` x3 ` y 2 ´ 3y 5 ´ z 2 ` z 3 “ 0
at the origin and draw it. What is the multiplicity of the origin in X?

Algebraic Interpretation
We will give here a useful and important algebraic interpretation of the tangent cone.

Proposition 2.13.48. Let A be a noetherian commutative ring. Let m a maximal ideal of A, generated by
elements z1 , . . . , zr . Let k :“ A{m. Then the direct sum
8
à mi
Grm pAq :“ i`1
i“0 m

has naturally a structure of graded k-algebra, generated over k by the classes z 1 , . . . , z r of zi in m{m2 : hence
it is isomorphic to a non necessarily reduced k-algebra

Grm pAq » krx1 , . . . , xr s{J

where J is an homogeneous ideal in krx1 , . . . , xn s.

108
 À8
Proof. The direct sum Grm pAq :“ i“0 mi {mi`1 has a natural structure of A{m-vector space, since all the
i
m
factors mi`1 are A{m-vector spaces. So we just have to put a multiplicative structure on Grm pAq. The
multiplicative structure is induced by the multiplication on A: indeed the multiplication in A induces a map

mi ˆ mj - mi`1

which, in turn induces a map

mi mj - m
i`j

i`1
ˆ j`1 i``j1
.
m m m
This map determines the multiplicative structure on Grm pAq in a way that makes it a graded k “ A{m-
algebra. Now, the images z 1 , . . . , z r of zi in m{m2 generate the k-algebra Grm pAq: indeed, any element
in mi {mi`1 is the class of a polynomial in z 1 , . . . , z r (of degree i) modulo mi`1 . Therefore Grm pAq »
krz 1 , . . . , z r s, where z 1 , . . . , z r are all of degree 1 in krz 1 , . . . , z r s (with possible relations, obviously).
Consider then variables x1 , . . . , xn and define a surjective morphism of graded k-algebras:

- krz 1 , . . . , z r s “ Grm pAq ,

krx1 , . . . , xn s -

from the algebra of polynomials to Grm pAq. Since the quotient is the graded algebra Grm pAq, the kernel has
to be an homogeneous ideal J of krx1 , . . . , xn s.

Theorem 2.13.49. Let X be an affine variety inside Ank , given by an ideal IX in krx1 , . . . , xn s; set A “ krXs.
Suppose that X contains the origin. Denote with m the ideal of krXs of regular functions vanishing on O.
Then we have an isomorphism of algebras of regular functions

krCO Xs :“ krx1 , . . . , xn s{ in IX » GrmO pAm q .

Therefore, we have an isomorphism of non necessarily reduced affine varieties

CO X » Speck pGrmO pAm qq ,

where mO is the maximal ideal of the local ring Am .

Example 2.13.50. Before proceeding with the proof, we make an example. Consider the cubic y 2 ´
x3 ´ x2 “ 0 we consider above. We know that CO X is given by the equation x2 ´ y 2 and hence that
krCO Xs “ krx, ys{px2 ´ y 2 q. Let’s try to prove that the graded ring construction gives us the same algebra.
Set A “ krx, ys{py 2 ´ x3 ´ x2 q and set m “ px, yq{I, where I “ py 2 ´ x3 ´ x2 q. Set also m “ px, yq. Consider
the local ring Am and the maximal ideal mO . The first thing we note is that, for any i P N, we have

mi {mi`1 » miO {mi`1

O

as vector spaces over k. Hence

GrmO pAm q » Grm pAq .

So we can work with A insted of Am and with m insted of mO . We now have that J :“ in I “ px2 ´ y 2 q is an
homogeneous ideal in krx, ys. Hence the ring krx, ys{J is graded. We will prove first that each graded piece
pkrx, ys{Jqi is isomorphic to mi {mi`1 . But now krx, ys “ ‘i krx, ysi , J “ ‘Ji since J is graded. Explicitely:
J0 “ 0, J1 “ 0, J2 “ xx2 ´ y 2 yk , J3 “ kxpx2 ´ y 2 q ‘ kypx2 ´ y 2 q, etc. The key point is to prove that

mi mi ` I mi
» »
mi`1 mi`1 ` I mi`1 ` I X mi

109
The first is the second isomorphism theorem for modules. Let’s prove the third: we have the surjective
projection
mi ` I
mi -
- .
mi`1 ` I
The kernel is given by
mi X pmi`1 ` Iq “ mi`1 ` pI X mi q .

Hence the key point is proven. But now

mi`1 ` pI X mi q “ mi`1 ` Ji .

Now it is not difficult to see that

mi mi
ˆ ˙
krx, ysi krx, ys
i`1 i
“ i`1 “ » .
m ` pI X m q m ` Ji Ji J i

What is happening here is that the relation y 2 ´ x3 ´ x2 belongs to the kernel m2 X pm3 ` Iq, but modulo
m3 it just becomes y 2 ´ x2 . and that’s the only relation in the graded algebra.

Before proceeding with the proof, we prove some auxiliary lemmas.

Lemma 2.13.51. Let A be a commutative ring and m a maximal ideal of A. Consider the localization Am
and the maximal ideal m of Am . Then the fields k “ A{m and Am {m are isomorphic. Moreover, for any
i P N we have an isomorphism of vectors spaces over k:

mi mi
» .
mi`1 mi`1
Proof. First of all, the classes in mi {mi`1 of any set of generators of mi determine a set of generators there.
Indeed, if f1 , . . . , fr generate mi over Am , then the classes f 1 , . . . , f r generate mi {mi`1 as an Am -module,
as a Am {m-vector space and as a A{m-vector space. Now mi is generated by mi over Am . So the map of
A-modules and A{m-vector spaces
mi
mi -
mi`1
is surjective. The kernel is
mi X mi`1 “ mi`1

and the statement is proven.

Lemma 2.13.52. In the same hypothesis of the previous lemma, we an isomorphism of graded k-algebras,
where k » A{m » Am {m.
Grm pAq » Grm pAm q .

Proof. The graded pieces are isomorphic over k:

mi mi
»
mi`1 mi`1
as explained in the previous lemma. Hence

Grm pAq » Grm pAm q

110
as vector spaces over k. We just have to prove that the multiplicative structure is the same. But we have a
commutative diagram

mi mj - m
i`j
ˆ
mi`1 mj`1 mi`j1

? ?
mi mj mi`j
ˆ -
mi`1 mj`1 mi`j`1
where the diagonal maps are isomorphisms, or products of isomorphisms. This proves that the multiplicative
structure is the same.

Proof of theorem 2.13.49. . By the preceding lemma, we just have to prove that

krCo Xs » Grm pAq .

Now 8
à mi
Grm pAq » i`1
.
i“0 m

Set A “ krXs “ krx1 , . . . , xn s{IX . Then m “ pm ` IX q{IX and then mi “ pmi ` IX q{IX and hence

mi mi ` IX
»
mi`1 mi`1 ` IX
by the second isomorphism theorem for modules. Consider now the surjective homomorphism

mi ` IX
mi -
- .
mi`1 ` IX

The kernel is mi X pmi`1 ` IX q. We claim that

mi X pmi`1 ` IX q “ mi`1 ` pmi X IX q .

The left hand side is surely contained in the right hand side, since mi`1 and mi X IX q are both in mi and
mi`1 ` IX ; hence we have the inclusion Ě. Now, take f P mi X pmi`1 ` IX q: this means that f P mi
and f “ g ` j, with g P mi`1 and j P IX . But j “ f ´ g P mi as well, hence j P mi X IX . Therefore
f P mi X pmi`1 ` IX q. And we proved the other inclusion. Finally we have the isomorphism:

mi » mi ` IX
- .
mi`1 ` pmi X IX q mi`1 ` IX

Now set J “ in IX . A crucial point is to understand that

‘jěi`1 krx1 , . . . , xn sj ` p‘jěi krx1 , . . . , xn sj X IX q » Ji ` ‘jěi`1 krx1 , . . . , xn sj .

So since

mi » ‘jěi krx1 , . . . , xn sj
mi`1 » ‘jěi`1 krx1 , . . . , xn sj

111
we have
mi
ˆ ˙
krx1 , . . . , xn si krx1 , . . . , xn s
i`1 i
» » » krCO Xsi .
m ` pm X Jq Ji J i
Hence, as vector spaces over k we have

Grm pAq » ‘8
i“0 krCO Xsi » krCO Xs .

Now the multiplicative structure is compatible, then the above isomorphism is an isomorphism of graded
k-algebras.

Exercise 119. Do Eisenbud (Commutative Algebra with a view towards Algebraic Geometry), exercise 5.3.

So we came to our main definition for this subsection.

Definition 2.13.53. Let X be an algebraic variety and p a point of X. The tangent cone of X at p is affine
subscheme20 of the tangent space Tp X defined as
˜ ¸
8
à mp
Cp X :“ SpecpGrmp pOX,p qq “ Spec i`1
i“0 mp

where mp is the maximal ideal of the local ring OX,p .

2.13.4 Smoothness
We begin with a corollary of proposition ??.

Corollary 2.13.54. Let X be an algebraic variety. Then x - dim Tx X is upper semicontinuous.

Proof. The question being local, we can suppose that X is an affine subvariety of Ank , defined by equations
f1 “ 0 “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ fr , in the coordinates x1 , . . . , xn . We saw that Tx X is isomorphic to the kernel of the linear
map Jx pf q : k n - k r given by the jacobian matrix

Jx pf q “ pBxj fi qpxqj,i .

But the map x - dim ker Jx pf q is upper semicontinous.

Corollary 2.13.55. Let X be an algebraic variety. Let d :“ minxPX dim Tx X. Then the set of points
tx P X | dim Tx X “ du is an open set of X.

Theorem 2.13.56. Let X be an algebraic variety. For any x P X, we have that

dimx X ď dim Tx X

and the equality holds on a dense open subset of X.

Proof. Step 1. Case X irreducible. Set n “ dim X. We know by proposition ?? that X is birational to an
hypersurface V pf q in an affine space An`1
k . So this case boils down to prove the statement for an irreducible
hypersurface V pf q of An`1
k . Of course f is an irreducible polynomial in krx1 , . . . , xn`1 s. The jacobian
criterion says that dim Tx V pf q can be n or n ` 1. So, in any case

dimx X “ dim X ď dim Tx X .

20 or affine not necessarily reduced variety

112
It remains to prove that Jx pf q “ ∇f pxq ‰ 0 over an open subset of X. Suppose now that ∇f pxq “ 0 for
x P U , being U an open subset of V pf q. Since V pf q is irreducible, then U “ V pf q, then by continuity we
would have that ∇f pxq “ 0 for all x P V pf q. Then Bf {Bxi pxq “ 0 for all x P V pf q and for all i “ 1, . . . , n ` 1.
Hence V pf q Ď V pBf {Bxi q for all i “ 1, . . . , n ` 1. By Nullstellensatz, this implies that, for each i,
Bf a
P pf q “ pf q
Bxi
and hence that
Bf
f @i “ 1, . . . , n ` 1
Bxi
in krx1 , . . . , xn`1 s. This means that Bf {Bxi “ 0 identically for all i, which means that f is constant if k is
of characteristic zero and that, if k is of characteristic p, then f P krx1 , . . . , xi´1 , xpi , xi`1 , . . . , xn`1 s for all
i, which also means that f P krxp1 , . . . , xpn`1 s, which implies that f “ g p , for some g P krx1 , . . . , xn`1 s, since
k is perfect because algebraically closed. But f is irreducible, hence we got to an absurd in any case. So the
closed subset of V pf q given by ∇f pxq “ 0 is a proper closed subset, and hence there is an open subset of
V pf q such that ∇f pxq ‰ 0. In this open subset, we have that dimx X “ dim Tx X “ n.
Case 2. X arbitrary. Take x P X and consider the irreducible components X1 , . . . , Xr of X containing
x. Then
dimx X “ max dimx Xi ď max dim Tx Xi ď dim Tx X .
i“1,...,r i“1,...,r

since we know that any subvariety Y of X containing x satisfies dim Tx Y ď dim Tx X (by proposition ??,
we know that Tx Y injects into Tx X). All we said till now works even if X is not reduced. Suppose now X
is reduced. Then, for each i, the open set Ui “ Xi z Yi‰j Xj is an nonempty open subset of Xi , and hence
dense in Xi and irreducible. By the previous point, there is an open subset of Ui (and hence of Xi ) where
dimx Ui “ dim Tx Ui and hence

dimx Xi “ dimx Ui “ dim Tx Ui “ dim Tx Xi .

Hence the open subset U “ Yi Ui is dense in X and over U we have

dimx X “ dim Tx X .

Definition 2.13.57. Let X be an algebraic variety. A point x P X is smooth if dimx X “ dim Tx X. A

non-smooth point is called a singular point of X.

We proved that

Theorem 2.13.58. Let X be an algebraic variety. The set of smooth points of X is a dense open subset
of X. As a consequence the set of singular points of X is a proper closed subset of X which does not contain
any irreducible component of X.

Theorem 2.13.59. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety21 . Then a point x P X is smooth if and only
if the germs of Kähler differentials ΩX,x at the point x are a free OX,x -module of rank n “ dim X. This,
in turn, is equivalent to the existence of an affine open neighbourhood U of x in X such that ΩA,k is a free
A-module of rank n, if A “ krU s.
21 here we need reduced

113
Proof. Set U an affine open subset of X containing x and A “ krU s. It is clear that ΩAmy ,k » ΩX,y for any
y P U . We have that
dpxq “ dim Tx X “ dim Tx˚ X “ dim ΩX,x bOX,x kx .

and that dpyq ě dimy X “ n for any y P X. Moreover, we know that dpxq is upper semicontinuous. Then x is
a smooth point if an only if dpxq “ n if and only if dpyq “ n for y in a neighbourhood of x. But d is constant
in a neighbourhood of x is equivalent to the fact that there exists an principal affine open subset Uf of U
containing x, such that ΩAf ,k is a free Af -module of rank n and hence that ΩX,y is a free OX,y -module of rank
n for any y P Uf . So we just have to prove that if ΩX,x is a free OX,x -module of rank n then x is a smooth
point. But in that case we would have, dpxq “ n and then dimx X “ dim X “ n “ dim Tx˚ X “ dim Tx X.
Hence x would be a smooth point.

Definition 2.13.60. Let pA, mq a commutative local noetherian ring with residual field k :“ A{m. We say
that A is regular if dimk m{m2 “ dim A.

Theorem 2.13.61. Let X be an algebraic variety and x be a point of X. Then x is a smooth point of X if
and only if OX,x is a regular local ring.

Proposition 2.13.62. Let X be a curve and x be a smooth point of X. Then OX,x is a Discrete Valuation
Ring.

Proof. Consider the maximal ideal mx of the regular local ring OX,x . Since dimk mx {m2x “ 1, Nakayama’s
lemma for local rings applied to the OX,x -module M “ mx says that mx is generated by a single element
and hence it is principal, say mx “ ptq. Now, always by Nakayama, applied to the module mn , we have that
mn {mn`1 ‰ 0, otherwise mn “ 0, and in this case taken a prime p, we would have 0 “ mn Ď p and taking
radicals, m “ p, so that dim A “ 0, absurd. Hence mn {mn`1 ‰ 0 and then mn Ĺ mn`1 for each n. Now set

vpf q “ maxtr P N | f P mr u .

This gives a discrete valuation on OX,x .

Definition 2.13.63. In the above proof t, a generator of the maximal ideal mx , is called a uniformazing
parameter for X near x.

Subvarieties
Remark 2.13.64. By the previous theorem, a point of intersection of two different irreducible components of
an algebraic variety is necessarily singular.

Definition 2.13.65. Let X be a smooth algebraic variety. A closed subvariety Y of X of codimension c is

said to be a
• set-theoretic complete intersection in X if, for any y P Y , there exists an afine open subset U of y in X
and regular functions f1 , . . . , fc P krU s such that Y X U “ V pf1 , . . . , fc q;
• a scheme-theoretic complete intersection in X if for any y P Y , there exists an afine open subset U of
y in X and regular functions f1 , . . . , fc P krU s such that IY XU “ pf1 , . . . , fc q

114
Notation 2.13.66. In this section, when we want to consider the not necessarily reduced subvariety defined
by pf1 , . . . , fr q we will denote it with W pf1 , . . . , fr q. Of course V pf1 , . . . , fr q have the same underlying
topological space.

Definition 2.13.67. Let X be an algebraic variety and x P X. A system of parameters at x is a set of

n “ dimx X germs of regular functions f1 , . . . , fn such that, for a sufficiently affine open subset U of X
containing x (where all the fi live), V pf1 , . . . , fn q is a point in U .
If X is smooth at x and f1 , . . . , fn P OX,x generate the maximal ideal mx of OX,x , then we call f1 , . . . , fn a
set of regular system of parameters.

Proposition 2.13.68. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety and x P X. If pf1 , . . . , fr q is a system of

parameters around x, then

dim W pf1 , . . . , fj q “ dim V pf1 , . . . , fj q “ r ´ j f orj “ 1, . . . , r .

Proof. If pf1 , . . . , fr q is a system of parameters around x, there exists an open affine neighbourhood U of
x P X, where all fi are defined, such that V pf1 , . . . , fr q is a point in U . Since we have that

dim V pf1 , . . . , fj q ě r ´ j

for any j and that

dim V pf1 , . . . , fj q ě dim V pf1 , . . . , fj`1 q

for any j ď r ´ 1, then we necessarily have that dim V pf1 , . . . , fj q “ r ´ j. The same, of course, works for
W pf1 , . . . , fj q since dimension is topological.

Proposition 2.13.69. Let X be an algebraic variety, smooth at the point x. Consider a set f1 , . . . , fj in
the maximal ideal mx of OX,x . Then the following are equivalent
• f1 , . . . , fj is a subset of a regular system of parameters at x;
• dx f1 , . . . , dx fj are independent in Tx˚ X
• W pf1 , . . . , fj q is smooth at x of dimension dimx W pf1 , . . . , fj q “ n ´ j.

Proof. i) ùñ 2). If f1 , . . . , fj , fj`1 , . . . , fn is a regular system of parameters, with n “ dimx X, then

f1 , . . . , fn generate mx , then dx f1 , . . . , dx fn generate Tx˚ X, hence they are a basis of Tx˚ X, since dimx X “
dim Tx˚ X. Hence dx f1 , . . . , dx fj are independent in Tp˚ X.
1) ùñ 3). Let f1 , . . . , fj , fj`1 , . . . , fn be a regular system of parameters, with n “ dimx X, with f1 , . . . , fn
generate mx . We know that dim W pf1 , . . . , fj q “ n ´ j and fj`1 , . . . , fn generate the maximal ideal of x in
W “ W pf1 , . . . , fj q. Hence dim Tx˚ W ď n ´ j: hence dim Tx˚ W “ dimx W and hence W is smooth at x.
3) ùñ 1). If W “ W pf1 , . . . , fj q is smooth at x, then dimx W “ dim Tx W . Consider a basis dx g1 , . . . dx gn´j
of Tx W ˚ . Then dx f1 , . . . , dx fj , dx g1 , . . . , dx gn´j generate TxX and hence they are a basis of it. Then
f1 , . . . , fj , g1 , . . . , gn´j generate mx and hence they are a system of parameters of X around x.
2) ùñ 1). Complete dx f1 , . . . dx fj to a basis dx f1 , . . . , dx fj , dx g1 , . . . , dx gn´j of Tx˚ X. Then, by the same
argument above, f1 , . . . , fj , g1 , . . . , gn´j generate mx and hence they are a system of parameters of X around
x.

Definition 2.13.70. Let X be an algebraic variety and x be a point of X. A germ f P OX,x is regular if it
not a zero divisor in OX,x . A set of germs f1 , . . . , fr is a regular sequence if

115
 • f1 is regular, f2 is regular in OY1 ,x – where Y “ W pf1 q –, f3 is regular in OY2 ,x , where Y2 “ W pf1 , f2 q,
etc..
• pf1 , . . . , fr q ‰ OX,x .

Remark 2.13.71. Let A be a finitely generated k-algebra and let X the non necessarily reducded affine
algebraic variety associated with it. We saw in the beginning that the minimal primes of A correspond to
irreducible components of X. The ideal p0q of A can be written as

p0q “ Xi qi
?
where the qi are primary ideals: the primes pi “ qi are called the associated primes of A, and denoted
with pAq. The minimal primes of A are always among the associated primes. Primes which are associated
but not minimal are called embedded primes. They appear only if A is non-reduced. It is a standard result
in commutative algebra that ZDivpAq, that is the zero divisors of A are the union of the associated primes:

ZDivpAq “ Yi pi .

As a consequence f P A “ krXs is a zero divisor if and only if belong to some associated prime of X. As a
consequence, if f is not a zero divisor in A, then f ‰ 0 in A{qi for any qi associated prime of A. Therefore,
if f P A, not a zerodivisor, f ‰ 0 both as as a generalized regular function restricted to any irreducible
component of X “ Specmax pAq and as a true regular function restricted to any irreducible component of
Xred (the reduced variety associated to X). If X is reduced, then f is a zero divisor if and only if f “ 0
identically on some irreducible component of X.
Remark 2.13.72. In the hypothesis of the above definition, if f1 , . . . , fr is a regular sequence in OX,x , then
since any fj is not a zero divisor in OX,x {pf1 , . . . , fj´1 q and hence fj ‰ 0 on any irreducible component
of X passing through x, then dimx V pf1 , . . . , fj q “ n ´ j by Krull theorem applied to a sufficiently small
affine open set U of x, where all the germs live. This works as well for not necessarily reduced varieties
W pf1 , . . . , fj q, since dimension is topological.
The following theorem is very important.

Theorem 2.13.73. Let X be an algebraic variety, not necessarily reduced and let p a smooth point of X.
Then OX,p is an integral domain. This means that X has a unique irreducible component passing through p.

Proof. Recall that, by Nakayama, as done in the previous proof, generators of mp {m2p can be lifted to
generators of mp . We prove the theorem by induction on dimx X. If dimx X “ 0, then dim mp {m2p “ 0, and
mp “ p0q. Hence OX,x » OX,x {mp “ kpmp q hence a field. Let dimx X “ 1. By the previous theorem, OX,x
is a Discrete Valuation Ring. Le’t prove it is an integral domain. Since dim OX,x “ 1, and mp is the unique
maximal ideal of OX,x , then mp strictly contains a prime p, p Ĺ mp . We now prove that p “ p0q. Indeed,
let y P p. Since mp “ ptq, then we can write y “ tx, for some x P OX,p . Now t R p: since y “ tx P p, then
a P p. Hence p Ď tp Ď p and then p “ tp “ mp p. By Nakayama applied to the OX,p -module p, we have that
p “ p0q. This implies that OX,p is an integral domain.
Consider now the case dimp X “ n ŋ 1. Suppose that X has irreducible components Y1 , . . . , Yr passing
through p, with Yi Ę Yj if i ‰ j. Of course, by Nakayama, mp ‰ m2p . Moreover, dimp Yi ŋ 0, otherwise Yi
would be a point, and Yi would be inside other irreducible components. Hence p Ĺ Yi for all i. By [Mat89,

116
exercise 1.6]22 , there is an element f P mp such that x R m2p and not belonging to any ideal IYi of Yi in OX,p .
Now dp f ‰ 0 in mp {m2p “ Tp˚ X, so that, by the previous proposition, W “ W pf q is smooth at p of dimension
n ´ 1. By induction, OW,x “ OX,x {pf q is an integral domain. Now W is a germ of an irreducible subvariety
of X at p, hence it has to be inside some Yi for some i. Suppose W Ď Y1 , up to reordering. Then pf q Ě IY1 .
But IY1 is a minimal prime ideal of OX,x and the same proof as above yields IY1 “ p0q, that is OX,x is an
integral domain.

Corollary 2.13.74. If X is an algebraic variety, smooth at p, then OX,p is reduced.

Corollary 2.13.75. Let U be a smooth affine algebraic variety and f1 , . . . , fr P krU s such that dp f1 , . . . , dp fr
are independent in Tp˚ U for any p P U . Then Y “ W pf1 , . . . , fr q is a disjoint union of smooth algebraic
varieties of codimension r in U .

Proof. It follows directly from the previous results and proposition 2.13.69. By the proposition, we have
that Y is smooth at any point. By the previous theorem, its irreducible components have to be disjoint,
otherwise, if they intersected each other, any point of intersection would be singular.

Theorem 2.13.76. Let X be a smooth algebraic variety, Y be a non-necessarily reduced subvariety of X

and p P Y . The following are equivalent
i) Y is smooth at p;
ii) there exists an affine open neighbourhood U of p in X and regular functions f1 , . . . , fr P OX pU q such
that Y X U “ W pf1 , . . . , fk q and dp f1 , . . . , dp fr are independent in Tp˚ X.
In this case dimx Y X U “ dimx X ´ r for any x P U . In particular, a smooth subvariety is locally complete
intersection.

Proof. Let’s prove first that ii) ùñ i). Consider f1 , . . . , fr regular functions on an open affine neighbourhood
of p such that dp f1 , . . . , dp fr`1 are independent in Tp˚ X and consider the variety W pf1 , . . . , fr`1 q. It is smooth
at p always by proposition 2.13.69.
Let’s prove i) ùñ ii). First of all, if p is a smooth point of X, there exists an open neighbourhood V of p in
X such that any point q P V is smooth. The ideal IY,x of the germ of Y at x is generated inside OX,x by germs
of functions f1 , . . . , fr . Therefore, Tp˚ Y » Tp˚ X{xdp f1 , . . . , dp fr y. Let c “ codimX,x Y “ dimx X ´ dimx Y at
the point x. Then, since Y is smooth at p, we have that xdp f1 , . . . , dp fr y is a vector subspace of dimension
c. We choose c functions fi1 , . . . , fic such that dp fi1 , . . . , dp fic are independent. Up to permutation of the
indices, we can suppose that dp f1 , . . . , dp fc are independent. Let U Ď V be an affine open neighbourhood
of p where all these germs live as regular functions. Let Yr the variety in W pf1 , . . . , fc q inside U . Up
to restricting U , we have that Y X U Ď W pf1 , . . . , fc q. By the proposition 2.13.69, Ỹ is smooth at p.
Since smooth points are open in Ỹ , it results that, restricting U if necessary Ỹ is smooth at any point.
Then Ỹ is a finite dijoint union of smooth irreducible components by the lemma; however Ỹ has a unique
irreducible component passing through p. Restricting U again in order to remove the irreducible components
of Ỹ not passing through p, we can assume that Ỹ is a smooth irreducible subvariety of U of codimension
c. Since Y X U Ď Ỹ , Y has a unique irreducible component passing through p, but Ỹ irreducible and
dim Y X U “ dim Ỹ , we can conclude that Y X U “ Ỹ .
22 there is the solution of this exercise in the back of the book

117
 We have the following result, which we will not prove, since it would take too far in commutative algebra.

Theorem 2.13.77. Let X be an algebraic variety, smooth at the point p. Let f1 , . . . , fr P mp , the maximal
ideal of OX,p . The following are equivalent.
1. f1 , . . . , fr are a regular sequence in OX,p ;
2. dimp W pf1 , . . . , fj q “ dimp X ´ j for any j “ 1, . . . , r;
3. dimp W pf1 , . . . , fr q “ dimp X ´ r;
4. f1 , . . . , fr is part of a system of parameters in OX,p

Proof. This is essentially, for a regular local ring OX,p , the content of [Mat89, Theorem 17.4]. The impli-
cations 1) ùñ 2) ùñ 3) ùñ 4) are easy and doable, but the important implication for us, 4) ùñ
1) needs homological methods in commutative algebra (it needs an homological characterization of depth,
which is too far for the time we have now).

However, we can do a full proof of a weaker result in the same lines.

Theorem 2.13.78. Let X be an algebraic variety, smooth at p P X. Let f1 , . . . , fr in OX,p a subset of a

regular system of parameters. Then f1 , . . . , fr are a regular sequence in OX,p . In particular OX,p admits a
regular sequence of length dimp X (we say that OX,p is Cohen-Macaulay).

Proof. We have that, for any j W pf1 , . . . , fj q is smooth at p of dimension n ´ j by proposition 2.13.69. In
particular OW,p “ OX,p {pf1 , . . . , fj q is an integral domain, and hence W pf1 , . . . , fj q has a unique irreducible
component. Since W pf1 , . . . , fj´1 q Ě W pf1 , . . . , fj q, this means that fj ‰ 0 over W pf1 , . . . , fj´1 q and this is
sufficient for fj not to be a zero divisor in OX,p {pf1 , . . . , fj´1 q. Hence the sequence is regular.

Definition 2.13.79. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. Let f1 , . . . , fr P mX,p is a quasi-regular

sequence in OX,p if, denoted with I “ pf1 , . . . , fr q and W “ W pf1 , . . . , fr q the natural surjective map of
OX,p {I “ OW,p - graned algebras

- ‘8 j j`1
OW,p rt1 , . . . , tr s j“0 I {I

sending ti - fi mod I 2 is an isomorphism.

Remark 2.13.80. In the above definition, consider the polynomial ring OX,p rt1 , . . . , tr s and the natural
evaluation map
evf1 ,...,fr : OX,p rt1 , . . . , tr s - OX,p .

Then the following are equivalent.

1. The sequence f1 , . . . , fr is quasi-regular
2. For any d, if F pt1 , . . . , tn q is a homogeneous polynomial of degree d in OX,p rt1 , . . . , tr s, we have

F pf1 , . . . , fr q “ evf1 ,...,fr pF q P I d`1 ùñ F has coefficients in I .

3. For any d, if F pt1 , . . . , tn q is a homogeneous polynomial of degree d in OX,p rt1 , . . . , tr s, we have

F pf1 , . . . , fr q “ 0 ùñ F has coefficients in I .

118
Proof. It is clear that 1) is equivalent to 2), and that 2) implies 3). We just have to prove that 3) implies
2). Consider a homogeneous polynomial F pt1 , . . . , tn q of degree d such that F pf1 , . . . , fr q P I d`1 . Since I is
generated by f1 , . . . , fr , then there exists a polynomial Gpt1 , . . . , tn q of degree d`1 such that F pf1 , . . . , fn q “
ř
Gpf1 , . . . , fn q. We can write Gpt1 , . . . , tn q “ i ti Gi pt1 , . . . , tn q with Gi homogeneous of degree d. Consider
the polynomial
ÿ
F ˚ pt1 , . . . , tn q “ F pt1 , . . . , fn q ´ fi Gi pt1 , . . . , fn q .
i

Then F ˚ pf1 , . . . , fr q “ 0 and F ˚ is homogeneous of degree d. By 3), the coefficients of F ˚ are in I, and
hence the coefficients of F are in I.

Theorem 2.13.81. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. Let f1 , . . . , fr P mX,p be a regular sequence in
OX,p . Then f1 , . . . , fr is a quasi-regular sequence.

Proof. Step 1. Claim: if f1 , . . . , fr is quasi-regular, and g P OX,p satisfies pI : gq “ I, then, for any d ą 0 we
have pI d : xq “ I d .
We prove it by induction on d. For d “ 1, it is trivial. Suppose it works for some d: let’s prove for d ` 1.
Suppose that g P OX,p is such that gx P I d`1 : then gx P I d ; hence g P I d and we can write g “ Gpf1 , . . . , fr q,
with G an homogeneous polynomial of degree d. Now xg “ xGpf1 , . . . , fr q P I d`1 , so the coefficients of the
polynomial xG, say xαi , are in I by definition of quasi-regular sequence. Then, since pI : xq “ I, we have
that αi P I and then g “ Gpf1 , . . . , fr q P I d`1 .
Step 2. We now prove that a regular sequence is quasi-regular. By induction on r. Case r “ 1.
Suppose that f is regular, that is, a non-zero divisor. Suppose that F “ αxd is a polynomial in OX,p rts
homogeneous of degree d, with F pf q P pf d`1 q. Then f d`1  αf d and since f is not a zero divisor, we
have that f  α. Suppose that r ą 1 and that the theorem works for any s ă r. In particular, we have
that f1 , . . . , fr´1 is quasi-regular. Suppose now that F pt1 , . . . , tr q is a homogeneous polynomial of degree
d such that F pf1 , . . . , fr q “ 0. We prove by induction on d that the coefficient of F belong to I. Write
F pt1 , . . . , tr q “ tn Hpt1 , . . . , tr q ` Gpt1 , . . . , tr´1 q, where G is homogeneous of degree d and H is homogeneous
of degree d ´ 1. Set J “ pf1 , . . . , fr´1 q. Then

fn Hpf1 , . . . fr q “ F pf1 , . . . , fr q ´ Gpf1 , . . . , fr´1 q “ Gpf1 , . . . , fr´1 q P J d

hence Hpf1 , . . . , fr q P pJ d : fr q “ J d by Step 1. Since Hpf1 , . . . , fr q Ď J d Ď I d , then, by induction on d, the

coefficient of H belong to I. So H is done. Let’s now work out G. Moreover, since Hpf1 , . . . , fr q P J d and
J is generated by f1 , . . . , fr´1 , then there exists a polynomial hpt1 , . . . ,r´1 q homogeneous of degree d such
that
Hpf1 , . . . , fr q “ hpf1 , . . . , fr´1 q .

Set now
Kpt1 , . . . , tr q :“ Gpt1 , . . . , tr´1 q ` fn hpt1 , . . . , tn´1 q .

We have that K is a homogeneous polynomial of degree d. Moreover,

Kpf1 , . . . , fr´1 q “ Gpf1 , . . . , fr´1 q ` fr hpf1 , . . . , fn´1 q “ Gpf1 , . . . , fr q ` fn Hpf1 , . . . , fr q “ F pf1 , . . . , fr q “ 0

and since f1 , . . . , fr´1 is quasi-regular (induction on r), then K has coefficients in J Ď I. But then G has
coefficients in I and, as a consequence F .

119
Remark 2.13.82. The above proof works in exactly the same way for an arbitrary ring A.

Theorem 2.13.83. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. Then f1 , . . . , fr P mp is a regular sequence if

and only if f1 , . . . , fr is quasi-regular.

Proof. We do not prove this theorem here. We just remark that the direction ” quasi-regular” implies ”
regular” needs the fact that OX,p is noetherian and that mp is inside the Jacobson radical (since local). See
[Mat89, Theorem 16.3].

Lemma 2.13.84 (Krull). Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. We have

8
č
mip “ p0q
i“0

inside OX,p .
i
Proof. Let a P X8
i“0 mp . Let u1 , . . . , um generators of mp . For any ` ą 0, we can write a as

a “ P` pu1 , . . . , um q

with P` a homogeneous polynomial with coefficients in A, since mp is generated by u1 , . . . , um . Consider

the ideal J of Arx1 , . . . , xn s generated by the polynomiasl P` , ` ą 0. Since the ring is noetherian, J “
pP`1 , . . . , P`s q for some s P N˚ . Take now j ą `s . Then
s
ÿ
Pj “ P`i Qi
i“1

with Qi P Arx1 , . . . , xn s. Evualuate this expression of polynomials in u1 , . . . , um : we have

a “ ba
ř
for some b “ i Qi pu1 , . . . , um q P mp . But the ring is local and if b P m, then 1 ´ b is inversible. Then
a “ 0.

Proof of theorem 2.13.73, Variant. We prove again that OX,p is an integral domain if X is smooth at p of
dimension n. We use that Tp X » Cp X, or equivalently that we have an isomorphism of graded k-algebras:
8 mj
à p
krt1 , . . . , tn s » S ˚ Tp X » .
j“0 mjp

Take a, b P OX,p . By the previous lemma, we can surely find integers l, h such that

a P ml zml`1
b P mh zmh`1

Then a, b define nonzero homogeneous classes a, b in krCp Xs of degree l and h, respectively. The product
of these classes has to be nonzero, since krCp X is an integral domain: so a ¨ b ‰ 0. Now it is easy to prove
that the class in krCp Xs of the product is the product of the classes: a ¨ b “ ab, and ab ‰ 0, which implies
ab R ml`h`1 . and if αβ “ 0, then αβ P mj for any j.

120
Proposition 2.13.85. Let V a finite dimensional vector space over a field k. The choice of a basis e˚1 , . . . , e˚n
of V ˚ gives an isomorphism of graded k-algebras betweeen the symmetric algebra of V ˚ and the polynomial
algebra
- S ˚ V ˚ :“ ‘8 k ˚
krt1 , . . . , tn s i“0 S V .

Now, the ti are exactly the coordinate functions over V induced by e˚i . This means that krt1 , . . . , tn s is the
algebra of polynomials over V .

Proof. The isomorphism is induced by sending ti - e˚ . It is an isomorphism of vector spaces over any
i
graded piece. Moreover, it is preserves multiplicative structures.

Theorem 2.13.86. Let X be an algebraic variety, smooth at the point p P X. Then the isomorphism of
graded algebras
k ˚
mkp
‘8
k“0 S Tp X
- ‘8
k“0
mk`1
p

induces an isomorphism of the tangent space with the tangent cone:

Cp X » Tp X .

Proof. By the previous theorem, once we choose a regular system of parameters u1 , . . . , un in mp , we have
an isomorphism of k “ OX,p {mp -graded algebras

» mkp
krt1 , . . . , tn s - ‘8
k“0 .
mk`1
p

sending ti - ui mod m2p .Now, since dp ui are a basis of Tp˚ X, we have an isomorphism of graded k-algebras

k ˚
‘8
k“0 S Tp X
- krt1 , . . . , tn s

sending dp ui to ti . Composing we have an isomorphism of graded k-algebras

k ˚
mkp
‘8
k“0 S Tp X
- ‘8
k“0
mk`1
p

sending dp ui to ui mod m2p . But the left is exactly the algebra of polynomials over Tp X: hence what we
proved is
»
krTp Xs - krCp Xs
»
and therefore Cp X - Tp X .

Exercise 120. Prove that the isomorphism proved above coincides, in the case p is smooth, with the natural
inclusion Cp X Ă - Tp X we mentioned when introduced the tangent cone.

Completion and factoriality.

Definition 2.13.87. Let A be a commutative ring and I an ideal of A. The completion of A with respect
to the ideal I is the projective limit
p “ lim A{I k .
A ÐÝ
kPN

121
Remark 2.13.88. The projective limit in the definition can be built explicitely as the subring of the product
ź
lim
ÐÝ
A{I k » tpa0 , a1 , . . . , an , . . . , q P A{I k | πk pak`1 q “ ak u
kPN˚ kPN˚

where πk is the natural projection πk : A{I k`1 - A{I k . Of course, since we have maps pk : A - A{I k
such that πk ˝ pk`1 “ pk , then, by the universal property of the projective limit, we have a natural map

c:A - A
p

sending an element
a - pa, p1 paq, p2 paq, , . . . q .
i
The kernel of the map c is clearly given by X8
i“0 I .

Definition 2.13.89. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. The completion O

z X,p of the local ring of

the variety X at the point p is the completion of OX,p with respect to its maximal ideal mp .

Remark 2.13.90. Intuitively, one should see an element a of the completion OX,p as an infinite series
8
ÿ
a “ a0 ` a1 ` a2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an ` ¨ ¨ ¨ “ ai ai P mip .
i“0

In this sense, elements in mjp for big j are considered ”small”. These ideas can be formalized rigorously putting
j
on OX,p and on O zX,p a topology, called mp -adic topology, for which mp constitute a basis of neighbourhoods

near 0. The topology is invariant by translation. Moreover, O zX,p is the completion of OX,p in the mp -adic

topology. Krull’s lemma on the fact that Xj mjp “ p0q means that the mp -adic topology on OX,p and O
z X,p is

Hausdorff. See [?, chapter 10] for a discussion on topological groups and their completions.
Remark 2.13.91. Consider an element in O
z X,p “ lim ÐÝ OX,p {mkp , say pa0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , q where ai P OX,p {mi`1
p ,
kPN˚
and such that pi pai q “ ai´1 , where pi : OX,p {mi`1
p
- OX,p {mip . Here ai denotes on purpose the class of
the element ai P OXp . Take
bi “ ai ´ ai´1 .

Then
πi pbi q “ πi pai ´ ai´1 q “ ai´1 ´ ai´1 “ 0

hence bi P mip . Now the bi ’s determine the ai ’ s, since, recursively,

ai “ ai´1 ` bi .

So the element a in the completion can be though as an infinite sum

8
ÿ
a“ bi bi P mip .
i“0

As a consequence of the previous remark and of Krull’s lemma in the previous subsection, we have

Proposition 2.13.92. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. The local ring OX,p embeds in its completion
O
zX,p . Moreover, if f : X
- Y is a morphism of algebraic varieties, then f induces a morphism of
completions
f ˚ : O{
Y,f ppq
- O
z X,p .

122
Theorem 2.13.93. Let X be an algebraic variety and let p P X. Let f1 , . . . , fn be a system of parameters
in mX,p Ď OX,p . The natural map

krrt1 , . . . , tn ss - O
zX,p “ lim
ÐÝ
OX,p {mkp
kPN˚

iven by sendng
8
ÿ k´1
ÿ
Fi pt1 , . . . , tn q - p Fi pf1 , . . . , fn q mod mkp qkPN˚
i“0 i“0

where Fi are homogeneous polynomial of degree i in t1 , . . . , tn , is surjective. If X is smooth at p and f1 , . . . , fn

are a regular system of parameters, it is injective and hence an isomorphism.

Proof. We can give maps of k-algebras ϕ̃k : krt1 , . . . , tn s - OX,p {mk`1

p sending ti - fi . Of course,
k`1
pt1 , . . . , tn q is in the kernel, so that they induce maps of k-algebras:

ϕk : krt1 , . . . , tn s{pt1 , . . . , tn qk`1 - OX,p {mk`1

p .

The maps ϕk actually induce a morphism of inverse systems

pϕk qkPN : pkrt1 , . . . , tn s{pt1 , . . . , tn qk`1 , pk q - pOX,p {mk`1

p , pk q

and hence a morphism of completions

ϕ : lim
ÐÝ
krt1 , . . . , tn s{pt1 , . . . , tn qk “ krrt1 , . . . , tn ss - O
zX,p “ lim
ÐÝ
OX,p {mkp .
˚
kPN kPN˚

The map ϕ is exactly the map in the statement.

i
Let’s prove the map is surjective. Consider a P O
z X,p and consider the elements bi P mp we found in

the previous remark. It is clear that, for any i, ai “ b0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bi . Now, each bi P mip , and since mp is
generated by f1 , . . . , fn , hence there exists a polynomial Bi pt1 , . . . , tn q, of degree i in krt1 , . . . , tn s such that
Bi pf1 , . . . , fn q “ bi . Now it is clear that the power series
8
ÿ
Bi pt1 , . . . , tn q
i“0

goes to the element a.

We now use that OX,p is smooth and f1 , . . . , fn is a regular system of parameters to prove that the map
ř
ϕ is injective. Indeed, take a power series i Fi pt1 , . . . , tn q, with Fi homogeneous of degree i such that such
that
j
ÿ
Fi pf1 , . . . , fn q “ 0 mod mpj`1 @j P N˚ .
i“0

Now it is easy to prove that the injectivity condition, that is

˜ j ¸
ÿ
j`1 ˚
Fi pf1 , . . . , fn q “ 0 mod mp @j P N ùñ Fj pt1 , . . . , tn q “ 0 @j
i“0

is equivalent to the condition

Fj pf1 , . . . , fn q “ 0 mod mj`1

p ùñ Fj pt1 , . . . , tn q “ 0 @j P N˚ .

123
So now we reduced the problem to proving that if F pt1 , . . . , tn q P krt1 , . . . , tn s is a homogeneous polynomial of
degree d such that F pf1 , . . . , fn q P md`1
p , then F “ 0. Suppose that F ‰ 0. Then there exists pα1 , . . . , αn q P
k n such that F pα1 , . . . , αn q ‰ 0. Take any linear change of coordinates sending pα1 , . . . , αn q to p0, . . . , 0, 1q:
in these new coordinates, F p0, . . . , 0, 1q ‰ 0. Moreover, if A is the matrix of the coordinates change, than the
functions g1 , . . . , gn in mp defined by g “ Af , are still a regular system of parameters in mp . The key point
in this is that mp {m2p is a vector space of dimension n: so we need heavily here that X is smooth at p. So,
up to a inversible linear change of coordinates, we can suppose that F p0, . . . , 0, 1q ‰ 0, F is a homogeneous
polynomial of degree d and F pf1 , . . . , fn q P md`1
p . Then we can write
d
ÿ
F pt1 , . . . , tn q “ αtdr ` Gi pt1 , . . . , tn qtd´h
n ,
h“1

with α P k, α ‰ 0, Gi a homogeneous polynomial of degree i in t1 , . . . , tn´1 . Now, since F pt1 , . . . , tn q P md`1

p ,
and since f1 , . . . , fn generete mp , we can write

F pf1 , . . . , fn q “ Kpf1 , . . . , fn q

where Kpt1 , . . . , tn q is a homogeneous polynomial of degree d ` 1, and hence K can be written

d`1
ÿ
Kpt1 , . . . , tn q “ ti Mi pt1 , . . . , tn q
i“0

where Mi are homogeneous of degree d. Therefore, writing each Mi in decreasing powers of tn , we get
d`1
ÿ d
ÿ
Kpf1 , . . . , fn q “ ti Mi pt1 , . . . , tn q “ ai pt1 , . . . , tn´1 qtnd´i
i“0 j“0

where for sure ai pt1 , . . . , tn´1 q P pt1 , . . . , tn´1 q and are homogeneous poynomials of degree i`1 in t1 , . . . , tn´1 .
Hence from the comparison
d
ÿ
F pf1 , . . . , fn q “ αfnd ` Gi pf1 , . . . , fn´1 qfnd´h
h“1
d
ÿ
F pt1 , . . . , tn q “ µfnd ` ai pf1 , . . . , fn´1 qfnd´h µ P mp
h“1

we get pα ´ µqfnd P pf1 , . . . , fn´1 q. But OX,p is local and α ´ µ is invertible, hence fnd P pf1 , . . . , fn´1 q.
This implies that V pf1 , . . . , fn´1 q Ď V pfn q and hence dim V pf1 , . . . , fn q “ dim V pf1 , . . . , fn´1 q X V pfn q “
dim V pf1 , . . . , fn´1 q ě 1, so that f1 , . . . , fn can’t be a system of parameters. Absurd.

Proposition 2.13.94. Let n P N, n ě 1. Then, for any p P N there is an isomorphism

krx1 , . . . , xn s
O
{An
k ,p
» krx1 ,{
. . . , xn sm0 » krrx1 , . . . , xn ss “ lim
ÐÝ px , . . . , x qk
.
kPN˚ 1 n

Proof. The first two isomorphism follows from the previous theorem. The third building a map

krrx1 , . . . , xn ss - lim krx1 , . . . , xn s

ÐÝ px , . . . , x qk
kPN˚ 1 n

sending a power series F to pF mod px1 , . . . , xn qk qk . It is clear that this map is also an isomorphism.

124
Remark 2.13.95. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y a subvariety. Let p P Y . Let IY,p the ideal of the
germ of Y near p in OX,p , so that OY,p “ OX,p {IY,p . If J is an ideal of a noetherian commutative ring A,
and if A
p is the completion with respect to some I-adic topology for some ideal I of A, denote with Jp the
p via the map A - A.
extension of J in the ring A, p Then the completion A{J y of the quotient ring A{J is
isomorphic to A{
p Jp (see [AM94, Proposition 10.15]). Then

O
z Y,p » OX,p {IY,p .
z y

Example 2.13.96 (Inverse function theorem for completions). At the level of completions, things are so
”local” that tools from calculus start to work. As a wonderful example of this intuition, we have a version
of the Inverse Function Theorem in the context of complete local rings.
Theorem. [Inverse Function Theorem for Completions] Let A be a commutative ring and let f1 , . . . , fn P
px1 , . . . , xn qArrx1 , . . . , xn ss. Consider the morphism of rings

ϕ : Arrx1 , . . . , xn ss - Arrx1 , . . . , xn ss

defined as
xi - fi .

Let Jpx1 , . . . , xn q “ pBfi {Bxj qi,j be the jacobian matrix. Then ϕ is an isomorphism if and only if det Jp0q is
a invertible in A. See Eisenbud [Eis95, Exercise 7.25].

Example 2.13.97. Consider the curve C defined by y 2 ´ x3 ` x2 “ 0 in A2k . Show that krrs, tss - O
zC,0 ,

sending s to x and t to y is surjective, but not injective. Show that the kernel is the ideal px2 ´ y 2 q. Hence
1 2 3 2
O
z C,0 » OC 1 ,0 , where C is defined by xy “ 0. Show that OC,0 fi OC 1 ,0 . Hint: write y “ x ´ x and find a
{
power series hpxq such that hpxq2 “ x2 ´ x3 . Then you have to prove that px, yq - phpxq, yq defines an
automorphism of krrx, yss: use the Inverse Function Theorem in the previous example and the remark on
the completion of a quotient.

Theorem 2.13.98. Let k be a field. Then krrt1 , . . . , tn ss is a factorial integral domain (UFD).

Proof. We won’t prove this theorem here. See Zariski-Samuel. The proof uses Weierstrass Preparation
Theorem for power series: it follows the same exact steps in order to prove that HCn ,x , the ring of germs
holomorphic functions at a point is UFD. So one can also look up Griffiths and Harris [GH94].

Theorem 2.13.99. Let X be an algebraic variety, p a smooth point of X. Then OX,p is factorial.

Ingredients of the proof. The proof follows from the fact that the local ring OX,p injects into its completion
OX,p Ă - O zX,p and that OX,p is factorial, being isomorphic to krrt1 , . . . , tn ss if n “ dimx X and that OX,p
z z
is flat as an OX,p -module.

Definition 2.13.100. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X. Then the point p has factorial singularities,
or X is factorial at the point p if OX,p is a factorial domain. The algebraic variety X is factorial if any local
ring OX,p is factorial.

Theorem 2.13.101. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X such that X is factorial at the point p. Let
Y be closed and irreducible subvariety of X, passing through p, of codimension 1. Then Y is defined, around

125
p by a single equation; this means that there exists an open affine subset U of p such that Y X U given by a
single equation in U ; moreover23 , IY XU “ pgq, for some irreducible g P krU s.

Proof. Since the question is local, we can assume X affine and Y be a closed subvariety of X. Since Y is
irreducible, then IY,p is prime. Let f P IY,p . Factorize f in primes/irreducible factors; we can do this since
OX,p is factorial: then
f “ g1 ¨ ¨ ¨ gr .
Then f P IY,p implies
g1 ¨ ¨ ¨ gr P IY,p
and this implies that gj P IY,p since IY,p is prime. Set g “ gj . Hence Y Ď V pgq in some small affine open set
U containing p.
We prove that V pgq has a unique irreducible component passing through p. Indeed suppose that V pgq “
Z1 Y Z2 , with Zi proper closed in U containing p and such that Z1 Ĺ Z2 , Z2 Ĺ Z1 . This would imply that
? ?
there exists functios hi P IZ1 zIZ2 and h2 P IZ2 zIZ1 . Then h1 h2 P IZ1 YZ2 “ g, hence h1 h2 P g, implying
that g (h1 h2 qs for some s P N˚ in krU s and hence in OX,p . Then, since g is irreducible in OX,p , we have
that g  h1 or g h2 . Suppose the first: this would imply, by the factoriality of OX,p , that, up to a unit,
h1 “ g and that h2 is invertible in OX,p , but this would contradict the fact that h2 ppq “ 0, since h2 vanishes
on the whole Z2 in krU s and that p P Z2 .
Hence, over U V pgq has a unique irreducible component passing through p and Y is exactly that one,
since Y Ď V pgq over U . Restricting U in ordet to get rid of the possible other irreducible components of
V pgq not passing through p, we get that Y “ V pgq. From this it is easy to prove that IY,p “ pgq inside OX,p .
?
Indeed, let’s u P IY,p , living in some smaller affine open set V Ď U . Then u P g and g  ur , and by the
same argument as before, this implies that, up to a unit, g “ u in OX,p .

Exercise 121. Factorial singularities are pretty closed to being smooth. Indeed, consider singularity of
the cone x2 ` y 2 “ z 2 at the origin in A3k . Prove that it is not factorial. Hint: prove that a single
generatrix of the cone can’t be given scheme-theoretically by a unique local equation (take for example, the
line x “ 0, y “ t, z “ t: this is a codimension 1 irreducible subvariety of the cone, but it can’t be given
locally by a unique equation). The singularity of the cone is a double point, and it is one of the simplest
singularities for surfaces.

Example 2.13.102. There exist factorial but not smooth singularities, for example the surface singularity
x2 ` y 3 ` z 5 “ 0 at the origin. One can prove that if n ě 5, then an hypersurface in Ank with a a single
singular point is factorial.

Corollary 2.13.103. Let X be an algebraic variety and p P X sucht that X is factorial at the point p. Let
Y be closed subvariety of X, passing through p, of codimension 1, not necessarily irreducible. Then Y is
defined, around p by a single equation; this means that there exists an open affine subset U of p such that
Y X U given set-theoretically by a single equation in U : in other words Y X U “ W pgq for some g P krU s.

Proof. Apply the previous theorem to all the irreducible components of Y passing through p, say Z1 , . . . , Zr .
?
We have that Y “ Z1 Y¨ ¨ ¨YZr in some small open affine subset U containing p. Then I Y “ IZ1 X¨ ¨ ¨YIZr “
pg1 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ gr q. Then, since IY,p is reduced, that IY,p “ pgq and Y X U “ W pgq.
23 we want to emphasize that the fact that Y is given by a single equation is a scheme-theoretic property, not a set-theoretic
one: in other words Y X U “ W pgq, in the notation of this section

126
Theorem 2.13.104. A rational map f : X - Y from an factorial algebraic variety X to a projective
variety Y is necessarily defined on the complement of a closed subvariety of codimension ě 2.

Proof. Since X is factorial, for each point it has only one irreducible component passing through it. Hence
the irreducible components of X do not intersect. Then, we can reduce to the case that X is irreducible. Of
course if the map is constant on an open subset, then it can be extended to the whole X. So we can suppose
that it is not constant. Now, since Y is projective, it admits a closed immersion ι into the projective space
Pm
k for some m. Consider the composition ι ˝ f : X
- Pm . It is given, out of the exceptional locus of X,
k
by
ϕpxq “ rf1 pxq, . . . , fr pxqs ,

where fi are regular functions defined in some open subset of X. Since X is supposed to be irreducible, this
open subset is dense. Therefore, we can suppose that fi P RpXq. Let’ s put ourselves around a point p. We
know that OX,p is factorial. Of course, by multiplying and dividing the fi we can arrange that all fi ’s are in
OX,p , and that no two fi have a common factor: this without changing the rational map ϕ. The exceptional
locus, around p, has equations f1 “ 0 “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ fr . If the (reduced) exceptional locus E had dimension 1
around p, we would have that IE,p would be principal, that is, IE,p “ pgq, for some g P OX,p . But if r ě 2
a
(if ϕ is not constant then we can assume tha r ě 2) Then we would have that pf1 , . . . , fr q “ IE,g “ pgq
and that would imply g  fi for all i. Hence the fi would have a common factor. Absurd.

Proposition 2.13.105. Let C be a curve. Then OC,p is factorial if and only if p is smooth.

Proof. See [AM94, Proposition 9.2].

Corollary 2.13.106. A rational map f : C - Pn from a smooth curve to a projective space is a morphism
k
(is everywhere defined).

Corollary 2.13.107. Two nonsingular projective curves are isomorphic if and only if they are birational.

Exercise 122. Prove that rational map

ϕ : P2k - P2k

defined as
ϕprx, y, zsq “ ryz, xz, xys

is birational. It is called the Cremona-transformation. Find its exceptional locus. Consider the point
Q “ r1, 0, 0s. Let C Ď P2k a curve in P2k passing through Q and nonsingular at Q. Prove that the rational
map
ˇ
ϕˇC : C- P2k
ˇ
is regular (can be extended to the whole C). Therefore ϕˇC pQq is a well-defined point in P2k . Now consider
two smooth curves C1 and C2 passing through Q. Prove that

TQ C1 “ TQ C2
ˇ ˇ
(as subspaces of TQ P2k ) if and only if ϕˇC1 pQq “ ϕˇC2 pQq. Compute the Cremona transform of the curve C:
ˇ
xy 2 ´ z 3 ` xz 2 “ 0. Prove that C is singular at the point Q “ r1, 0, 0s. Is ϕpCq singular at the point ϕˇ pQq?
C

127
2.13.5 Normality
Definition 2.13.108. An irreducible algebraic variety X is said to be normal if, for each p P X, the local
ring OX,p is integrally closed in its field of fractions KOX,p “ RpXq.

Proposition 2.13.109. An irreducible affine variety X is normal if and only if krXs is integrally closed in
its field of fractions kpXq. As a consequence, an arbitrary irreducible algebraic variety Y is normal if and
only if, for any affine open subset U of Y , the ring of regular functions krU s is integrally closed in its field
of fractions kpU q » RpY q.

Proof. The first statement (X affine) is a consequence of [AM94, Proposition 5.13].

The second statement is obtained applying the first statement to any affine open subset U of Y .

Proposition 2.13.110. An irreducible factorial variety is normal. Therefore, an irreducible smooth variety
is normal.

Proof. If X is factorial, then, for any p P X, the local ring OX,p is factorial. Therefore it is integrally closed
in its field of fractions kpXq. Then X is normal.

Remark 2.13.111. Suppose that f : X - Y is a finite and surjective morphism of irreducible

Definition 2.13.112. A morphism of algebraic varieties f : X - Y is generically finite if there is an

open and dense subset U of Y such that f ´1 pyq is finite for any y in U .

Remark 2.13.113. It follows from theorem 2.11.2 that if f : X - Y is a generically finite dominant
morphism of irreducible algebraic varieties if and only if the field extension f ˚ : kpY q - kpXq is algebraic
of finite degree. In this case, we call deg f :“ rRpXq : RpY qs the degree of the map f .

Proposition 2.13.114. Let f : X - Y be a finite surjective morphism of irreducible varieties, with Y

normal. Then the cardinality of any fiber is less or equal than the degree of the map:

|f ´1 pyq| ď deg f @y P Y .

Proof. A finite morphism is surjective and affine (the pre-image f ´1 pV q of any affine subset of Y is affine
in X). Then one reduces the problem to the case in which X and Y are affine irreducible varieties, with Y
normal. The pull-back induces an injective morphism f ˚ : krY s Ă - krXs of k-algebras, in which krY s is
integrally closed. By definition kpXq is an algebraic extension of kpY q of degree deg f . So by proposition
5.15 in [AM94], if a P krXs, it minimum polynomial Pa over kpY q has coefficients in krY s. Now suppose
that f ´1 py0 q “ tz1 , . . . , zr u, y0 P Y , zi P X. Since X is affine, X Ď Am m
k , for some m. Hence zi P Ak . Hence
ˇ
there exists a polynomial g in krx1 , . . . , xm s such that gpzi q ‰ gpzj q for any i ‰ j. Take a :“ g ˇ in krXs.
X
Hence apzi q ‰ apzj q for any i ‰ j. Set αi “ apzi q. So the α1 , . . . , αr are all distinct elements in k. By what
we said degkpY q Pa ď deg f . Write Pa ptq as

Pa ptq “ ts ` b1 pyqts´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bs´1 pyqt ` bs bi pyq P krY s .

We have, as functions in krXs:

as ` f ˚ b1 as´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` f ˚ bs´1 a ` f ˚ bs “ 0 .

128
This means that, for any x P X:

as pxq ` b1 pf pxqqas´1 pxq ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bs´1 pf pxqqapxq ` bs pf pxqq “ 0 .

Plug, for each i “ 1, . . . , r, zi in the previous equation: we get

αis ` b1 py0 qαis´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bs´1 py0 qαi ` bs py0 q “ 0

that is the polynomial ts ` b1 py0 qts´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bs´1 py0 qt ` bs py0 q has r distinct roots. Hence

deg f ě deg Pa ptq “ s ě r “ |f ´1 py0 q| .

Proposition 2.13.115. Let f : X - Y be a finite morphism of irreducible normal varieties. Then f

g πY
factors through X - H - Y , where H is an irreducible hypersurface in Y ˆA1k defined by an irreducible
polynomial P py, tq P krY srts, πY : H - Y is the first projection and g is a birational surjective morphism.

Proof. The proof is a refinement, in presence of normality hypothesis, of the proof of proposition ??. We have
that the morphism f ˚ : krY s Ă - krXs is integral; the extension of fields f ˚ : kpY q Ă - kpXq algebraic.
By the primitive element theorem, there exists ξ P kpXq such that kpY qpξq “ kpY qrξs “ kpXq. Since krY s is
integrally closed in kpY q, we know that the minimum polynomial Pξ of ξ over kpY q has coefficients in krY s:
hence
P py, tq “ tn ` b1 pyqtn´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bn´1 pyqt ` bn pyq .

Consider the irreducible hypersurface H in Y ˆ A1k defined by P . We have that

krHs » krY srts{pP q

Now, ξ P kpXq is integral over krY s and hence over krXs. But krXs is integrally closed in kpXq. Hence
ξ P krXs. The morphism of k-algebras

krY srts{pP q - krY srξs

sending t - ξ is clearly surjective. It is, in fact, injective. Indeed, take a polynomial Q P krY srts such
that Qpξq “ 0. Divide Q by P in krY srts: this is possible because P is monic. We have

Q “ PS ` R

with deg R ă deg P . if R ‰ 0 in krY srts, then, evaluating in ξ, we would have Rpξq “ 0 and P could not be
the minimum polynomial of ξ over kpY q. Hence Q P pP q.
Hence we have the chain of integral morphisms of k-algebras
»
krHs » krY srts{pP q - krY srξs Ď krXs .

This corresponds to a finite morphism of algebraic varieties

g
X - H Ď Y ˆ A1k
x - pf pxq, ξpxqq

129
Since g is finite and dominant, then it is surjective. Moreover, g ˚ induces an isomorphism at level of rational
functions fields:
g ˚ : kpXq » kpY qpξq » kpY qrts{pP q » kpHq

hence g is a birational surjective morphism. It is now clear that πY ˝ g “ f .

Proposition 2.13.116. Let X be an irreducible variety and x P X. If there is one closed subvariety Z of
X of codimension 1 at x passing through x such that IZ,x is principal in OX,x and such that Z is smooth at
x, then X is smooth at x.

Proof. Since IZ,x is generated by pf q, f P OX,x , we have that Tx˚ Z “ Tx˚ X{xdx f y. Then we have, since Z is
smooth at x:
dimx Z “ dim Tx˚ Z ě dim Tx˚ X ´ 1 .

Hence dimx X “ dimx Z ` 1 ě dim Tx˚ and hence X is smooth at x.

Proposition 2.13.117. Let X be an irreducible normal variety. If Y be a codimension 1 subvariety, then

there exists an affine open set U of X, with Y X U ‰ H such that IY XU is principal in krU s.

Proof. Let p be the height 1 prime ideal IY in R “ krXs. We know, by the appendix .7.6, Rp is a dimension
1 noetherian local ring which is integrally closed. Hence it is a DVR and its maximal ideal mY :“ pRp is
principal. This is sufficient to prove what we want. Indeed, set mY “ puq, with u P Rp , say u “ a{b, with
b R p. Set p “ pf1 , . . . , fs q. Then, in Rp , fi P mY , and hence fi “ uwi , with wi “ hi {ri , with ri R p. Consider
the principal affine open set U “ XzV pb ¨ r1 ¨ ¨ ¨ rs q. In krU s, we can invert b and ri . Hence 1{b, 1{ri P krU s.
Therefore, u P krU s and pkrU s “ puq.

Theorem 2.13.118. The singular locus of an irreducible normal variety is a closed of codimension ě 2.

Proof. The question is local, so we can assume X affine, with A “ krXs. Let Z be any integral subvariety of
codimension 1. By the previous proposition, there exists an affine open set U such that Z XU ‰ H and IZXU
is principal in krU s. The set of singular points of Z X U is an open set of Z X U , say, Z X V , for some smaller
affine open set V Ď U . But since IY XV is principal in krV s and Z X V is smooth, then X is smooth at any
point of Z X V . So we proved that a normal variety is generically smooth along its integral hypersurfaces.
Suppose now S “ SingpXq is a closed subset of codimension 1 and let S1 , . . . , Sr its irreducible components.
If y P S, then X is singular at y. At least one component, say S1 is of codimension 1. But if y is a generic
point of S1 (say in an open set of S1 ), by what we proved, X should be smooth at y. Contradiction.

2.13.6 Ramification
Definition 2.13.119. Let f : X - Y a finite surjective morphism of irreducible varieties, with Y normal.
We say that f is unramified over the point q P Y if |f ´1 pqq| “ deg f . Otherwise we say that f is ramified
over q P Y ; we also say that q is a ramification point for f .

Definition 2.13.120. Let f : X - Y a finite morphism of smooth irreducible varieties. We say that f
is étale at the point p P X if the tangent map at p: Tp f : Tp X - Tf ppq Y is an isomorphism.

130
Lemma 2.13.121. Let k be a field of characteristic zero. Let Y be an irreducible smooth affine variety
over k and H be an irreducible surface in Y ˆ A1k given by a (nonzero) (irreducible) polynomial P P krY srts.
Consider the projection f : H - Y given by the restriction of the first projection. It is a finite surjective
morphism. Then there exists an nonempty affine open subsetset U of Y such that f ´1 pU q is smooth and the
ˇ
restriction f ˇf ´1 pU q : f ´1 pU q - U is étale.

Proof. We write the polynomial P ptq as

P ptq “ a0 pyqtd ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ad´1 pyqt ` ad

with a0 pyq ‰ 0, and ai pyq P krY s. Consider an arbitrary point p “ py0 , t0 q of H. The tangent space of H
in p is the subspace of Ty Y ‘ k given by the kernel of the map, Ty ,t f : Ty Y ‘ k
0
- k, which can be
0 0 0

written, according to the decompositions in direct sum, as the matrix

´ ¯
BY P py0 , t0 q Bt P py0 , t0 q .

Here P is a regular function P : Y ˆ A1k - k, hence its differential splits as

dpy0 ,t0 q P “ pdY,y0 P py0 , t0 q, dA1k ,t0 P py0 , t0 qq ,

where dY,y0 P py0 , t0 q is the differential at y of the map Y - k given by y - P py, t0 q and dA1 ,t P py0 , t0 q
k 0
1
is the differential of the map Ak - k given by t - P py0 , tq. Therefore

Tpy0 ,t0 q H “ tpv, sq | BY P py0 , t0 qv ` Bt P py0 , t0 qs “ 0u ,

and the tangent map Tpy0 ,t0 q f is given by the first projection:

Tpy0 ,t0 q H - Ty0 Y

sending pv, sq - v. The differential of a function k - k is exactly (the multiplication by) its derivative:
hence, since py0 , t0 q P H, Bt P py0 , t0 q ‰ 0 if and only if t0 is simple root of the polynomial P py0 , tq. Consider
the discriminat ∆ of the polynomial P py, tq is a polynomials in the coefficients ai pyq, i “ 0, . . . , d, and hence
it is a nonzero regular functions over Y . Consider the principal affine open subset Y∆ and the restriction
H∆ “ H X pY∆ ˆ A1k q “ f ´1 pY∆ q. Then if py0 , t0 q is a point of H∆ , then t0 is simple roots of the polynomial
P py0 , tq: this means that Bt P py0 , t0 q ‰ 0 and this implies that dpy0 ,t0 q P ‰ 0; knowing that Y ˆ A1k is smooth,
this, in turn, says that H is smooth at the point py0 , t0 q. So take U “ Y∆ : it’s clear that f ´1 pU q “ H∆
and that H∆ is smooth. Moreover, the fact that Bt P py0 , t0 q ‰ 0 implies that the tangent map Tpy0 ,t0 q f is an
isomorphism.

Remark 2.13.122. The previous lemma is false in characteristic p. Consider k “ Fp and P ps, tq “ s ´ tp P
krs, ts, over the variety A1 ˆ A1 . The morphism πY : H
k k
- A1 is ramified over every point s P A1 , since
k k
Bt P “ 0 identically.

Lemma 2.13.123. Let f : X - Y a finite surjective morphism between irreducible smooth algebraic
varieties over a field of characteristic zero. Then there exists a nonempty open subset U of X such that the
ˇ
restriction map f ˇU : U - Y is étale.

131
Proof. By proposition ??, f factors as f “ πY ˝ g, where g : X - H is a birational surjective morphism,
H is an irreducible hypersurface in Y ˆ A1k defined by an irreducibe polynomial P P krY srts, and πY is
the first projection. By the proof of the previous lemma, consider the discriminant ∆ of the polynomial P .
Then any point py0 , t0 q P H∆ “ H X pY∆ ˆ A1k q has the property that Ty0 ,t0 πY : Tpy0 ,t0 q H - Ty 0 Y is
ˇ
an isomorphism. Let V is an open set of H such that g ˇg´1 pV q : g ´1 pV q - V is an isomorphism. Take
U “ g ´1 pV X H∆ q. The composition
ˇ g πY
f ˇU : U - V X H∆ - Y∆ Ď Y
»

is surely étale.

Theorem 2.13.124 (Generically-finite morphism are, generically, finite morphisms). Let f : X - Y be

a generically finite dominant morphism of irreducible varieties. Then there exists an nonempty open subset
ˇ
U of Y such that the restriction f ˇf ´1 pU q : f ´1 pU q - U is a surjective finite morphism.

Proof. Step 0. It’s clear we can suppose Y affine and irreducible, up to taking an nonempty open affine
subset V of Y and replacing X with f ´1 pV q. The restriction morphism f ´1 pV q - V is still a dominant
morphism of irreducible algebraic varieties. This time, V is affine.
Step 1. Suppose first that f : X - Y is a generically finite dominant morphism of irreducible affine
algebraic varieties; that is, in this step, we assume that both X and Y are affine. Set A “ krXs, B “ krY s.
The pull-back f ˚ defines an injective morphism of k-algebras

f˚ : B Ă - A.

Since dim X “ dim Y , we have that kpXq “ KA is an algebraic extension of KB . Now A is a finitely
generated B-algebra (since it is a finitely generated k-algebra). Hence we can write A “ Bra1 , . . . , am s. Any
ai P KA is algebraic over KB : let’s pi P KB rts its minimum polynomial. Multipllying denominators, we
get an algebraic relation qi pai q “ 0, with qi P Brts. Let gi be the leading coefficient of the polynomial qi .
Localize B at gi , so that ai becomes integral over Bgi . Do this for any ai ; set g “ g1 . . . gm . So now we have
an injection of k-algebras
Bg Ă - Ag “ Bg ra1 , . . . , am s .

By construction, now Ag is integral over Bg , since generated over Bg by integral elements. So Yg is our
open set U and krXf ˚ g s “ krXsf ˚ g “ Ag . But Xf ˚ g “ f ´1 pYg q. Hence the restriction of f to f ´1 pYg q “
Xg - Yg is finite. Note that is is still dominant, hence surjective over Yg .
Step 2. Take now, as in step 0, a dominant morphism f : X - Y of irreducible varieties, with Y
affine. By Step 1 we can cover Y with open affine subsets Ui “ Ygi and X with open affine subsets Vi such
ˇ
that fi :“ f ˇVi : Vi - Ui is a finite surjective morphism. Set B “ krY s and Ai “ krUi s. For each i, we
have an integral morphism of k-algebras:

fi˚ : Bgi Ă - Ai .

ś
Localize each Bgi at g “ i gi . So, we have that, for each i, fi˚ induces the integral morphism of k-algebras

fi˚ : Bg Ă - pAi qg .

132
This means we can restrict Y to a principal open affine subset Yg such that Xg “ Xf ˚ g can be covered by
affine subsets pUi qg “ pUi qf ˚ g such that
ˇ
f ˇpU “ fi : pUi qg - Yg
i qg

is a surjective finite morphism. This also proves that f : Xg - Yg is surjective.

Step 3. By Step 2 we reduced the problem to a surjective morphism f : X - Y of irreducible
algebraic varieties, of which Y is affine, such that X can be covered by affine open subsets Xi such that
ˇ
f ˇXi “ fi : Xi - Y is finite and surjective. Take again B “ krY s and Ai “ krXi s. We have to prove that
we can restrict the base so that f becomes finite. Set W “ Xi Xi : it is a dense open set in X. Hence the
ˇ
Ci “ Xi zW are proper closed in Xi . Since fi “ f ˇX : Xi - Y are finite and surjective then fi pCi q are
i

proper closed subsets of Y . Set D “ Yi f pCi q: it is still a proper closed subset of Y . Find a principal affine
open subset Yh inside Y zD, for some regular function h P krY s. Then, for each i,

fi´1 pYh q Ď fi´1 pY zDq Ď fi´1 pY zDi q “ fi´1 pY qzfi´1 pDi q Ď Xi zCi “ W .

Now, it is easy to prove that

f ´1 pYh q Ď W

since Xi cover X. Now

f ´1 pYh q “ Xh “ pXi qh

for any i, since f ´1 pYh q Ď Xi Xi . But pXi qh is affine and the morphism
ˇ
f ˇf ´1 pY q : f ´1 pYh q - Yh
h

corresponds to the morphism of k-algebras

Bh - pAi qh

since Xh “ pXi qh . But Bh - pAi qh is integral, since a localization of the integral morphism B - Ai .
Hence taken V “ Yh , we have that
ˇ
f ˇf ´1 pV q : f ´1 pV q - V

is finite.

Lemma 2.13.125. Let f : X - Y be a finite surjective morphism of irreducible affine varieties such
that there exists ξ P krXs such that kpXq “ kpY qrξs. Suppose moreover that the minimum polynomial Pξ of
ξ over kpY q has coefficients in krY s. If ∆ P krY s is the discriminant of Pξ , then for any p P Y∆ , f ´1 pqq
consists at least of deg f elements.

Proof. Build a morphism g : X - Y ˆ A1 sending x - pf pxq, ξpxqq. The image of g is exactly the
k
hypersurface H “ tpy, tq | Pξ py, tq “ 0u given by the minimum polynomial of ξ. Indeed the morphism of
k-algebras
krHs “ krY srts{pPξ q - krXs

sending t - ξ is surely integral. We can prove that it is injective exactly as in the proof of a previous
lemma. Hence g : X - H is finite and dominant, hence surjective. The morphism f : X - Y factors
as ˇ
g πˇ
H
f :X - H - Y

133
where πH is the restriction of the first projection to H and hence finite and surjective. Comparing function
fields we get that g is surjective finite birational. Restricting the base to Y∆ induce a restriction
ˇ
πˇ
g∆ H∆
f∆ : X∆ - H∆ - Y∆ .
ˇ
Now, if y0 P Y∆ , π ´1 ˇH py0 q is given exactly by the roots of the polynomial P py0 , tq. But P py0 , tq has exactly
∆ ˇ
d “ deg Pξ “ rkpXq : kpY qs “ deg f distinct roots since ∆py0 q ‰ 0. Since g ˇ is surjective, we get that
X∆
|f ´1 py0 q| ě deg f .
śd
Exercise 123. Let k be a field, P P krts factorizing as P “ i“1 pt ´ αi q, with αi ‰ αj in k for i ‰ j. Then
d
krts{pP q » k . Use Chinese Remainder theorem, noting that the ideals pt ´ αi q are pairwise coprime in krts.

Exercise 124. Let P1 , . . . , Pr distinct points over an affine variety X. Set Z “ Yi tPi u, with the structure
of affine variety. Prove that krZs » k ˆ ˆk (r-times).

Lemma 2.13.126. Let f : X - Y a finite surjective morphism of irreducible affine varieties such that
kpXq is separable over kpY q. Then there is an open affine subset U of Y such that
• the primitive element ξ generating the extension kpXq over kpY q belongs to krf ´1 pU qs
• ξ generates krf ´1 pU qs over krU s.
• the minimum polynomial of ξ over kpY q has coefficients in krU s.

Proof. Let ξ a primitive element in kpXq over kpY q. Then kpXq “ kpY qrξs. Then ξ is algebraic over kpY q.
Inverting the denominators of the coefficients of the minimum polynomial of ξ over kpY q, and restricting Y
and X accordingly, we can suppose that P P krY srts and that ξ is integral over krY s. Now krXs is a finitely
řm
generated krY s-module. Write krXs “ i“1 krY sγi , with γi P krXs. Each γi P kpXq “ kpY qrξs. Hence γi
is a polynomial in ξ with coefficients in kpY q: inverting adequate elements in krY s and restricting Y and X
accordingly, we can suppose that γi P krY srξs for any γi . Hence krXs Ď krY srξs.
ř
We now prove that we can restrict Y and X such that ξ P krXs. Indeed krXs “ i krY sγi , hence
α
kpXq “ kpY qrγ1 , . . . , γm s. Hence ξ is a polynomial in γ with coefficients in kpY q. Inverting the denominators
of these coefficients in krY s and restricting Y and X accordingly, we can suppose that ξ P krXs. Hence

krXs Ď krY srξs Ď krXs

which proves that, after all these restrictions, krXs “ krY srξs.

The following theorem has important applications.

Theorem 2.13.127. Let f : X - Y be a dominant generically finite morphism of irreducible varieties

such that kpXq is separable over kpY q. Then there exists a nonempty open set U of Y such that the restriction
f ´1 pU q - U is finite and surjective and unramified, in the sense of definition ??; in other words, for any
q P U , |f ´1 pqq| “ deg f .

Proof. Step 1. By generically-finiteness implies, generically, finiteness (theorem ??) we can find an open set
W of Y such that the restriction f ´1 pW q - W is finite and surjective of degree deg f . Of course we can
suppose that W is affine.

134
 Step 2. By Step 1, we reduce to the case in which f : X - Y is a finite surjective morphism of
irreducible affine varieties. Since kpXq is separable over kpY q, we can put ourselves in the situation of the
previous lemma, so we can reduce Y (and accordinly X), in order that krXs “ krY srξs, kpXq “ kpY qrξs and
that the minimum polynomial P of ξ over kpY q has coefficients in krY s.
Step 3. The polynomial P P krY srts is irreducible and monic over kpY qrts, so it were reducible over
krY srts, it would be reducible over kpY qrts as well. So P is irreducible. Moreover,

krXs “ krY srξs » krY srts{pP py, tqq ,

as we already proved in other lemmas in this section.

The discriminant ∆ of P belongs to krY s. Over Y∆ , ∆ is never zero. Hence if y0 P Y∆ , the polynomial
P py0 , tq has exactly deg f “ deg P distinct roots. Now

krf ´1 py0 qs » krY srts{pP py, tq, y ´ y0 q » krts{pP py0 , tqq » k deg f

where the last isomorphism id given by Chinese Remainder Theorem applied to a factorization of P py0 , tq.
ˇ
So U “ Y∆ and f ´1 pU q » X∆ . The restriction f ˇX : X∆ - Y∆ is unramified.
∆

Remark 2.13.128. Of course the previous theorem always works for a generically finite dominant morphism
f : X - Y of irreducible algebraic varieties in characteristic zero.
Remark 2.13.129. Knowing that the base Y is normal or smooth, one could give relatively easier proofs of
the previou result.

2.13.7 Bertini’s Theorem

Bertini’s Theorem is the equivalent, in Algebraic Geometry, of Sard’s Theorem in Differential Geometry. We
recall that Sard’s Theorem says the following.

Theorem 2.13.130 (Sard, 1942). Let M and N two differentiable manifolds24 . Let f : M - N be a
25
differentiable map . Let X be the set of critical points of f . Then f pXq has Lebesgue-measure zero in N .

Theorem 2.13.131 (Sard, 1965). Let M and N two differentiable manifolds26 . Let f : M - N be a
27
differentiable map . Let Zr Ď M the set of points p P M such that rk Tp f ň r. Then f pZr q has Hausdorff
measure zero in N .

Bertini’s Theorem states the following. Compare directly with the two versions of Sard’s theorem.

Theorem 2.13.132 (Bertini, 1880). Let f : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties over a field
of characteristic zero. Let Z be the set of critical points in X. Then f pZq is contained in a proper closed
subset of Y .

Theorem 2.13.133 (Bertini, refined version). Let f : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties

over a field of characteristic zero. Let Zr “ tx P X | rk Tx f ď ru. Then dim f pZr q ď r in Y .
24 of class C 8
25 here we just need that f is of class C k , with k ě maxtdim M ´ dim N ` 1, 1u
26 of class C 8
27 f of class C k , with k ě maxtdim M ´ dim N ` 1, 1u

135
Remark 2.13.134. In characteristic p ą 0 the theorem is false. Set k “ Fp and Consider the map x - xp
of A1 - A1 . We have Tx f “ 0 at any point, but f is an automorphism of A1 .
k k k

Remark 2.13.135. The formulation we gave is not the original formulation of Bertini. Instead he stated a
theorem about the smoothness of the general element of a linear system. We will see later what this means.
We start with a lemma.

Lemma 2.13.136. Let f : X - Y be a dominant morphism of irreducible algebraic varieties. Then there
ˇ
exists an open subset U of X such that U is smooth and such that the restriction map f ˇU : U - Y has
surjective tangent map Tp f for any p P U .

Proof. First of all, the open sets of smooth points Ysmooth and Xsmooth is dense in Y and X, respectively.
Hence up to considering X 1 “ f ´1 pYsmooth qXXsmooth and the morphism f 1 : X 1 - Ysmooth , which is still a
dominant morphism of irreducible varieties, one can suppose that X and Y are smooth. By the construction
ˇ1
made in theorem ??, there exists an open set U in X such that the restriction f ˇ : U 1 - Y factorizes
U
through
g πY
fU1 : U 1 - V - Y

where V is an open subset of Y ˆ Adk for some d ě 0, g is a finite surjective morphism, and πY : V - Y is
the projection onto Y . Since the tangent map of πY : V - Y is always surjective, it is sufficient to consider
an open subset W of Y (inside V ) such that g ´1 pW q - W is étale. Consider now U “ g ´1 pW q. The
g π Y
composition f : U “ g ´1 pW q - W - πY pW q has surjective tangent map Tp f at any point p P U .

Proof of Bertini’s Theorem, first version. Let Z be the set of critical point for the morphism f :
X - Y . Then Z is a closed subset, since it locally the vanishing locus of certain minors. Suppose
f pZq were not contained in a proper closed subset of Y . Then f pZq would be dense. Then consider the map
ˇ
f ˇZ : Z - Y : it is dominant. Then take the irreducible component Z 1 of Z such that f pZ 1 q is dense un
Y and consider the further restriction
ˇ
f 1 :“ f ˇZ 1 : Z 1 - Y ,

which is still a dominant map. Now apply the previous lemma: then there exists p P Z 1 such that Tp f 1 :
Tp Z 1 - Tf ppq Y is surjective. Then, since Tp Z 1 Ď Tp X, the map Tp f : Tp X - Tf ppq Y has to be
surjective, but this is absurd, since p P Z 1 Ď Z, that is, p is a critical point.

Proof of the refined version. Let Zr “ tp P X | rk Tp X ď ru. Consider the closed f pZr q in Y . Consider
an arbitrary irreducible component W of f pZr q and an irreducible component S of Zr dominating W , that
is, such that W “ f pSq. The restriction
ˇ
f 1 “ f ˇS : S - W

is a dominant morphism of irreducible varieties. By lemma 2.13.136, there exists p P S such that Tp f 1 is
surjective. But p P Zr . Then rk Tp f ď r. Hence dim Tp W ď r. Hence dim W ď r, for each irreducible
component W of f pZr q.

Remark 2.13.137. One can actually prove, with little more effort, a more general result then Bertini’s. We
have:

136
Theorem. Let f : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties over a field of characteristic zero (alge-
braically closed, as always). Set Zr “ tx P X | rk Tx f ď ru. Then dim f pZr q ď r.

See Hartshorne, III, Prop. 10.6.

Corollary 2.13.138 (Bertini’s Theorem, Classical Modern Version). Let f : X - Y a dominant

morphism of irreducible algebraic varieties over a field of characteristic zero. Then there is a nonempty open
set V in Y such that for each y P V the fiber f ´1 pyq is a smooth subvariety of X of dimension dim X ´dim Y .
ˇ
Proof. Up to consider the restriction to the smooth locus f ˇX : Xsmooth - Ysmooth , which is still a
smooth

dominant morphism of irreducible varieties, we can suppose that X and Y are smooth. After theorem ??,
the image of f contains a dense open subset U . Consider V “ U zf pZq, where Z is the set of critical points
of f . It’s easy to prove that, for each p P X, if q “ f ppq, the tangent space to the fiber is exactly the kernel
of the tangent map at p:
Tp f ´1 pqq » ker Tp f .

Since X and Y are smooth, one has that, for each q P V ,

dimp Tp f ´1 pqq “ dim X ´ dim Y ď dimp f ´1 pqq ď dimp Tp f ´1 pqq

for any p P f ´1 pqq. Hence f ´1 pqq is smooth of dimension dim X ´ dim Y .

Remark 2.13.139. Using the stronger theorem mentioned in remark 2.13.137, we can prove the following
Generic Smoothness Theorem, in more generality than the preceding theorem.
Theorem. [Generic Smoothness]. Let f : X - Y a morphism of irreducible algebraic varieties over an
(algebraically closed, as usual) field of characteristic zero. Suppose that X is smooth. Then there exists a
ˇ
dense open subset V of Y such that the restriction f ˇf ´1 pV q : f ´1 pV q - V is such that Tp f is surjective
for all p P f ´1 pV q. In particular, any fiber f ´1 pyq, with y P V is smooth of dimension dim X ´ dim Y .
Before giving the statement and proof of the Classical Bertini Theorem, we prove a criterion for a variety
to be smooth.

Proposition 2.13.140. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety of dimension n over a field of characteristic
zero. Suppose that X admits a dominant morphism f : X - Y onto a smooth variety Y , of dimension
d, such that all the fibers f ´1 pyq are smooth of dimension c. Then X is smooth of dimension n “ d ` c and
the tangent map is surjective at any point.

Proof. By definition of the fiber, and by definition of tangent space to a subvariety, it is clear (this is always
true, for any morphism), that, for any y P Y , if p P f ´1 pyq,

Tp f ´1 pyq “ ker Tp f

where Tp f : Tp X - Tp Y is the tangent map. By Bertini, there exists a nonempty open subset V of Y
ˇ
such that f ´1 pV q is smooth and the restriction f ˇf ´1 pV q : f ´1 pV q - V has surjective differential for any
point p P V . The open subset f ´1 pV q is now dense in X. So if y P V and p P f ´1 pyq we have the exact
sequence
Tp f
0 - Tp f ´1 pyq - Tp X - Ty Y - 0.

137
This says that, if p P f ´1 pV q, then

n “ dim X “ dim Tp X “ dim Tp f ´1 pyq ` dim Ty Y “ dim f ´1 pyq ` dim Y “ d ` c

since f ´1 pyq and Y are smooth at any point. Suppose we now take an arbitrary p P X. Consider q “ f ppq P Y .
We still have the exact sequence
Tp f
0 - Tp f ´1 pqq - Tp X - Tq Y

but now we do not know if Tp f is surjective. Let Iq be the image of the tangent map in Tq Y . Then

dim Tp X “ dim Tp f ´1 pyq ` dim Iq “ dim f ´1 pyq ` dim Iq ď d ` dim Tp Y “ d ` dim Y “ d ` c “ n “ dim X

since f ´1 pyq is smooth at p and Y is smooth at q. But dim Tp X ď dim X implies dim Tp X “ dim X, so X
is smooth at p. It follows that Tp f has to be surjective.

Corollary 2.13.141. Let f : X - Y be dominant morphism of smooth algebraic varieties over a field of
characteristic zero, such that the tangent map Tp f is surjective for any p P X. Let Z be a smooth subvariety
of Y of codimension c. Then f ´1 pZq is smooth subvariety of X of codimension c.

Corollary 2.13.142. The incidence variety Λ of the projective Grassmannian Grpk, nq is smooth of dimen-
sion kpn ´ kq ` n. Moreover, the differential of each of the projections onto the factors Grpk, nq or Pnk is
surjective at any point.

Proof. We already know that Grpk, nq is irreducible of dimension kpn ´ kq ` n. Over a field of characteristic
zero, we use the previous criterion, applied to the surjective projection π : Λ - Grpk, nq. The target
variety is smooth of dimension pk ` 1qpn ´ kq and the fibers are all smooth of dimension k (verify this with
the defining equations!). Moreover the differential of the projection π is surjective at any point. The result
follows. Of course one can prove a similar surjectivity result for the differential of the other projection p.
Alternatively, (this also works over an arbitrary characteristic algebraically closed field), prove that one
σ
can locally, around any point p P Pnk and for any L P Grpk, nq containing p, give a section U - Λ of the
projection p : Λ - Pn passing through pL, pq with U an affine open subset of Pn containing p. Here a
section means a morphism σ : U - Λ such that p ˝ σ “ idU ; the fact that the section pass through L
means that σppq “ pL, pq.
Then
Tp pp ˝ σq “ Tσppq p ˝ Tp σ “ idTp U

and this proves that Tx p is surjective for any x P Λ. Then dim Tx Λ “ dim Tx p´1 pppxqq ` dim Tppxq Pn for any
x P Λ, and since all the fibers are smooth of the right dimension, then dim Tx Λ is of the same dimension as
Λ at any point. Hence Λ is smooth.

Corollary 2.13.143 (Bertini’s theorem, Classical Version). Let X be a smooth closed subvariety of
the projective space Pnk , of codimension c, with k a field of characteristic zero. The set of hyperplanes H in
pPnk q˚ such that X X H is smooth of dimension dim X ´ 1 is open in the dual projective plane.

Proof. We will just prove that it is possible to find a dense open set U of hyperplanes in dual projective
plane such that if H P U , then X X H is smooth. This fact is a consequence of the more general, following
theorem.

138
Corollary 2.13.144. Let k be a field of characteristic zero. Let X be a smooth closed irreducible subvariety
of the projective space Pnk , of codimension c. Consider the projective grassmannian Grpd, Pnk q of linear
projective subspaces of dimension d in Pnk , with d ě c. Then there exists an open subset of Grpd, Pnk q such
that for each L P U , X X L is a smooth subvariety of dimension c ´ d.

Remark 2.13.145. Corollary 2.13.143 is actually true in arbitrary characteristic, if k is algebraically closed.
See Hartshorne, Theorem 8.18.

Proof. Consider the incidence variety Λ of the projective grassmannian Grpd, nq. It is a smooth subvariety of
dimension dpn ´ dq ` n of the product Grpd, nq ˆ Pn . The projection p : Λ - Pn has surjective differential
k k
at any point, because of proposition 2.13.140 or corollary 2.13.142. Then the inverse image Y :“ p´1 pXq is a
smooth subvariety of Λ of codimension c. Since X is irreducible, and hence connected, and since the fibers are
connected, then Y is connected, and hence irreducible, since Y is a disjoint union of irreducible component
because smooth. Since the fibers of p have dimension dim Grpd, nq, we have that dim Y “ dim X ` dpn ´ dq.
ˇ
Consider now the projection π ˇY : Y - Grpd, nq. Since d ě c, it is a surjective morphism of smooth
irreducible algebraic varieties. Bertini’s theorem implies that there exists a dense open subset U of the
ˇ
grassmannian such that for any L P U the fiber π ´1 ˇY pLq “ X X L is a smooth subvariety of Y of dimension

dim X X L “ dim Y ´ dim Grpd, nq “ dim X ` dpn ´ dq ´ pd ` 1qpn ´ dq “ dim X ´ n ` d “ d ´ c .

2.13.8 Geometric meaning of Degree and Dimension

We prove a version of Bertini’s with a slight different flavour.

Theorem 2.13.146. Let k be a field of characteristic zero and let X Ď Pnk a codimension c ď n irreducible
projective variety. Consider the projective Grassmannian Grpc, nq of c-dimensional projective subspaces of
Pnk . Then there exists an open dense subset U of Grpc, nq such that, for any L P U , X X L consists in a
finite collection of points. Moreover |X X L| is constant when L P U .

Proof. The projective grassmannian Grpc, nq has dimension pc ` 1qpn ´ cq. Consider now the incidence
variety Λ of the projective grassmannian Grpc, nq. It is a smooth subvariety of dimension cpn ´ cq ` n of
the product Grpc, nq ˆ Pnk . The projection p : Λ - Pnk has surjective differential at any point, because of
proposition 2.13.140 or corollary 2.13.142. Then the inverse image Y :“ p´1 pXq is a subvariety of Λ. Since
X is irreducible, and hence connected, and since the fibers are all irreducible of the same dimension, then
Y is irreducible. Since the fibers of p have dimension dim Grpc, nq, we have that dim Y “ dim X ` cpn ´
ˇ
cq “ pn ´ cqpc ` 1q. Consider now the projection π ˇY : Y - Grpc, nq. It is a surjective morphism of
smooth irreducible algebraic varieties. Comparing dimensions, we have that dim Grpc, nq “ dim Y . Hence
ˇ
π ˇY : Y - Grpc, nq is a surjective, generically finite morphism between irreducible varieties. Then theorem
?? proves that there exists a dense open subset U of the grassmannian such that for any L P U the fiber
ˇ ˇ
π ´1 ˇY pLq “ X X L is given exactly by deg π ˇY points.

Definition 2.13.147. Let X be a projective closed subvariety of Pnk . The degree deg X of X is the number
of points in which a generic c-dimensional projective subspace in Pnk intersects X. Here generic means
contained in a dense open subset of the Grassmannian.

139
Exercise 125. Let H “ V pF q Ď Pnk a projective hypersurface, with F P krx0 , . . . , xn s homogeneous of
degree d. Prove that deg H “ d.
ˇ
Remark 2.13.148. Is the morphism π ˇY : Y - Grpc, nq above finite in general? Prove or find a counterex-
ample.

Exercise 126. Prove that the notion of degree deg X depend strongly on the embedding X Ď Pnk . To prove
this, for each d P N˚ embed the line P1k in Pnk such that, if X is the image, then deg X “ d. This means that
the degree is an invariant of an embedded subvariety of the projective space, or, even better, of its immersion
as a projective subvariety.

Exercise 127. Try to prove that if X is a closed subvariety of Pn and if K is a subspace of Pnk of dimension
dim X such that X admits a finite surjective morphism f : X - K onto K, then deg X “ deg f . (It
might not be so easy).

Using the varieties Ck pXq one can prove, in a complete similar way, the following result.

Theorem 2.13.149. Let X be a closed subvariety of Pnk . Then the codimension of X in Pnk coincides the
minimum dimension of projective subspaces generically intersecting X.

140
Chapter 3

Vector Bundles over Algebraic

Varieties

3.1 Vector bundles

3.1.1 Definitions
In this section, varieties will always be considered to be reduced, unless otherwise explicitely stated.
We define the notion of vector bundle over an algebraic variety. Since the concepts are familiar for
students with some background in differential geometry, we will keep the treatment brief.

Definition 3.1.1. Let X be an algebraic variety. A vector fibration E over the variety X is an algebraic
variety E together with a surjective morphism p : E - X such that each set-theoretic fiber Ex “ p´1 pxq
has the structure of a k-vector space. The variety E is called the total space of the fibration.

Definition 3.1.2. Let pE, pq and pF, qq vector fibrations over an algebraic variety X. A morphism f :
E - F of vector fibrations is a morphism of algebriac varieties such that
• f is compatible with the fibrations, that is q ˝ f “ p;
• the restriction to each fiber fx :“ Ex - Fx is k-linear, once given Ex and Fx the structure of k-vector
space.
A morphism of vector fibrations f : E - F is an isomorphism if it is an isomorphism of algebraic varieties.

Exercise 128. Let f : E - F be an isomorphism of vector fibrations over a variety X. Prove that the
inverse g : F - E is naturally a vector fibration.

Exercise 129. Let X be an algebraic variety and p : E - X a vector fibration. Let U be a nonepmtpy
ˇ
open set of X. Denote with EU :“ p´1 pU q. Prove that pˇE : EU - U is a vector fibration.
U

Definition 3.1.3. Let X be an algebraic variety. The vector fibration given by E “ Xˆk r , p : Xˆk r - X
given by the second projection is called the trivial vector fibration over X of rank r.

Definition 3.1.4 (Vector bundle). Let X be an algebraic variety over a field k. A vector bundle p : E - X
over X of rank r is a vector fibration which is locally trivial, in the following sense: for each x P X there

141
exists an open set U containing x such that the restriction p : EU - U is isomorphic, as a vector fibration,
»
to the trivial fibration of rank r: ϕ : EU - U ˆ k r . Such a local isomorphism is called a local trivialization
for the vector bundle E.

Remark 3.1.5. The trivial vector fibration X ˆ k r over X is a vector bundle of rank r over X, called the
r
trivial vector bundle over X of rank r. We sometimes denote it kX .
Remark 3.1.6. Let X be an algebraic variety and p : E - X a vector bundle over X. The scheme-theoretic
fiber p´1 pxq is always reduced, as a consequence of the definition (local triviality).

Definition 3.1.7. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over the algebraic variety X. Let U be an open
ˇ
set of X. A section of E over U is a morphism of algebraic varieties s : U - E such that pˇE ˝ s “ idU .
U

We denote the sections of E over U with ΓpU, Eq. The set ΓpU, Eq is naturally an OX pU q-module with the
operations

ps ` tqpxq “ spxq ` tpxq pf sqpxq “ f pxqspxq @s, t P ΓpU, Eq, @f P OX pU q .

Definition 3.1.8. Let p : E - X, q : F - X two vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. A

morphism f : E - F of vector bundles is a morphism of subjacent vector fibrations.

Exercise 130. Prove that composition of morphisms of vector fibrations is a morphism of vector fibrations.
Deduce that compositions of morphisms of vector bundles is a morphism of vector bundles.

Lemma 3.1.9. Let f : X ˆk r - X ˆk s a morphism of trivial vector bundles of rank r and s, respectively.
Then f is determined by a regular map g : X - Homk pk r , k s q, with values in the space k-linear maps
Homk pk r , k s q. For each x P X and v P k r we have

f px, vq “ px, gpxqvq .

Proof. Let p : X - kr - X and q : X ˆ k s - X the projections onto the base of the two trivial
vector bundles. Since q ˝ f “ p, then the first component of f : X - k r X ˆ k s is given by the first
projection. Consider the restriction to a fiber over the point x:

txu ˆ k r - txu ˆ k s .

By definition it has to be a linear map gpxq : k r - k s . Hence we have a map g : X - Homk pk r , k s q

such that for any px, vq P X ˆ k r ,
f px, vq “ px, gpxqvq .
Since px, vq - px, gpxqvq is a morphism of algebraic varieties, it follows (prove it) that, fixing v P k r ,
the map x - gpxqv P k s is regular: hence x - gpxqei is regular for any ei : but this means that the
components of gpxq P Homk pk r , k s q “ k rs are regular and hence x - gpxq P Homk pk r , k s q is regular.

Remark 3.1.10. Let f : E - F be a morphism of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. Let
»
ϕ : EU - U ˆ k r and ψ : FU ˆ» U ˆ k s be trivializations of E and F over U , respectively. Then
ψ ˝ fU ˝ ϕ : U ˆ k r
´1 - U ˆ k s is a morphism of trivial vector bundles over U . Then there exists a
morphism g : U - Homk pk r , k s q with values in k-linear maps Homk pk r , k s q such that, for px, vq P U ˆ k r :

ψ ˝ fU ˝ ϕ´1 px, vq “ px, gpxqvq .

This is the expression of f in the charts ϕ and ψ.

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Proposition 3.1.11. Let f : E - F be a morphism of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X.
Suppose that the restriction to a fiber fx0 : Ex0 - Fx0 is an isomorphism. Then there exists an open
subset U of x0 in U such that fU : EU - FU is an isomorphism of vector bundles.

Proof. For sure E admits a trivialization ϕ : EU1 - U1 ˆ k r around x0 . The second vector bundle F
admits another trivialization ψ : FU2 - U2 ˆ k s around x0 . Let U “ U1 X U2 . The two trivializations
ˇ ˇ
ϕ and ψ above are still trivializations when restricted to U : ϕˇU : EU - U ˆ k r , ψ ˇ : FU U ˆ k s . The
ˇ ˇ´1 U
composition ψ ˇU ˝ f ˝ ϕˇU : U ˆ k r - U ˆ k s is given by

px, vq - px, gpxqvq

where g is a morphism g : U - Homk pk r , k s q. Since we know that fx0 is an isomorphism of vector bundles
Ex0 - Fx0 , this forces gpx0 q to be an isomorphism gpx0 q : k r - k s . Hence r “ s and, since Isok pk r , k r q
is an open set in Homk pk r , k r q, then gpxq continues to be an isomorphism for x is some open subset V of X
inside U . But this implies that fV : EV - FV is an isomorphism of vector bundles over V .

Remark 3.1.12. Let E and F two vector bundles over the algebraic variety X. The set of morphism

Homvb pE, F q “ tf : E - F | f is a morphism of vector bundles over X u

has a structure of OX pXq-module. Indeed, if f, g P Homvb pE, F q, we can set pf ` gqx “ fx ` gx , and
pαf qx “ αpxqfx .

Exercise 131. Consider a non-reduced variety, for example X “ Specmax pkrx, ys{px2 qq. Prove that a
morphism of algebraic varieties f : X ˆk r - X ˆk r such that p˝f “ p, where p : X ˆk r - k r and linear
on each fiber is not necessarily determined by a morphism of algebraic varieties1 g : X - Homk pk r , k r q

3.1.2 Transition functions

Theorem 3.1.13. Let X be an algebraic variety. The data of a vector bundle p : E - X over X or rank
r is equivalent to the data of an (finite) open cover pUi qiPI of X and of morphisms of algebraic varieties
gij : Uij :“ Ui X Uj - GLk prq for all i, j P I, such that the following cocycle conditions are satisfied:

• gi,i “ idGLk prq for any i P I;

• gi,k “ gi,j gj,k over Ui X Uj X Uk

Proof. Consider a vector bundle p : E - X over the algebraic variety X. By definition there is an open
cover pUi qiPI (which we can suppose finite, since X is a noetherian topological space), such that E admits
»
trivializations ϕi : EUi - Ui ˆ k r over each open set Ui . Over Uij “ Ui X Uj the morphism of trivial
vector bundles
ϕj ˝ ϕ´1
i : Uij ˆ k r - Uij ˆ k r

is determined by a morphism gji : Uij - GLk prq. The verification of cocycle conditions is immediate,
since ϕi ˝ ϕ´1
i “ idUi ˆkr and since ϕi ˝ ϕk´1 “ ϕi ˝ ϕ´1 ´1
j ˝ ϕj ˝ ϕk over Ui X Uj X Uk .

1 By morphism of affine nonreduced algebraic varieties f : Specmax pAq - Specmax pBq we mean a continuous map such
that there exists a morphism of k-algebras ϕ : B - A such that f pmq “ ϕ´1 pmq.

143
 On the other hand, suppose given an open cover pUi qiPI with morphism gi,j - GLk prq satisfying
cocycle conditions. The morphisms gi,j allow us to build isomorphisms ϕi,j : Ui,j ˆ kr - Ui,j ˆ k r as
px, vq - px, gi,j pxqvq. By proposition 8, we can glue the varieties Ui ˆ k r via the isomorphisms ϕi,j in
order to get an algebraic variety E. Set theoretically, E can be built as the quotient set
ž
E“ Ui ˆ k r { „
i

where „ is the equivalence relation such that px, vq „ py, wq if and only if px, vq P Ui ˆ k r , py, wq P Uj ˆ k r
and x “ y, gij pxqv “ w.
By ??, the result will be a separated algebraic variety. By the glueing construction, Ui ˆk r are isomorphic
to open sets inside E covering the whole E. So we can define a projection map : E - X in the following
way. Let x P E, so x P Ui ˆ k r for some i. The define ppxq “ pi pxq if x P Ui ˆ k r . This is a well defined
map, because if x P Ui ˆ k r and if x1 P Uj ˆ k r correspond to the same point in E, then for sure ϕi,j px1 q “ x,
but then pi pxq “ pi pϕi,j px1 qq “ pj px1 q. So p is a well-defined morphism p : E - X with vector fibers.
Moreover, p´1 pUi q » Ui ˆ k r , hence E is a locally trivial vector fibrations, that is, a vector bundle.

The following lemma will turn defining vector bundle structures easy.

Lemma 3.1.14. Let X be an algebraic variety. Let r P N. Let E be a set, together with a function of sets
f :E - X such that Ex :“ f ´1 pxq is a vector space of dimension r. Suppose that there exists an open
cover pUi qiPI and bijections
ϕi : EUi :“ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ k r

such that
r - pUi X Uj q ˆ k r
ϕ´1
j ˝ ϕi : pUi X Uj q ˆ k

sends
px, vq - px, gij pxqvq

where gij are regular functions gij : Ui X Uj - GLk prq and gij satisfy the cocycle conditions

• gi,i pxq “ idGLk prq

• gi,k “ gi,j gj,k over Ui X Uj X Uk .
Then E has the structure of algebraic variety and p : E - X is a vector bundle of rank r over X with
transition functions gi,j : Uij - GLk prq relative to the covering pUi qiPI .

Proof. By the previous proposition the transition functions allow to glue the open sets Ui ˆ k r to produce
a vector bundle Ẽ over X. The set underlying Ẽ is built as the quotient set
ž
Ẽ “ Ui ˆ k r { „
i

where „ is the equivalence relation such that px, vq „ py, wq if and only if px, vq P Ui ˆ k r , py, wq P Uj ˆ k r
and x “ y, gij pxqv “ w. So Ẽ has the structure of vector bundle over X. Here p̃ : Ẽ - X is induced by
the projection on the first factor in each Ui ˆ k r . Now we just have to prove that we have a commutative

144
diagram

ψ
E - Ẽ

p̃
-


X

Ui ˆ k r
š
where the first horizontal map is a bijection. Denote with π the projection π : i
- Ẽ. Define ψ
as
ψpzq “ πpϕi pzqq if x P f ´1 pUi q .

It is now easy to prove that ψ is a well defined map and a bijection. Hence we can transfer the algebraic
variety structure over E, so that ϕi are local isomorphisms. In other words, p : E - X becomes a vector
fibrations, and acquires local trivializations ϕi . Hence it becomes a vector bundle with transition functions
gij .

Lemma 3.1.15. Let E, F be vector bundles of rank r, s, respectively, over an algebraic variety X.
1. Suppose that we have a collection of local morphisms of vector bundles over Ui :

fi : EUi - FUi .
ˇ
Prove that there exists a global morphism of vector bundles f : E - F over X such that f ˇ Ui “ fi
ˇ ˇ
if and only if fi ˇUi XUj “ fj ˇUi XUj .
2.
3. Suppose that Φi : EUi - Ui ˆ k r and Ψi : FUi - Ui ˆ k s are trivializations of E and F over the
open cover pUi qiPI . Let gij and hij the transition functions for E and F , respectively, with respect to
the given trivializations over Ui . Suppose that we have, for each i P I, a morphism of trivial bundles

αi : Ui ˆ k r - Ui ˆ k s .
ˇ
Prove that there exists a morphism f : E - F of vector bundles over X such that αi “ Ψi ˝f ˇ ˝Φ´1
Ui i
if and only if
ˇ ˇ
αi ˇU gj,i “ hi,j αj ˇU @i, j .
i XUj i XUj

Proof. Left to the reader as an easy exercise.

Exercise 132. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over the algebraic variety X. Suppose that pUi qiPI
ˇ
is an open covering such that E trivializes over each Ui with trivializations Φi : E ˇU » Ui ˆ k r . Let
i

gi,j : Ui X Uj - GLk prq be the transition functions relative to the covering Ui , induced by Φj ˝ Φ´1 .
i
Suppose that si : Ui - k r are sections of the trivial bundle kU r
i
over Ui . Then there exists a global section
ˇ
s P ΓpX, Eq such that Φi psˇU q “ si if and only if sj “ gi,j si over Ui X Uj .
i

145
3.1.3 Operations with vector bundles.
We want now to build new vector bundles, starting from a couple of vector bundles E, F over X.
Direct sum. Consider two vector bundles p : E - X and q : F - X over the algebraic variety X.
Consider the set
ž
E ‘ F :“ Ex ‘ Fx
xPX

together with the function f : E ‘ F - X sending pαx , βx q P Ex ‘ Fx to x P X. It is a set-theoretic

vector fibration, as in the previous lemma. For each x P X, we can find a common trivializations Φi :
EUi - Ui ˆ k r , given by Ψi pvx q “ px, ϕi pvx qq, and Ψi : FUi - Ui ˆ k s and Ψi pwx q “ px, ψpwx qq, where
vx P Ex , wx P Fx . This allows to give a bijection

Θi : pE ‘ F qUi “ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ pk r ‘ k s q

given by
Θi pvx ‘ wx q “ px, ϕpvx q ‘ ψpwx qq .

So we can build an open cover Ui with maps Θi as above. Consider now the maps

Θj ˝ Θ´1
i : Uij pˆk r ‘ k s q - Uij pˆk r ‘ k s q

where Uij “ Ui X Uj , as usual. These maps send

px, v ‘ wq - px, gij pxqv ‘ hij pxqwq

where gij and hij are the transitions functions of E and F , respectively, associated to the covering pUi qij .
Denote with Gij the matrix ˜ ¸
gij
Gij pxq “ .
hij
with respect to the direct sum decomposition k r ‘k s . Of course we have, by an immediate direct computation:
• Gi,i “ idGLk pr`sq
• Gi,k “ Gi,j Gj,k .
Therefore the set E ‘ F acquires the structure of a vector bundle of rank r ` s over X, with transition
functions Gi,j and trivializations Θi “ ϕi ˆX ψi .

Once we understand the previous example, we can build similarly other vector bundles starting from E and
F . We mention here only the set-theoretic vector fibrations, the trivializations and the transition functions
in each of the following cases. Here Φi : EUi - Ui ˆ k r , Φi pvx q “ px, ϕi pvx qq, and Ψi : FUi - Ui ˆ k s ,
Ψi pwx q “ px, ψi pwx qq are trivializations of E and F , respectively, over the open set Ui , as above. We also
denote with gij and hij the transition functions of E and F , relative to the covering pUi qiPI . Also f will
always be the set-theoretic fibration.
Tensor Product. We set
ž
E b F :“ E x b Fs .
xPX

146
Trivializations are given by

Θi : pE b F qUi “ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ pk r b k s q

vx b wx - px, ϕi pvx q b ψi pwx qq

Transition functions are given by

Gij “ gij b hij : Uij - GLk prsq .

Dual vector bundle We set

ž
E ˚ :“ Ex˚ .
xPX

Trivializations are given by

Θi : pE ˚ qUi “ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ pk r q˚

vx - px, pϕ˚ q´1 pvx qq

i
ˇ
Here, since ϕi ˇEx : Ex - k r is a linear map we denote with pϕ˚ q´1 the map pϕ˚ q´1 : EU - pk r q˚
i i i

such that
ˇ ˇ
pϕ˚i q´1 ˇE “ ppϕi ˇE q˚ q´1 .
x x

Transition functions are given by

Gij “ t gij
´1
: Uij - GLk prq .

Exterior Power We set, for 0 ď m ď r,

ž
Λm E :“ Λm Ex .
xPX

Trivializations are given by

Θi : pΛm EqUi “ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ Λm k r

vx - px, Λm ϕi pvx qq
ˇ
Here, since ϕi ˇE : Ex - k r is a linear map we denote with Λm ϕi the map Λm ϕi : EUi - Λm k r such
x

that
ˇ ˇ
pΛm ϕi qˇEx “ Λm pϕi ˇEx q .

Transition functions are given by

ˆ ˙
Gij “ Λm gi,j : Uij - GLk p r q .
m
In particular, when m “ r, Λr E is a line bundle, of great importance, called the determinant line bundle of
E, and usually denoted with det E. Transition functions are given by det gi,j : Ui,j - k ˚ , i, j P I.
Symmetric Power We set, for 0 ď m,
ž
S m E :“ S m Ex .
xPX

147
Trivializations are given by
Θi : pS m EqUi “ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ S m k r

vx - px, S m ϕi pvx qq
ˇ
Here, since ϕi ˇEx : Ex - k r is a linear map we denote with S m ϕi the map S m ϕi : EU - S m k r such
i

that
ˇ ˇ
pS m ϕi qˇEx “ S m pϕi ˇEx q .
Transition functions are given by

Gij “ S m gi,j : Uij - GLk pS m k r q .

Bundle of homomorphisms. We set

ž
HompE, F q :“ Homk pEx , Fx q .
xPX

Trivializations are given by

Θi : pHompE, F qqUi “ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ Homk pk r , k s q

- px, ψi ˇ ˝ tx ˝ pϕi qˇ´1 q

ˇ ˇ
tx F E
x x

Transition functions are given by

Gij : Uij - GLk pHomk pk r , k s qq .

sending
Homk pk r , k s q Q A - hi,j Ag ´1 .
i,j

Dual vector bundle We set

ž
E ˚ :“ Ex˚ .
xPX
Trivializations are given by
Θi : pE ˚ qUi “ f ´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ pk r q˚

vx - px, pϕ˚ q´1 pvx qq

i
ˇ
Here, since ϕi ˇE : Ex - k r is a linear map we denote with pϕ˚ q´1 the map pϕ˚ q´1 : EUi - pk r q˚
x i i
such that
ˇ ˇ
pϕ˚i q´1 ˇEx “ ppϕi ˇEx q˚ q´1 .
Transition functions are given by
Gij “ t gij
´1
: Uij - GLk prq .

Exercise 133. Prove that the bundle of homomorphism HompE, F q is canonically isomorphic to the vector
bundle E ˚ b F .
Exercise 134. Prove that the dual bundle E ˚ is isomorphic to Λm´1 E b pdet Eq˚ .
Exercise 135. Prove that if L is a line bundle over X (that is a vector bundle of rank 1), then L b L˚ is
isomorphic to the trivial bundle.

148
3.1.4 Subbundles and Quotient bundles
Subbundles

Many interesting vector bundles are born as subbundles of trivial vector bundles.

Definition 3.1.16. Let p : E - X a vector bundle of rank r over an algebraic variety X. A subvariety
F Ď E is called a subbundle of E of rank m ď r if for each x P X, F X Ex is a subspace of dimension m and
if the induced fibration
ˇ
pˇF : F - X
ˇ
is locally trivial of rank m. It is clear that pˇF : F - X is a vector bundle over X of rank m.

Example 3.1.17 (Hopf line bundle OPnk p´1q over Pn ). Consider the projective space Pnk with homoge-
neous components x “ rx0 , . . . , xn s. Consider the set

H :“ tpx, vq P Pnk ˆ k n`1 | v P xu .

It is a closed subvariety of the product Pnk ˆ k n`1 since, over the open set Uxi ˆ k n`1 it is given by

H X pUxi ˆ k n`1 q “ tprx0 , . . . , xi´1 , xi , xi`1 , . . . , xn s, pv0 , . . . , vn qq | vj “ λxj Dλ P k ˚ u

The condition vi “ λxi implies, knowing that xi ‰ 0, λ “ vi {xi and hence

xj
vj “ vi @j ‰ i .
xi
Moreover, it is clear from the definition that Hx can be identified x as a line in k n`1 . We have an isomorphism
of fibrations
Uxi ˆ k - HU
xi

px, αq - prxs, px0 {xi qα, . . . , pxn {xi qαq

This line bundle is denoted with OPnk p´1q and it is called the tautological line bundle over Pnk or as the Hopf
bundle over Pnk . It is a line bundle of fundamental importance.

Exercise 136. Compute the transition functions of the Hopf bundle on Pnk .

Example 3.1.18 (The Universal Bundle on the Grassmannian). Consider the Grassmannian Grpr, V q
of vector subspaces of dimension r of a finite dimensional vector space V . Let Λ be the incidence variety
Λ “ tpL, xq P Grpk, V q ˆ V ; |; x P Lu. We already proved that Λ is a smooth subvariety of Grpr, V q ˆ V .
Consider the restriction to the first projection p : Λ - Grpr, V q. It is a vector fibration of rank k over
Grpr, V q. It is locally trivial. Indeed, consider the affine open subset UK of the Grassmannian of vector
subspaces W such that W X K “ t0u, with K a vector subspace of dimension dim V ´ r. Consider a
»
fixed complementary subspace H of K. We saw that Homk pH, Kq - UK , via the map that associates
a - graph a “ impidH ‘ a : H - H ‘ Kq Ď H ‘ K. Fix an isomorphism ϕH : k r - H Then the
map Homk pH, Kq ˆ k r - ΛU given by pa, vq
K
- ppgraphpaq, pidH ‘ aq ˝ ϕH qpvqq gives a trivialization
of ΛUK over UK . When we see Λ as a rank r vector bundle over the Grassmannian, we denote it with S:
we call it the universal subbundle of the trivial bundle Grpk, V q ˆ V , or, also, the universal bundle of rank r
over the Grassmannian Grpr, V q.

149
Proposition 3.1.19. Let p : E - X a vector bundle of rank r over an algebraic variety X. Let F Ď E be
a subbundle of rank s. Then, for each x P X there is an open subset U of X containing x and a trivialization
ϕ : EU - U ˆ k r such that ϕpFU q “ U ˆ k s , where we see k s included in k r via the first s coordinates.
In particular
ˇ
ϕˇF : FU - U ˆ ks
U

induces a trivialization of F over U .

»
Proof. Take a point x0 P X. Around x0 , we can find a trivialization ϕ : EU - U ˆk r and, up to restricting
U , a trivialization ψ : FU - U ˆ k s . The inclusion ι : F - E, in terms of trivializations ϕ and ψ, is
given by,

ψ ´1 ˝ ι ˝ ϕ : U ˆ k s - U ˆ kr

px, vq - px, gpxqvq

where g : U - Homk pk s , k r q and where gpxq is injective for any x P U . Consider ei the canonical basis of
k r and fj the canonical basis of k s . Then set w1 pxq “ gpxqf1 , . . . , ws pxq “ gpxqfs is a linearly independent
set in k r for each x. Complete the linearly independent set w1 px0 q, . . . , ws px0 q to a basis of k r with vectors
z1 , . . . , zr´s . Expressing wi pxq in terms of the canonical basis ei , we see that w1 pxq, . . . , ws pxq, z1 , . . . , zr´s
remain a basis for x in an open neighobourhood V of x0 inside U . Over V , consider the isomorphism
Apxq : k r - k r sending wi pxq to ei and zi to ei`s . Note that the map V Q x - Apxq P Homk pk r , k r q is
a morphism of algebraic varieties, since the components of Apxq are regular. Finally, consider the isomorphism
of trivial vector bundles θ : V ˆk r - V ˆk r given by px, vq - px, Apxqvq. The map θ˝ϕ : EV - V ˆk r
is clearly a trivialization such that θpϕpFV qq “ θpxw1 pxq, . . . , ws pxqyq “ k s .

Exercise 137. Let p : E - X be vector bundle over an algebraic variety X. Consider x0 P X and a
subspace Wx0 of Ex0 (of dimension s ď dim Ex0 “ rk E). Prove that there exists an open subset U of X
containing x0 and a subbundle F of EU such that Fx0 “ Wx0 .

Proposition 3.1.20. Let f : E - F be a morphism of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X.

Suppose that the rank of fx : Ex - Fx remains constant when x P X. Then ker f and Imf are vector
subbundles of E and F , respectively.

Proof. The question is local over X, that is, it is sufficient to prove that, given x P X, there exists an open
subset U of X containing x such that ker fU and fU are subbundles of EU and FU , respectively. Let x0 P X.
Consider the vector spaces ker fx0 Ď Ex0 and Imfx0 Ď Fx0 . By the exercise, there exists an open subset U
of X containing x0 and subbundles K, S of EU such that K ‘ S “ EU and such that Kx0 “ ker fx0 , and
subbundles L, T of FU such that L ‘ T “ FU and such that Lx0 “ Imfx0 . We know by standard linear
algebra that rk L “ rk S. According to the decompositions in direct sum, the morphism fU : EU - FU
can be written as ˜ ¸
a b
fU “ ,
c d
where a P Homvb pK, Lq, b P Homvb pS, Lq, c P Homvb pK, T q, d P Homvb pS, T q. In the point x0 we have that
ˇ
apx0 q “ 0, cpx0 q “ 0, dpx0 q “ 0. Moreover, since, by standard linear algebra fx0 ˇSx : Sx0 » Lx0 , we have
0

150
that bpx0 q is invertible. By proposition ??, we can restrict V in such a way that bV : SV - LV is an
isomorphism of vector bundles on the whole V . Over such a restricted V , the kernel of f is given by
# # +
apuq ` bpvq “ 0
ker fV “ pu, vq P KV ‘ SV | .
cpuq ` dpvq “ 0

Since b is invertible over V , the first condition is equivalent to v “ ´b´1 au. Hence the second becomes

cpuq ´ db´1 au “ 0 .

Hence
ker f “ pu, ´b´1 auq P KV ‘ SV | pc ´ db´1 aqu “ 0u » kerpc ´ db´1 aq

where we see c ´ db´1 a as a morphism of vector bundles K - T . Since rk f is constant, when x P

X, this means that dim ker fx is constant, and hence dim kerpc ´ db´1 aqx is constant when x P X. But
pc ´ db´1 aqx0 “ 0, because apx0 q “ 0, cpx0 q “ 0; hence c ´ db´1 a “ 0 identically over V and the first
condition is always satisfied. So, over V , ker fV is a closed subvariety of EV and the morphism

KV - ker fV Ď K ‘ S

sending u - pu, ´b´1 auq is an isomorphism of vector fibrations, but KV is now a vector bundle, hence
ker fV is a vector subbundle of EV . Analogously, the image ImfV is given by couple ps, tq P LV ‘ TV such
that s “ au ` bv, t “ cu ` dv. But over V , c “ db´1 a, so v “ b´1 s ´ b´1 au and

t “ db´1 au ` dv “ db´1 au ` db´1 s ´ db´1 au “ db´1 s

and that’s the only condition on elements ps, tq P LV ‘ TV in the image (one can prove easily that if this
condition is realized, than s, t are in the image). Then ImfV is closed subvariety in FV and the morphism
of vector fibrations
LV - ImfV

given by s - ps, db´1 sq is an isomorphism. So ImfV is a vector subbundle of FV as well.

Corollary 3.1.21. Let f : E - F be a morphism of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X.

• If f is surjective, then ker f is a subbudle of E;

• If f is injective, then im f is a subbundle of F .

Exact sequences of vector bundles.

Definition 3.1.22. Let E, F, G be vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. We say that two homo-
morphism f : E - F, g : F - G constitute an exact sequence of vector bundles at the bundle F if
ker gx “ im fx . We will write the sequence as
f g
E - F - G.

f g
Remark 3.1.23. If E - F - G is an exact sequence of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X,
then, over each connected component of X, rk fx is constant (rk fx can only grow around x, while dim ker gx
can only diminsh around x). Then f “ ker g is a subbundle of F and hence g is a subbundle of G.

151
 f g
Definition 3.1.24. We say that a sequence of vector bundles 0 - E - F - G - 0 is a exact
f g 0 f g
if E - F - G is exact at F and the sequences 0 - E - F and F - G 0- 0 are exact at
E and G, respectively. In particular, if the sequence
f g
0 - E - F - G - 0

is exact, then E » im f » ker g as vector bundles, f is injective and g is surjective as morphisms of vector
bundles.

Quotient bundles

Proposition 3.1.25. Let E be a vector bundle over the algebraic variety X and F Ď E be a subbundle.
Consider the set
ž
E{F :“ Ex {Fx ,
xPX

together with the map π : E{F - X sending Ex {Fx to x. Then

• the set E{F has naturally a structure of vector bundle over X.

• The map π : E - E{F , given fiberwise as Ex - Ex {Fx , is a surjective map of vector bundles

• if f : E - G is a morphism of vector bundles such that f pF q “ 0, f factors uniquely through

f “ f ˝ π, where π : E - E{F is the map defined above, and fp : E{F - G is the map of vector
bundles induced fiberwise by fx : Ex - Gx .
ˇ
Proof. Let x P X. Over an open set U of x in X we can find a subbundle S of E ˇU such that Fx ‘ Sx “ Ex .
ˇ ˇ
Then the morphism of vector bundles F ˇU ‘ S - E ˇU is an isomorphism over the point x, and hence over
an open subset V of X inside U after proposition ??. So we have a bijection γ : pE{F qV » SV between the
set pE{F qV and the bundle SV over V . This gives locally a structure of vector bundle over E{F , which does
not depend on the chosen V ; moreover, two structures obtained on overlapping open set are compatible.
So we have a structure of algebraic variety over E{F , and local trivializations. It is now clear that, locally,
over open sets V , the set-theoretic map fp : E{F - G induce vector bundle morphism SV - G: hence
fp : E{F - G is a morphism of vector bundles.

One can similarly prove the following.

Proposition 3.1.26. Let E be a vector bundle over the algebraic variety X and F Ď E be a subbundle.
There exists a unique structure of vector bundle over π : E{F - X satisfying the following universal
property: for any morphism f : E - G such that f pF q “ 0, then the natural map fp : E{F - G—
defined fiberwise as fpx : Ex {Fx - Gx as the unique map induced by fx : Ex - Gx — is a morphism
of vector bundles over X.

Exercise 138. Reprove the previous two propositions using proposition 3.1.19.

Exercise 139. A short exact sequence of vector bundles

f g
0 - E - F - G - 0

over an algebraic variety X splits on the left if there exists a morphism of vector bunldes h : F - E such
that h ˝ f “ idE . It splits on the right if there exists a morphism of vector bundles σ : G - F such that

152
g ˝ σ “ idG . Prove that a short exact sequence splits on the right if and only if it splits on the left if and
only if the map
g‘h:F - E‘G

is an isomorphism of vector bundles.

Exercise 140 (Exactness of restrictions). Let

f g
0 - E - F - G - 0

be an exact sequence of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. Prove that if U is an open set of X, the
sequence of restrictions ˇ ˇ
ˇ fˇ ˇ gˇ ˇ
U U
0 - Eˇ
U
- F ˇU - GˇU - 0

is exact.
f g
Exercise 141. Beware: not all short exact sequence split! But the following is true. Let 0 - E - F - G - 0
be a short exact sequence of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. Then, for any x P X, there exists
an affine open set U of X containing x such that the restriction
ˇ ˇ ˇ
0 - Eˇ
U
- Fˇ
U
- Gˇ
U
- 0

splits.

Exercise 142. Let

f g
0 - E - F - G - 0

be an exact sequence of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. Prove that one has the isomorphism of
line bundles over X:
det F » det E b det G .

Exercise 143. Let

f g
0 - E - F - G - 0

be an exact sequence of vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. Let H another vector bundle over X.
Prove that the sequence
f bidH gbidH
0 - EbH - F bH - GbH - 0

is exact, where the tensor product of vector bundle maps is defined fiberwise.

Exercise 144. Let E, F, G vector bundles over an algebraic variety X. Suppose that E » F b G. Then

det E » pdet F qb rk G b pdet Gqb rk F .

3.1.5 Base change

Let ϕ : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties and let q : F - Y a vector bundle over Y . We
want to ”pull-back” the vector bundle F over the variety X. First of all, a definition.

153
Definition 3.1.27. Let ϕ : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties, p : E - X and let
q : F - Y be vector bundles over X and Y , respectively. A morphism of vector bundles over the
morphism ϕ : X - Y is a morphism f : E - F of algebraic varieties such that the diagram of
morphism of algebraic varieties
f
E - F

p q
? ϕ - ?
X Y
ˇ
is commutative and that fx : f ˇEx : Ex - Fϕpxq is linear, for each x P X.

Proposition 3.1.28. Let ϕ : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties and let q : F - Y a vector

š
bundle over Y . Set ϕ˚ F “ xPX Fϕpxq . There is a unique structure of vector bundle over X on ϕ˚ F and
a morphism of vector bundles ψ : ϕ˚ F - F over the morphism ϕ : X - Y such that there the map
g - ψ ˝ g defines a bijection

Proof. Consider the fiber product X ˆY F : it is by definition the inverse image of the diagonal ∆Y Ď Y ˆ Y
by the morphism X ˆF - Y ˆY given by f ˆq: hence it is a closed subvariety of X ˆF . Set E :“ X ˆY F .
Consider the first projection p :“ π1 : E “ X ˆY F - X. We have that set-theoretically we have

p´1 pxq “ tpx, vq P X ˆ F | f pxq “ qpvqu » Ff pxq

as algebraic varieties2 . Hence the set-theoretic fibers of p : E - X are vector spaces: so p : E - X

r
is a vector fibration. Moreover, if FV » V ˆ k is a trivialization of F over an open set V of Y , then, as
algebraic varieties

Ep´1 pV q “ p´1 pV q » X ˆV F » f ´1 pV q ˆV FV » f ´1 pV q ˆV pV ˆ k r q » f ´1 pV q ˆ k r

and this gives a trivialization of E over the open set f ´1 pV q of X. This proves that X ˆY F is a vector
bundle of rank r over X. We denote it with ϕ˚ F . The natural morphism f : X ˆY F - F is a morphism
of vector bundle over the morphism ϕ : X - Y of algebraic varieties. Indeed, q ˝ f “ ϕ ˝ p, by definition
of ϕ˚ F “ X ˆY F . Consider now another vector bundle P over X. If θ : P - ϕ˚ F is a morphism of
f ˝θ
vector bundles over X, then it is immediate to check that P - F is a morphism of vector bundles over
γ
ϕ. On the other hand, if P - F is a morphism of vector bundles over ϕ, since we have the morphism
P - X, the definition of fiber product
P
-

-
X ˆY F - F

p q
-

? ϕ - ?
X Y
2 Actually, paying a little more attention, we have scheme-theoretically that p´1 pxq “ tpx, vq P X ˆ F | f pxq “ qpvqu »
q ´1 pf pxqq and the last one is exactly the fiber Ff pxq

154
implies the existence of a morphism P - X ˆY F , which is revealed to be a morphism of vector bundles
over X. We leave the proof of the unicity of the vector bundle structure on ϕ˚ F to the reader.

Remark 3.1.29. Let ϕ : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties and let q : F - Y a vector bundle
over Y . Suppose that s : Y - F is a regular section of F over Y , s P ΓpY, F q. Then idX ˆY ps ˝ f qi is a
regular section of ϕ˚ F over X “ ϕ´1 pY q. The morphism

ΓpY, F q - ΓpX, ϕ˚ F q

s - ϕ˚ s

defines a morphism of OY pY q-modules. Now restrict the situation to an open set U of Y , and consider the
ˇ ˇ
morphism ϕˇϕ´1 pU q : ϕ´1 pU q - U , and the restricted vector bundle F ˇU . The same argument as above
- F ˇ is a section of F ˇ , then we can define a section ϕˇ˚ ´1 s of ϕ˚ ˇ ´1 F ˇ .
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
shows that if s : U U U ϕ ϕ
pU q pU q ˇU
- F , and V Ď U , then pϕˇ˚ ´1 sqˇ ´1
ˇ ˇ ˚ˇ
ˇ
Remark that if we have a section s : U ϕ pU q ϕ pV q
“ ϕ ´1 s
ϕ pV q V
ˇ .
ˇ ˇ ˇ
Moreover ϕ˚ ˇϕ´1 pU q F ˇU “ pϕ˚ F qˇϕ´1 pU q . Therefore, for any open set U of Y we have a pull-back map

ϕ˚ : ΓpU, F q - Γpϕ´1 pU q, ϕ˚ F q

which is a map of OY pU q-modules and it is compatible with restriction to smaller open subsets V .

Definition 3.1.30. Let X be an algebraic variety, and Y be a closed subvariety of X: denote with ι :
Y Ă - X the closed immersion. If E is a vector bundle over X, then ι˚ E is a vector bundle on Y . We call
ˇ
it the restriction of the vector bundle E to the subvariety Y , and we indicate it with E ˇY .

3.1.6 Tangent and Cotangent Bundle on a smooth variety

Let X here be a smooth pure-dimensional algebraic variety. By definition, for each p P X, dim X “ dim Tp X.
Hence it makes sense to consider the set-theoretic vector fibration over X:
ž
T X :“ Tx X
xPX

and to try to put on it a natural structure of vector bundle over X. We do it first for smooth affine varieties.

Proposition 3.1.31. If X “ Ank , then T Ank has the structure of a trivial vector bundle of rank n.

Proof. For each p P Ank , we have

Tp Ank » Derk pkrx1 , . . . , xn s, kp q

and the second vector space is isomorphic to k n via the morphism D - pDpx1 q, . . . , Dpxn qq. We reverse
this isomorphism sending ei to Bxi , p, that is the unique derivation of Derk pkrx1 , . . . , xn s, kp q such that
Bxi ,p pxj q “ δi,j . Now we can define a bijection of set-theoretic fibrations over Ank :

Ank ˆ k n - T Ank

sending
ÿ
pp, pα1 , . . . , αn qq - αi Bxi ,p .
i

Now the first set-theoretic fibration is a true trivial vector bundle over Ank .

155
Proposition 3.1.32. Let X be a smooth affine subvariety of Am
k of dimension n defined by functions
f1 , . . . , fr P krx1 , . . . , xm s such that the jacobian pBfj {Bxi qi,j pxq has maximal rank for any x P X. Then T X
has a natural structure of vector bundle of rank n over X.

Proof. Let f be the morphism f : Am

k
- k r given by the components fi . We saw that, for each p P X,
the tangent space Tp X is given exactly by the kernel of the tangent map

Tp f : Tp Am
k “k
m - TO k r “ k r ,

whose associated matrix is the jacobian. But now Tp Am n

k is the fiber of the tangent bundle to Ak , which is
3
ˇ
trivial. Hence Tp f defines a map of trivial vector bundles over X, which we call T f ˇ : X
ˇ
ˇ Tfˇ X-
X ˆ k n “ T Ank ˇX X ˆ kr

pp, vq - pp, Tp f pvqq

ˇ
Now T f ˇX is a surjective map of vector bundle because the jacobian has maximal rank at any p P X: it
ˇ ˇ
results that the kernel ker T f ˇX is naturally a vector bundle over X of rank m ´ r “ n. But T X “ ker T f ˇX .
Note that T X has a natural structure of closed subvariety of the affine variety T Ank .

Proposition 3.1.33. Let X be a smooth affine subvariety of Am

k of dimension n defined by functions
f1 , . . . , fr P krx1 , . . . , xm s such that the jacobian pBfj {Bxi qi,j pxq has maximal rank for any x P X. Let
Y be another affine subvariety of Alk , defined by functions g1 , . . . , gs P kry1 , . . . , yl s such that the jacobian
pBgj {Byi qi,j pxq has maximal rank for any y P Y . Let ϕ : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic varieties.
Then ϕ induces a morphism of vector bundles T ϕ : T X - T Y over ϕ; as a result we get a morphism of
vector bundles over X:
Tϕ : TX - ϕ˚ T Y .

Proof. The morphism ϕ is induced by a map Φ : Am k

- Al , such that ϕpXq Ď Y . The tangent map
k
Tp ϕ : Tp X - Tϕppq Y is given by the restriction of the tangent map Tp Φ : Tp Am - Tϕppq Al . Now the
k k
map
T Φ : T Am m
k “ Ak ˆ k
m - T Alk “ Alk ˆ k l

sends
px, vq - pΦpxq, pTx Φqvq

and pTx Φqv is given by the jacobian of Φ at the point x times v. Hence it is a morphism of algebraic
ˇ
varieties. Since T ΦpT Xq Ď T Y and T ϕ “ T ΦˇX , then T ϕ : T X - T Y is a morphism of affine algebraic
varieties, induced by the polynomial map T Φ. Moreover, T ϕ is a morphism of fibrations over the morphism
ϕ : X - Y . Hence it defines a morphism of vector bundles T ϕ : T X - T Y over ϕ, or, equivalently, a
morphism of vector bundles T X - ϕ˚ T Y over X.

Proposition 3.1.34. Let X, Y, Z smooth affine subvarieties of Ank , Am r

k , Ak , respectively, defined by functions
f1 , . . . , fl , g1 , . . . , gs , h1 , . . . , ht such that the jacobians are of maximal rank in any point of X, Y, Z, respec-
tively. Let ϕ : X - Y and ψ : Y - Z morphism of algebraic varieties. Then T pψ ˝ ϕq “ T ψ ˝ T ϕ as
maps T X - T Z over ψ ˝ ϕ.
3 The bundle X ˆ kr is precisely q ˚ E, where E is the trivial vector bundle of rank r over the point O

156
Proof. It is sufficient to remember that Tp pψ ˝ ϕq “ Tϕppq ψ ˝ Tp ϕ.

Proposition 3.1.35. Let X be an arbitrary smooth pure-n-dimensional algebraic variety. Then T X has a
natural structure of vector bundle over X of rank n, called the tangent bundle of the variety X.

Proof. We will prove that T X has local trivializations such that the transitions functions satisfy the cocicle
conditions; that is, we will use the criterion of lemma 3.1.14. Fix p P X. We can find an affine chart
ϕi : Ui - Wi Ď Ami such that – up to restricting Ui aroung p – Wi is given in An by the zeros of
k k
functions f1 , . . . , fr such that the jacobian pBfj {Bxj qi,j is of maximal rank at any point of Wi . This means,
by the preceding propositions, that T Wi is a vector bundle of rank n over Wi . Let w “ ϕi ppq. Since
T Wi is locally trival over Wi , we can restrict Wi around w – and correspondigly Ui – in order that T Wi is
actually trivial over Wi . So the first step is to cover X with open sets Ui with this property. Moreover, fix
a trivialization Ψi : T Wi - Wi ˆ k r given by vw - pw, ψi pvw qq.
„
The isomorphism ϕi defines isomorphisms of vector spaces Tx ϕi : Tx X - Tϕpxq Wi for each x P Ui .
Then we have a bijection
ˇ T ϕi Ψi
T X ˇUi - T Wi - Wi ˆ k n

over the morphism ϕi : Ui - Wi . This induces a bijection

ˇ
Φi : T X ˇ U - Ui ˆ k r
i

vx - px, ψi ˝ Tϕpxq vq

fibered over Ui , where Tx v P Tϕi pxq Wi . These are our local trivializations over the open sets Ui . It is now
elementary to prove that the transition functions satisfy the cocycle conditions, by the previous proposition,
or by the composition properties of the tangent map at a point.

Definition 3.1.36 (Cotangent bundle). Let X be an arbitrary smooth pure-n-dimensional algebraic

variety. The bundle T ˚ X, dual of the tangent bundle T X is called the cotangent bundle of the variety X.
Its fiber over a point p P X is the cotangent space Tp˚ X.

Definition 3.1.37. Let X be an arbitrary smooth pure-n-dimensional algebraic variety. Let U be an open
set of X. A regular section s : U - T X of T X is called a tangent vector field to X over U . We indicate
tangent vector fields to X over U as χX pU q. Then χX pU q is a OX pU q-module.

Definition 3.1.38 (Differential Forms). Let X be an arbitrary smooth pure-n-dimensional algebraic

variety. Consider the p-exterior power Λp T ˚ X of the cotangent bundle. Let U be an open set of X. A
section ω : U - Λp T ˚ X over U is called a regular p-differential form over U . We indicate with Ωp pU q
X
the set of regular p-differential forms over U .

Definition 3.1.39 (Canonical Line Bundle). Let X be an arbitrary smooth pure-n-dimensional algebraic
variety. We define the canonical line bundle of X as the line bundle

KX :“ det T ˚ X “ Λn T ˚ X .

˚
Its dual KX , is called the anticanonical.

157
Remark 3.1.40. Let X be smooth (pure-dimensional) algebraic variety. Let Y be a smooth (pure-dimensional)
closed subvariety of X. Let ι : Y Ă - X be the inclusion. The morphism ι induces a morphism of vector
bundles
ˇ
Tι : TY - ι˚ T X “ T X ˇ
Y

over Y . Over each fiber T ι sends Tp Y Ă - Tp X in an injectively. Hence T ι is injective and hence T Y
ˇ
identifies to a subbundle of T X ˇY . We call normal bundle NY of the subvariety Y in X the quotient
ˇ
T X ˇY
NY {X :“ .
TY
It is a vector bundle over Y of rank equal to the codimension of Y in X. Its dual NY˚ {X over Y , is called the
conormal bundle of Y inside X.

Exercise 145. Let X be smooth (pure-dimensional) algebraic variety. Consider the diagonal immersion
δ : X - X ˆ X given by x - px, xq. Prove that the diagonal ∆ is a smooth subvariety of X ˆ X and
that δ is an isomorphism of X onto ∆. Prove that

δ ˚ N∆{X » T X

and that
δ ˚ N∆{X
˚
» T ˚X .
f g
Exercise 146. Let 0 - E - F - G - 0 an exact sequence of vector bundles over a variety X.
Prove that the sequence
g˚ f˚
0 - G˚ - F˚ - E˚ - 0

is exact.

Exercise 147. Let X be smooth (pure-dimensional) algebraic variety. Let Y be a smooth (pure-dimensional)
closed subvariety of X. From the exact sequence
ˇ
0 - TY - T Xˇ
Y
- NY - 0

deduce the exact sequence (called conormal sequence):

ˇ
0 - N˚ - T ˚X ˇ - T ˚Y - 0
Y {X Y

and the formula

ˇ
KX ˇY » KY b det NY˚ {X .

Exercise 148. Let X be a smooth algebraic variety. Let p P X. Consider around p, a regular system of
parameters u1 , . . . , un , and suppose that over an adequate open set U of X around U , dx u1 , . . . , dx un still
ˇ
generate (are a basis of ) Tx˚ X for each x P U . Prove that T ˚ X ˇU is trivial an prove that
ˇ
U ˆ kn - T ˚X ˇ
U

ř
sending px, pα1 , . . . , αn qq - px,
i αi dx ui q is a trivialization of T ˚ X over U . Deduce trivializations for all
exterior and symmetric powers Λk T X and S T X and for the tangent bundle T X over U .
˚ k ˚

158
Proposition 3.1.41. Consider the grassmannian Grpk, V q of k-dimensional subspaces of a finite dimen-
sional vector space V . Let S be the universal subbundle of k-dimensional subspaces of V and let VGr the
trivial vector bundle VGr :“ Grpk, V q ˆ V over Grpk, V q. Then the tangent bundle to the Grassmannian
Grpk, V q is given by
T Grpk, V q » HompS, VGr {Sq .

Corollary 3.1.42. Considert the Hopf line bundle H “ OPpV q p´1q over PpV q and the trivial vector bundle
VPpV q of fiber V over PpV q. Then the tangent bundle T PpV q to the projective space is isomorphic to

T PpV q » HompH, VPpV q {Hq

Corollary 3.1.43 (Euler Exact Sequence). Over PpV q we have the exact sequence of vector bundles

0 - kPpV q - VPpV q b H ˚ - T PpV q - 0.

Proof. Consider the exact sequence of vector bundles over PpV q:

i q
0 - H - VPpV q - VPpV q {H - 0.

By tensorization with H ˚ the sequence remains exact:

ibid qbid
- H b H˚ H˚ - VPpV q b H ˚ H˚
- H ˚ b VPpV q {H
0 - 0.

Now, since H is a line bundle, H bH ˚ is the trivial line bundle: H bH ˚ » kPpV q , while H ˚ bH ˚ bVPpV q {H »
HompH, VPpV q {Hq » T PpV q .

Corollary 3.1.44 (Euler Exact Sequence for the Cotangent Bundle). Over PpV q we have the exact sequence
of vector bundles
0 - T ˚ PpV q - V˚ bH - kPpV q - 0.
PpV q

Proof. It results immediately by the dualization of the Euler Exact Sequence for the Tangent Bundle.

Corollary 3.1.45. The canonical line bundle KPpV q of the projective space is given by

KPpV q » H bn`1 .

Proof. We have that, by the Euler Sequence for the Cotangent Bundle that
˚
KPpV q b det kPpV q » det VPpV qbH .

But now the determinant of a line bundle is the line bundle itself, hence

KPpV q b det kPpV q » KPpV q b kPpV q » KPpV q

because any vector bundle times the trivial line bundle is isomorphic to the same vector bundle. On the
right hand side:
˚ ˚ bn`1
det VPpV q b H » det VPpV q b pdet Hq .
˚ n`1 ˚
Now VPpV q » kPpV q , hence det VPpV q is trivial and det H » H. Hence

KPpV q » H bn`1 .

159
3.1.7 Algebraic Principal G-bundles
Definition 3.1.46. A group G, with operation µ : G ˆ G - G is said to be an algebraic group if G has
the structure of algebraic variety such that µ : G ˆ G - G and the inverse pq´1 : G - G, sending
g - g ´1 are morphisms of algebraic varieties. An algebraic group is said affine if the algebraic variety G
is affine.

Example 3.1.47. The first and more important example of affine algebraic group is that of GLk pnq. Indeed,
take Mnˆn pkq the set of matrices nˆn with values in k. It is isomorphic, as an algebraic variety, to the affine
2
space Ank , with coordinates the entries aij . Then GLk pnq corresponds to the principal affine open subset
pMnˆn pkqqdet , where det : Mnˆn pkq - k is the regular function associating to a matrix its determinant.
det is an homogeneous polynomial of degree n in the entries aij . Moreover, both the multiplication
µ : GLk pnq ˆ GLk pnq - GLk pnq
pA, Bq - AB

and the inversion

G - G
A - A´1
are morphisms (the entries of the image are given by regular functions in the aij ).

Example 3.1.48. The special linear group SLk pnq is an affine algebraic group.

Exercise 149. Any finite subgroup of the general linear group is an affine algebraic group.

Proposition 3.1.49. Any finite group is an affine algebraic group.

Proof. By Cayley’s theorem, any group can be embedded in the symmetric group Sn , for sufficiently high
n. But Sn is a subgroup of GLk pnq. Hence any finite group is a subgroup of GLk pnq for sufficiently big n.
Then, by the previous exercise, it is an algebraic group.

Definition 3.1.50. Let X be an algebraic variety and G an algebraic group. An algebraic action of G over
X on the right is an action
λ:X ˆG - X

on the right such that λ is also a morphism of algebraic varieties. Suppose now G acts algebraically on the
right over the variety X. A morphism : X - Y is G-invariant if f px.gq “ f pxq for each x P X, g P G.

Definition 3.1.51. Let X be an algebraic variety and G an algebraic group. A surjective morphism
π : P - X of algebraic varieties is a principal G-fibration if there is an algebraic G-action over P on
the right such that f is G-invariant. If π : P - X and π 1 : P 1 - X are two principal G-fibrations,
a morphism of G-fibrations is a morphism of algebraic varieties f : P - P 1 such that π 1 ˝ f “ π. A
G-fibration if called trivial if it is isomorphic, as G-fibration to the G-fibration π : X ˆ G - X, where
the action is given by px, hqg “ px, hgq.

Definition 3.1.52. Let X be an algebraic variety and G an affine algebraic group. A principal G-bundle
over X in the Zariski topology, is a G-fibration p : P - X such that for each x P X, there exists an open
ˇ
set U of X containing x, such that pˇp´1 pU q : p´1 pU q - U is isomorphic, as G-fibration to the trivial
fibration U ˆ G.

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 The proof of the following proposition is very similar to their vector bundle equivalent.

Theorem 3.1.53. Let X be an algebraic variety and G be an affine algebraic group. The data of a principal
bundle p : P - X over X of structural group G is equivalent to the data of an (finite) open cover pUi qiPI
of X and of morphisms of algebraic varieties gij : Uij :“ Ui X Uj - G for all i, j P I, such that the
following cocycle conditions are satisfied:
• gi,i “ idG for any i P I;
• gi,k “ gi,j gj,k over Ui X Uj X Uk

Proof. The proof is exactly the same as that of vector bundles 3.1.14. Following that proof, one gets to
transition functions
gi,j : Ui X Uj - IsoG pGq

where IsoG pGq are isomorphisms of G over G as an algebraic variety, equivariant with respect to the right
G-action: that is:

IsoG pGq “ tβ : G - G | β automorphism of G and βphgq “ βphqgu .

But now it is immediate to see that if β P IsoG pGq then β is determined by its value at βpeG q. Hence we
have the bijection
IsoG pGq » G .

Lemma 3.1.54. Let X be an algebraic variety. Let G be an affine algebraic group. Let P be a set equipped
with a right action of G, together with a G-invariant function of sets p : P - X. Suppose that there exists
an open cover pUi qiPI and bijections of G-sets on the right

ϕi : PUi :“ p´1 pUi q - Ui ˆ G

such that
ϕ´1
j ˝ ϕi : pUi X Uj q ˆ G
- pUi X Uj q ˆ G

sends
px, gq - px, gij pxqgq

where gij are regular functions gij : Ui X Uj - G and gij satisfy the cocycle conditions

• gi,i pxq “ idG

• gi,k “ gi,j gj,k over Ui X Uj X Uk .
Then P has the structure of algebraic variety such that p : P - X is a principal bundle over X with
structural group G with transition functions gi,j : Uij - G relative to the covering pUi qiPI .

Remark 3.1.55. The use of Zariski topology to define algebraic principal G-bundles is, in general, too restric-
tive, but it is still useful for our purposes. We try to explain why. Consider the variety PnC as analytic variety,
that is, as a holomorphic variety. A very important theorem, called Chow’s theorem says that any holomor-
phic subvariety of PnC is actually algebraic. Later, Serre proved the fundamentally important and beautiful
GAGA principal, proving that actually almost any holomorphic object over PnC is actually algebraic. To

161
make it more precise, he proves that any analytical coherent sheaf over Pn C is the natural ”analytification”
(tensorization with the sheaf of holomorphic functions) of an algebraic coherent sheaf over PnC . In particular,
any holomorphic vector bundle over PnC is algebraic. Out of these beautiful correspondence among holomor-
phic and algebraic objects there is an important exception: principal bundles. The following is an example of
a principal Z2 -bundle (that is, a 2 : 1 covering) which is obviously locally trivial in the holomorphic category,
but it is not locally trivial (and hence not a principal bundle) in the Zariski topology. Take the parabole
P “ y 2 “ xz in P2 and consider the projection p : P
C
- P1 from the point r0, 1, 0s. In coordinates, it
sends rx, y, zs to rx, zs. Restrict p to P ztOu, where O “ r0, 0, 1s. Consider p1 : P ztOu - P1 ztr0, 1su. It
is easy to see that p1 is an étale morphism, and holomorphically an unramified 2 : 1-covering. Hence it is
locally trivial in the standard topology. Prove that it is NOT locally trivial in the Zariski topology. Hence
there are more holomorphic principal bundles than algebraic ones. If the reader thinks this is a problem
because the group Z2 is finite, this is not true: one can find (more difficult) examples with infinite structural
groups G. This is why, in general, one considers other more refined (and difficult) topologies when dealing
4
with principal bundles over an algebraic varieties, such as étale topology, fppf topology, fpqc topology, etc.

Vector bundles associated to a representation

One of the main uses of principal G-bundles is that, with them, we can very clearly form new vector bundles.

Proposition 3.1.56. Let q : P - X be a principal G-bundle over the algebraic variety X. Let ρ :
G - GLk pV q, an algebraic representation in a fixed finite dimensional vector space V over the field k.
Consider the set
Eρ :“ P ˆρ V :“ P ˆ V {G

where G acts on P ˆ V on the left by g.pp, vq “ ppg ´1 , ρpgqvq. Then Eρ has the struture of vector bundle of
rank dim V over X. Moreover, if gi,j : Ui XUj - G are the transition functions for the principal G-bundle
P , relative to trivializations over the open cover pUi qiPI , then Eρ trivializes on each of the open sets Ui and
ρ ˝ gi,j : Ui X Uj - G ρ- GLk pV q are the transition functions for the vector bundle E relative to the
covering pUi qiPI .

Proof. First of all, the map π : Eρ - X sending rp, vs P P ˆρ V to ϕppq P X is a set-theoretic vector
fibration with fiber V . Indeed π ´1 pxq “ trp, vs | p P P, v P V | ϕppq “ xu. Fix a p0 P P such that ϕpp0 q “ x.
Consider the map θp : V Q v - P π ´1 pxq. It is injective, since rp0 , vs “ rp0 , ws implies that there exists
0

g P G such that p0 “ p0 g ´1 and w “ gv. But the action of G over P is necessarily free, hence the relation
p0 “ p0 g ´1 implies that g “ id. Hence v “ w. It also surjective, since, taken any rq, ws P π ´1 pxq, we know
that ϕpqq “ x; we also know that the G-action is transitive on the fibers of ϕ, and since ϕpp0 q “ ϕpqq, it
exists g P G such that q “ p0 g ´1 . Hence rq, ws “ rqg, ρpg ´1 qpwqs “ rp0 , ρpg ´1 qpwqs.
We just need to find vector bundle charts for Eρ , as in proposition ??. Let pUi qiPI a covering of X over
ˇ
which P trivializes with trivializations ψi : P ˇUi - Ui ˆ G, given by ψppq “ pϕppq, ψpi ppqq. Hence we get
trivializations
ˇ
Eρ ˇUi » pUi ˆ Gq ˆρ V

sending prp, vsq - rϕppq, ψpi ppq, vs “ pϕppq, rψpi ppq, vsq, where G operates on GˆV as gph, vq “ phg ´1 , ρpgqvq.
It is now immediate to prove that Ui ˆ V - pUi ˆ Gq ˆρ V sending pu, vq - rpu, e, vqs “ pu, re, vsq is a
4 fidelement plat de presentation finie

162
bijection. Using the fact that ψpj ˝ ψpi´1 ppq “ gij pϕppqq for transition functions gij : Ui X Uj - G, we get
that Eρ has transition functions ρ ˝ gij : Ui,j - GLk pV q.

Proposition 3.1.57. Let q : P - X be a principal G-bundle, and ρ : G - GLk pV q an algebraic

representation5 of G in a vector space V . Consider the associated vector bundle Eρ :“ P ˆρ V over X. Then
q ˚ Eρ is the trivial vector bundle over P with fiber V and the map q ˚ Eρ » P ˆ V - Eρ is surjective,
G-invariant and allows to identify-set theoretically - Eρ as the quotient of the trivial bundle q ˚ Eρ by G.
Moreover, regular sections of Eρ over X identifies to G-equivariant morphism f : P - V:

˚
ΓpX, Eρ q »ϕ HomG
alg´var pP, V q “ tf P Homalg´var pP, V q | f pxgq “ ρpg
´1
qf pxq @x P X, g P Gu .

Proof. We prove first that the vector bundle ϕ˚ Eρ is trivial over P . Consider the surjective set-theoretic
map
h:P ˆV - E ρ “ P ˆρ V

sending pp, vq - : it is a set-theoretic map of fibrations over ϕ : P - X. Indeed, if π : Eρ - X is the

projection of Eρ onto X, then πphpp, vqq “ πprp, vsq “ ϕppq “ ϕpqppp, vqq, and hence ϕ ˝ q “ h ˝ π. Moreover,
restricted to each fiber, h is a linear map of vector spaces, as it can be readily checked (the structure of
vector space over q ´1 ppq “ tpu ˆ V is clear, while, over π ´1 pxq “ trp, vs | ϕppq “ x, v P V u is given by
αrp, vs ` βrp, ws “ rp, αv ` βws. ). So it is a set-theoretic map of vector fibrations over ϕ. We just need to
show that it is a morphism of algebraic varieties. Consider trivializations Ψi : PUi - Ui ˆ G, given by
Ψi ppq “ pϕppq, ψpi ppqq of P over an opern covering pUi qiPI . These trivializations induce trivializations of Eρ :
ˇ
Φi : Eρ ˇUi - Ui ˆ V

given by Φprp, vsq “ pϕppq, ρpψpi pgqvq. Then the map Ψ´1
i ˝ h ˝ Φi is given by px, g, vq
- px, ρpgqvq and
it is immediate to prove that this map is regular. Hence h is regular. So h is a map of vector bundles over
ϕ:P - X. Over each fiber q ´1 ppq h is given by V Q v - pp, vq - but this is exactly θp , which we
defined in the proof of the previous proposition, and we saw it was an isomorphism of vector spaces. Hence
h defines an isomorphism of vector spaces over P :

h:P ˆV - ϕ˚ Eρ .

We note that the map h : P ˆ V - Eρ is G-invariant for the G action g.pp, vq “ ppg ´1 , ρpgqvq, since
it is set-theoretically the quotient map of P ˆ V by G.
˚
We now prove that ΓpX, Eρ q »ϕ HomG
alg´var pP, V q. The pull-back of a section s P ΓpX, Eρ q gives a
section ϕ˚ s P Homvb pP, P ˆ V q as we saw in ??. Such a section is determined by a morphism of algebraic
varieties f : P - V . But G act on P and on P ˆ V . Hence the section ϕ˚ s has to commute with these
actions6 . But this means that if pϕ˚ sqppq “ pp, f ppqpvqq, then (prove it!) pϕ˚ sqppg ´1 q “ g.ϕ˚ sppq, and hence

ppg ´1 , f ppg ´1 qq “ g.pp, f ppqq “ ppg ´1 , ρpgqf ppqq

which implies that

f ppg ´1 q “ ρpgqf ppq
5 We mean that ρ is a morphism of algebraic varieties
6 prove it with the definition of ϕ˚ s

163
and hence f is an equivariant morphism f : P - V . So we proved that ϕ˚ defines an (injective) map

ϕ˚ : ΓpX, Eρ q - HomG
alg´var pP, V q .

On the other hand, start with an G-equivariant morphism of algebraic variety f : P - V . Here
equivariant means f ppg ´1 q “ ρpgqpf ppqq. We can associate to it a set-theoretic section of Eρ setting

spxq “ rp, f ppqs

if p P ϕ´1 pxq. One can easily see that spxq does not depend on the p chosen in the fiber: hence it well defines
a set-theoretic section s : X - Eρ . To see that this section is regular, take a trivialization of P over an
open set U :
ˇ „
P ˇU - U ˆG

sending p to pϕppq, ηppqq. Then f corresponds to an equivariant map f : U ˆ G - V . We saw that the
ˇ
trivialization induces a trivialization of Eρ sending Eρ ˇU » U ˆ V via rp, vs - pϕppq, ρpηppqqvq. Now
the section s, in this trivialization, is given by spxq “ px, ρpgqf px, gqq, for any g P G, and that this does
not depend on the chosen g in the fiber U ˆ G - U over x. Hence we can choose g “ e: hence, in the
trivialization, spxq “ px, f px, eqq and that’s regular. We leave to the reader to prove that ϕ˚ s is associated
to the map f .

We now introduce the principal bundle of frames of a vector bundle.

Proposition 3.1.58 (Principal Bundle of Frames of a Vector Bundle). Let p : E - X a vector bundle of
r
rank r over an algebraic variety X. Consider the set R “ tpx, ϕq |x P X, ϕ P Isok pk , Ex qu, where we denoted
with Isok pk r , Ex q the set of invertible linear maps from k r to Ex . Then R has the structure of algebraic
variety and the projection
π:R - X

sending px, ϕq to x equips R with the structure of principal GLk prq-bundle over X. If pUi qiPI is an open
cover of X such that E trivializes over each Ui , and gij : Ui X Uj - GLk prq are transition functions of
the vector bundle E over the covering pUi qiPI , gi,j are also the transition functions for the GLk prq-principal
bundle R.

Proof. It is clear that the map R is equipped with a natural free action (on the right) of GLk prq and that the
projection q : R - X sending px, ϕq to x is a GLk prq-equivariant. Let pUi qiPI be an open cover of X where
ˇ ˇ
E trivializes with trivializations Φi : E ˇUi » Ui ˆk r . Then ψx : Φi ˇEx : Ex - k r is an isomorphism for any
ˇ
x P U . Hence over U we have isomorphisms Rˇ “ q ´1 pUi q » Ui ˆ GLk prq given by px, ϕq - px, ψx ˝ ϕq.
Ui
It now clear that the transition functions satisfy the cocycle conditions. This guarantees that R has the
structure of principal GLk pnq-bundle with transition functions equal to the transition functions of E.

Thanks to the previous theorem and the concept of vector bundle associated to a representation, we can
recover all the bundles of page ?? from a vector bundle E.

Proposition 3.1.59. Let p : E - X a vector bundle of rank r over an algebraic variety X and let
π : R - X be the GLk prq-principal bundle of frames over E. Then associated vector bundle Eρ is
t
• The dual vector bundle E ˚ if ρ is the representation ρ : GLk pnq - k ˚ “ GLk prq given by g - g ´1 ;

164
 • The exterior power Λi E if ρ is the representation ρ : GLk pnq - GLk pΛi k r q given by g - Λi g;

• The symmetric power S j E if ρ is the representation ρ : GLk pnq - GLk pS j k r q given by g - S j g;

• The tensor power E bm if ρ is the representation ρ : GLk pnq - GLk ppk r qbm q given by g - gbm .

Proposition 3.1.60. Let p : L - X a line bundle over an algebraic variety X. The k ˚ -principal bundle
R of frames of L over X is given by
R “ Lzt0u ,

that is, by the total space of L minus the zero section.

Proof. We have that

Rx “ Isok pk, Lx q .

Now giving a k-linear isomorphism ϕ : k - Lx between k and Lx corresponds to fixing the image of ϕp1q
in Lx ; since we are talking about isomorphisms, ϕp1q P L˚x . Hence we have a map

R - Lzt0u

given by px, ϕq - px, ϕp1qq. Using local trivializations of R and L, one sees that this map is a morphism
of algebraic varieties and that it is an isomorphism.

Proposition 3.1.61. The bundle of frames q : R - Pn of the Hopf bundle over the projective space Pn
k k
identifies to the quotient projection
π : An`1
k zt0u - Pnk .

Proof. By the preceding proposition, we just have to prove that the total space of the Hopf bundle minus the
zero section is isomorphic to An`1 zt0u over the projective space Pnk . But H is the subbundle of the trivial
bundle kPn`1
n over the projective space Pnk : hence we have a closed immersion
k

ι
H Ă - Pnk ˆ k n`1 .

Consider ψ “ π2 ˝ ι : H - k n`1 » An`1 . The map ψ is a morphism of algebraic varieties, and ψ sends
k
px, 0q P Hx in 0 P k n`1 . Hence the restriction

ψ : Hzt0u - An`1 zt0u

sends px, vq - v. This map is invertible, since z P An`1 zt0u is sent to pxzy, zq P Hz zt0u. The reader
can easily show that the inverse is a morphism of algebraic varieties. We just need to show that ψ is an
isomorphism over Pnk , that is
π˝ψ “p.

But
π ˝ ψpx, vq “ πpvq “ xvy “ x “ ppxq .

Exercise 150. Prove that, if n ě 2, then

OAnk pAn zt0uq » OAnk pAnk q “ krx1 , . . . , xn s .

Hint: it is sufficient to prove the case n “ 2. Use that x and y are coprime in krx, ys.

165
 We can now use the preceding facts to find out all the sections of H bm and pH ˚ qbn for each m, n P N.

Theorem 3.1.62. Let V be a vector space of dimension dim V ě 2. Consider the Hopf line bundle H over
Pnk . Then

ΓpPpV q, H bm q “ 0 if m ą 0 (3.1)
˚ b` ` ˚
ΓpPpV q, pH q q » S V if ` ě 0 (3.2)

As a consequence

ΓpPnk , H bm q “ 0 if m ą 0 (3.3)
ΓpPnk , pH ˚ qb` q » krx0 , . . . , xn s` if ` ě 0 (3.4)

Proof. The principal k ˚ -bundle R of frames over H coincides with the quotient projection π : An`1
k zt0u - Pnk .
The line bundle H b` and pH ˚ qb` are associated to the representation ρ` : GLk p1q - GLk p1q given by
˚ ˚ `
ρ` : k - k given by λ - λ for λ ă 0 in the first case and for ` ě 0 in the second case. Hence, by
proposition ??, we have that ΓpPpV q, H b` q and ΓpPpV q, H b` q identifies to the k ˚ -equivariant functions

f : V zt0u - k

such that
f pλxq “ λ` f pxq

for ` ă 0 in the first case and for ` ě 0 in the second case. Now, if f is such a regular function over V zt0,
it extends to a regular function on the whole V by the previous exercise. So, we can identify ΓpPpV q, H b` q
or ΓpPpV q, pH ˚ qb` q with functions f : V - k such that f is homogeneous of degree ´`, for ` ą 0 in the
first case and for ` ă 0 in the second case. But in the first case, we have f “ 0 and in the second case on
gets that f is a polynomial over V of degree ` and hence an element of S ` V ˚ .

3.1.8 Transverse sections

Remark 3.1.63. Let p : E - X a vector bundle over an algebraic variety X. Let s : X - E be a
section of E. Then
V psq “ tx P X | spxq “ 0u

is a closed algebraic subset of X in the Zariski topology. Therefore, V psq acquires the structure of (reduced)
algebraic variety. To understand the local equations of V psq, consider a point x P X, and an affine open
ˇ
subset U of X over which E trivializes as ϕ : E ˇU - U ˆ k r . Call ei pxq “ ϕ´1 px, ei q. The sections ei pxq
form what we call a local frame for E over U . Therefore, the section s can be written, over U , as
ÿ
spxq “ αi pxqei pxq
i

where αi P OX pU q are regular functions over U . Then

• the variety V psq is given by7 the ideal pα1 , . . . αr q over U ;
7 This
means that V psq “ tx P X | αi pxq “ 0 @iu. This does not mean that the ideal pα1 , . . . , αr q is reduced. Therefore
a
IpV psqq “ pα1 , . . . , αr q. However, if we want the variety W psq with its possibly non-reduced structure, we will consider the
ˇ
scheme W psq given locally by W psqˇU “ Specmax pOX pU q{pα1 , . . . , αr qq.

166
 • the ideal pα1 , . . . , αr q does not depend on the chosen local frame e1 , . . . , er or the trivialization ϕ :
ˇ
E ˇU - U ˆ kr .

In what follows we will give a criterion in order to say that W psq is a smooth variety if X is smooth.
As it is known in differential geometry, one can differentiate functions, or sections of a trivial vector
bundles. However, it is not possible to differentiate sections of a vector bundle, if we lack the concept of
connection. It is the concept of connection which replaces the concept of differential for vector bundles.
One might put several different connections on a vector bundles. However, all these, a priori different,
connections, coincide when computed over a point in which the section vanishes. Here, without the help of
the concept of connection, we define the intrinsic differential for a section of a vecto bundle in a point where
the section vanishes.

Definition 3.1.64. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over an algebraic variety X. Consider a section
s:U - E over an open set U of X containing a point x, and suppose that spxq “ 0. The differential of
s in the point x is given by the map
dx s : Tx X - Ex

given by8
r
ÿ
dx s : pdx αi q b ei ,
i“1

αi ei around9 x.
ř
where ei is a local frame for E around x and s “ i

Remark 3.1.65. It might seem strange that we are defining an intrinsic differential, by using extrinsic
expressions. So we have to prove that the differential dx s does not depend on the trivialization and the
ˇ
local expression. Take another affine open subset W of U containing x such that E ˇW trivializes via the
ˇ
trivializations ψ : E ˇW - W ˆ k r and let f1 , . . . , fr the local frarme fi pxq “ ψ ´1 px, ei q. Then, over
ř ˇ ř ř
V X W , we have that ej “ gij fi and that sˇ
i “ βi fi , with βi “
V XW i gij αj . Hence i
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ
dx pβi q “ dx p gij αj q “ dx gij αj pxq ` gij pxqdx αj “ gij dx αj
j j j j

since αj pxq “ 0. Hence

ÿ ÿÿ ÿ
dx pβi q b fi “ gij dx αj b fi “ dx αj b ej .
i i j j

Remark 3.1.66. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over a algebraic variety X. Consider a section
s:U - E over an open set U of X. Consider the variety Y “ V psq. The differential dx s is just defined
for x P V psq and it does not make sense at any other point z P U zV psq.
Remark 3.1.67. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over a smooth algebraic variety X. Consider a section
s:U - E over an open set U of X. Consider the variety Y “ V psq. The differential of the section s
defines a vector bundle map:
ˇ ˇ
ds : T X ˇY - Eˇ .
Y
8 Note that dx αi P Tx˚ X; hence dx s lives naturally in Tx˚ X b Ex » Homk pTx X, Ex q.
9 This means that, over an affine open subset V of U containing x, E trivializes and admits a local frame ei , for which s
ř
admits the expression s “ i αi ei over V

167
Definition 3.1.68. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over a smooth algebraic variety X. Consider a
section s : U - E over an open set U of X. We say that the section s is transverse to the zero section
if dx s : Tx X - Ex is surjective for all x P Y “ V psq, or, equivalently, if the morphism of vector bundles
ˇ ˇ
ds : T X ˇY - E ˇ is surjective.
Y

Proposition 3.1.69. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over a smooth algebraic variety X of rank r. Let
s:X - E be a section of the vector bundle E. The following conditions are equivalent:

• The section s is transverse to the zero section;

• the possibly non-reduced variety W psq is smooth of dimension dim X ´ r.

Proof. Remark first of all that, as topological subspaces of X, V psq “ W psq. Choose a local frame for E
around a fixed point x0 P Y ; let U an affine open subset of X containing x0 over which E trivializes with
ˇ
Φ : E ˇU - U ˆ k r and let e1 , . . . , er be a local frame for E over U . Write s over U as s “ ř fi ei , with
i
fi P OX pU q. Then W psq X U “ W pf1 , . . . , fr q. For any x P W psq X U , the tangent space Tx W psq is given
exactly by the kernel of the map
Tx X - kr

given by dx f “ pdx f1 , . . . , dx fr q. It is now easy to prove that this map is exactly the fiber over x of the
vector bundle map ˇ
Φˇ
ˇ ds ˇ pY XU q
T Xˇ - Eˇ - pY X U q ˆ k r
Y XU Y XU

and hence dx f is surjective if and only if dx s is surjective. So if s is transverse to the zero section dx s is
surjective for any x P Y XU , and this means that dx f is surjective for any x P Y XU , and W psqXU is smooth
of dimension dim X ´ r. Since x0 , and U is arbitrary, we deduce that Y “ W psq is smooth of dimension
dim X ´ r. On the other hand if W psq is smooth of dimension dim X ´ r, then W psq X U is smooth of
dimension dim X ´ r, and hence ker dx f is of rank dim X ´ r for any x P W psq X U . But this means that dx f
has to be surjective for any x P Y X U , and hence that dx s has to be surjective for any x P Y X U . Given
the fact that x0 and U are arbitrary, we deduce that dx s is surjective for any x P W psq and hence that the
section s is transverse to the zero section.
Remark 3.1.70. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over a smooth algebraic variety X of rank r. Let
s:X - E be a section of the vector bundle E, transverse to the zero section. Hence Y “ W psq “ V psq
is reduced and smooth of dimension dim X ´ r and the tangent bundle of Y is given by the kernel of the
surjective vector bundle map
ˇ ds ˇ
T X ˇY - Eˇ .
Y
ˇ
As a consequence the normal bundle of Y in X is given by NY {X » E ˇY .

Exercise 151. Denote the tensor power H b` of the Hopf line bundle with OPnk p´`q, for ` ą 0 and pH ˚ qbr
as OPnk prq for r ą 0. Over the open set Uxi given by homogeneous coordinates rx0 , . . . , xi , . . . , xn s such that
xi ‰ 0 the Hopf bundle H has a section ei iven by ei “ prxs, x{xi q. The section ei induces, over Uxi a section
εi “ ebm
i of OPkn pmq for any m ‰ 0.
• Verify that the transition functions of OPkn pmq with respect to the covering pUxi qi“0,...,n are given by
ˆ ˙m
xi
gi,j prxsq “ .
xj

168
 • Let P be a homogeneous polynomial of degree m. Show that the section si of OPnk pmq over Uxi , defined
by
P
si “ εi
xm
i

is the restriction of a global section of OPnk pmq.

Theorem 3.1.71 (Adjunction Formula). Let p : E - X be a vector bundle over a smooth algebraic
variety X of rank r. Let Y be a closed subvariety of X obtained as the set of zeros V psq of a section s of E
transverse to the zero section. Then
ˇ
KY » KX b detpEqˇY .

Corollary 3.1.72 (Adjunction Formula, line bundles version). Let p : L - X be a line bundle over a
smooth algebraic variety X of rank r. Let Y be a closed subvariety of X obtained as the set of zeros V psq of
a section s of L transverse to the zero section. Then
ˇ
KY » pKX b LqˇY .

Exercise 152 (Adjunction Formula for Projective Hypersurfaces). Let f be a polynomial of degree d over the
vector space V (one can see it intrinsically as an element of S d V ˚ , or, extrinsecally, after putting coordinates
x0 , . . . , xn over V , as an element of krx0 , . . . , xn s.). Consider the section sf of OPpV q pdq associated to f .
Prove that sf is transverse to the zero section if and only if dx f is surjective in any point of V pf qzt0u. In
this case prove that, if Y “ Vpsq, then Y is smooth of dimension n ´ 1 in PpV q and
ˇ
KY » OPpV q pd ´ n ´ 1qˇY .

Exercise 153 (Canonical Line Bundle of Smooth Complete Intersections in Pnk ). Consider f1 , . . . , fr ho-
mogeneous polynomials in krx0 , . . . , xn s of degree d1 , . . . , dr . Suppose that dx f1 , . . . , dx fr are independent
at any point x P V pf1 , . . . , fr qzt0u. Prove that Y “ Vpf1 , . . . , fr q is a smooth subvariety of Pnk of dimen-
sion n ´ r. Compute the canonical KY . Hint: see f “ pf1 , . . . , fr q as a section of the vector bundle
E “ OPnk pd1 q ‘ ¨ ¨ ¨ ‘ OPnk pdr q.

We saw that sections transverse to the zero section are very useful. We now prove that, under mild
hypothesis, thay abound.

Definition 3.1.73. A vector bundle E over an algebraic variety X is said to be globally generated, or
generated by its sections if the morphism of vector bundles
ev
ΓpX, Eq b kX - E

associating s to evpsq “ spxq P Ex is surjective. Equivalently, E is globally generated if for any x P X and
for any v P Ex , there is s P ΓpX, Eq such that spxq “ v.

Exercise 154. Prove that OPpV q pdq is globally generated over PpV q if and only if d ě 0.

Theorem 3.1.74 (Bertini, vector bundle version). Let E - X be a vector bundle over a smooth algebraic
variety over a field of characteristic zero of rank r ď dim X. Suppose that E is globally generated. Then E
admits a section transverse to the zero section.

169
Proof. Since X is smooth, it is a disjoint union of irreducible components. Restricting things to each
component, we can suppose that X is irreducible. Since X is quasi-compact, it is easy find a finite dimensional
vector space W Ď ΓpX, Eq generating E, that is, such that the morphism of vector bundles
ˇ
evW :“ev ˇ
W
W b kX - E

is surjective. Indeed, over a point x0 , it is clear how to find a finite dimensional vector space W0 such that
W0 generates Ex0 . But this means that the morphism of vector bundles
evW0
W0 b k X - E

is surjective at the point x0 : this means that it is surjective over an open subset U0 of x0 . In this way we
can cover X by open subsets pUi qiPI and find finite dimensional vector spaces Wi such that Wi generate
ˇ
E ˇUi . But X is noetherian, and an adequate finite open subcover will do, say Ui1 , . . . , Uit . Then our W is
Wi1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` Wit inside ΓpX, Eq.
Consider now the surjective morphism of vector bundles
evW
W b kX - E.

The kernel of ker evW is exactly the pull-back of the zero section by evW . Since evW is surjective, then
ker evW is a subbunlde of the trivial bundle W b kX of rank dim W ´ r. Set Z the total space of ker evW .
It is a smooth irreducible algebraic variety of dimension dim X ` dim W ´ r. Consider now the projection
p : Z - W sending px, vq - v. It is surely surjective, since any element in W is a section of E and such
a section vanishes on a variety V psq of dimension dim V psq ě dim X ´ r ě 0. The fiber p´1 psq is exactly
W psq (scheme-theoretically). After Bertini’s theorem, there exists an open set V of W such that for each
t P V , p´1 ptq is smooth of dimension dim Z ´ dim W “ dim X ´ r. After the previous proposition, this is
equivalent to the fact that s is transverse to the zero section.

Theorem 3.1.75. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle of rank r over an algebraic variety of dimension
n ă r (over an arbitrary field). We suppose that E is globally generated. Hence there is a section of E which
never vanishes over X.

Proof. Consider, as before the variety Z, total space of the evaluation map evW : W b kX - E, where
W Ď ΓpX, Eq generates E. We still have that dim Z “ dim X ` dim W ´ r. Since dim X ă r, the morphism
p : Z - W is not dominant. Take any s P W zppZq. Then s never vanishes over X.

Corollary 3.1.76. Let p : E - X be a vector bundle of rank r over an algebraic variety of dimension
n ă r (over an arbitrary field). Then E has a trivial subbundle.

Exercise 155. Let p : E - X and q : F - Y two vector bundles over the variety X and Y , respectively.
Consider the two projections πX and πY from X ˆ Y to X andY , respectively. Denote as E b F the vector
bundle over X ˆ Y defined by
˚
E b F :“ πX E b πY˚ F .

Prove that
ΓpX ˆ Y, E b F q » ΓpX, Eq bk ΓpY, F q .

170
3.2 Sheaves
Consider a topological space X and the data of real continuous functions CpU q “ tf : U - Ru over an
open set U of X. For sure, we have restrictions maps

ρU,V : CpU q - CpV q

if V Ď U ; such that ρU,V ˝ ρV,W “ ρU,W . But continuous functions have the important property that they
glue locally to give a function globally; more precisely
ˇ ˇ
• if pUi qiPI is an open cover of U , and we are given fi P CpUi q such that fi ˇU XU “ fj ˇU XU for any i, j,
ˇ i j i j

then there exists a unique function f P CpU q such that f ˇUi “ fi ;

ˇ
• if f P CpU q and f ˇUi “ 0 for all i P I, then f “ 0.
These properties (plus a few obvious other) make the data of CpU q for each open set U of X a sheaf. Apart
from the sheaf of contiuous (or regular) functions, algebraic geometry make use of great amount of different
kind of sheaves. The purpose of this section is to give an introduction to sheaves and to explain their relation
with vector bundles: the two objects are indeed intimately related, both because it is very usefult to talk
about a vector bundle in term of its sections, that is, in term of its sheaf of sections, and because in general,
kernel and images of morphism of vector bundle are better explained in term of sheafs, especially when the
rank of the morphism is not constant. Finally, locally free sheaves of rank 1 are directly linked to divisors,
which is the target of the next chapter.
We begin with the definition of sheaves in abelian groups, but the definition is essentially the same for
sheaves in other structures. The reader will adapt them from case to case.

3.2.1 Presheaves
Definition 3.2.1 (Presheaf). Let X be a topological space. A pre-sheaf F of abelian groups is the data:
• for any open set U of X of an abelian group FpU q, called the group of sections of the presheaf F over
the open set U ;
• for any pair of open sets U, V , with V Ď U , a morphism of abelian groups ρU,V : FpU q - FpV q,
called the restriction morphism.
These data have to satisfy the following conditions:
• FpHq “ t0u;
• if W , V , U are open sets of X, with W Ď V Ď U , then ρV,W ˝ ρU,V “ ρU,W
• for each open set U of X, then ρU,U “ idF pU q .
ˇ
Notation 3.2.2. If s P FpU q, we will denote ρU,V psq also with sˇV .

Example 3.2.3 (Constant pre-sheaf). Let G be any group. Consider X a topological space. Associate
F pU q “ G if U ‰ H and F pHq “ t0u. Then F is a pre-sheaf, called the constant presheaf.

Example 3.2.4. Let G be any group. Consider X a topological space. Associate F pU q “ tf : U - G | f locally constantu.
Then F is a pre-sheaf. It may seem that this definition is very similar to the previous one, but it is funda-
mentally different, as we will see later.

171
Example 3.2.5. Let M be a real or complex manifold. The following are pre-sheaves over M :
• the pre-sheaf C 8 of differentiable functions over M (a pre-sheaf in R-algebras or C-algebras);
• the presheaf ΩpM of p-differential forms over M ;
• the presheaf X of vector fields over M (a presheaf in Lie-algebras).

Definition 3.2.6. Let X be a topological space, and F and G pre-sheaves (of abelian groups, rings, alge-
bras..) over X. A morphism f : F - G of presheaves is the data, for any open set U of X of a morphism
fU : FpU q - GpU q (of abelian groups, rings, algebras..) such that for any U, V open sets, such that
V Ď U , ρU,V fU “ fV ˝ ρU,V .

Definition 3.2.7. Let X be a topological space, and F and G pre-sheaves (of abelian groups, rings, alge-
bras..) over X. A morphism f : F - G of presheaves is an isomorphism if there exists a morphism of
presheaves g : G - F such that g ˝ f “ id and f ˝ g “ id.

Example 3.2.8. Let G be a group. Indicate with F the constant pre-sheaf FpU q “ G, and G the presheaf
GpU q “ locally constant functions with values in G. Then there is a natural morphism of pre-sheaves
F - G. It is not an isomorphism if there are non connected open sets in X.

Definition 3.2.9. Let X be a topological space and F a pre-sheaf in abelian groups over X. A sub-presheaf
S of F is the data, for any open set U of X of a subgroup SpU q of FpU q, such that ρU,V SpU q Ď SpV q, where
ρU,V is the restriction map of the pre-sheaf F. Given a sub-presheaf S of a pre-sheaf F, one can define the
quotient presheaf F{S as
U - F{SpU q :“ FpU q{SpU q ,

for any open set U of X.

Definition 3.2.10. Let X be a topological space. Let f : F - G a morphism of pre-sheaves in abelian

groups (or in some other structure admitting kernels and images). The data of

U - pker f qpU q :“ ker fU

U - pim f qpU q :“ im fU

are presheaves, called, respectively, the kernel and image of the morphism f . The pre-sheaves ker f and im f
are a subpresheaves of the presehaves F and G, respectively. Hence one can define the cokernel pre-sheaf as

coker f pU q “ GpU q{im f pU q .

Of course we have an isomorphism of pre-sheaves

G{ ker f » im f .

3.2.2 Sheaves
In the definition of pre-sheaves we do not require any glueing property. However, this is the fundamental
property that continuous functions, for example, satisfy; without this property, pre-sheaves are pretty useless.

172
Definition 3.2.11 (Sheaf). Let X be a topological space. A presheaf F in abelian groups (or any other
abelian structure) is a sheaf if given an arbitrary open set U and a open cover pUi qiPI of U , the following
two property are satisfied
ˇ
• if f P FpU q such that f ˇUi “ 0 in FpUi q, then f “ 0 in FpU q;
ˇ ˇ
• if fi P FpUi q such that fi ˇUi XUj “ fj ˇUi XUj for any i, j P I, then there exists a (unique) f P FpU q such
ˇ
that f ˇ “ fi .
i

Remark 3.2.12. Let X be a topological space. A presheaf F in abelian groups (or any other abelian structure)
is a sheaf if and only if, given an arbitrary open set U and a open cover pUi qiPI of U , the following sequence
of abelian groups is exact:
α ž β ž
0 - FpU q - FpUi q - FpUi X Uj q
iPI pi,jqPI 2
ˇ ˇ
where αpf q “ pf ˇU qiPI and βpfi q “ pfi ˇU qpi,jqPI 2 .
i i XUj

Example 3.2.13. Let X be a topological space.

• If G is a group, the constant-presheaf G over X is not a sheaf.
• The sheaf U - tf : U - G | f locally constantu is a sheaf, called the constant sheaf with values
in G;
• real/complex continuous functions over X are a sheaf;
• the examples in example 3.2.5 are all sheaves.

Definition 3.2.14. Let X be a topological space. Let F and G sheaves. A morphism of sheaves f : F - G
is a morphism of subjacent presheaves.

Exercise 156. Let X be a topological space. Let f : F - G be a morphism of sheaves. Then ker f is a
sheaf.

Example 3.2.15 (Important Example). Let X be a topological space. Let f : F - G be a morphism

of sheaves. In general im f or coker f (and hence the quotient pre-sheaf) is NOT a sheaf. This is a very
important point and an important source of difficulties. We make three examples.
• Consider the sheaf of holomorphic functions OX over a complex manifold X (it is sufficient to take
˚
X “ Czt0u. Denote with OX the sheaf of nonzero holomorphic functions over X. The exponential map

exp : f - exppf q “ ef

exp
defines a morphism of sheaves OX - O˚ . Then the presheaf im exp is not a sheaf. Indeed, cover
X
X with open sets Ui such that Ui is simply connected (it is sufficient to take Ui biholomorphic to
˚
polidisks). Then any nonzero holomorphic function gi P OX pUi q is the exponential of some function
š ˇ ˇ
fi P OX pUi q. Hence pgi qi P iPI im exppUi q. Suppose that gi U XU “ gj ˇU XU . If im exp were a sheaf,
ˇ
i j i j

then there would exist a function g which is globally the exponential of a function f and such that
ˇ
g ˇ “ gi . Suppose that X is not simply connected (take X “ Czt0u, for example. Then g would have
Ui
a global logarithm f , but this is in general not possible. (For a concrete example, take gi “ z, for all i:
there is no global logarithm of z).

173
 • Consider X “ R2 ztp0, 0qu. The differential d : C 8 - Ω1 2 sending a function to its differential is a
R
morphism of sheaves. However, the presheaf im d “ dC 8 is not a sheaf. Indeed, take the angle form
θ “ pxdy ´ ydxq{px2 ` y 2 q P Ω1 pXq. It is a closed form, hence locally exact. This means that we can
ˇ
cover X with pUi qiPI simply connected (we just need 2 of them) such that θˇUi “ dβi . Now, if all these
dβi would glue in im d, we would have a globally exact form dη such that θ “ dη. But then θ would be
exact. But it is not.
• The two examples above can produce examples of cokernels which are presheaves, but not sheaves.
In the two cases, over simply connected open sets U , coker f is zero. If coker were a sheaf, then it
would follow that coker f is just the sheaf zero. But hence pcoker f qpXq would be zero, and this would
imply that exp or d would be surjective at the level of global sections exp : OX pXq - O˚ pXq, or
X
d : C 8 pXq - Ω1 pXq, but we saw it is not the case.
X

Definition 3.2.16. Let X be a topological space and F be a pre-sheaf over X. The stalk of F over a point
x is the direct limit:
Fx :“ lim
Ñ
FpU q .
xPU

Exercise 157. Let X be a topological space and f : F - G a morphism of pre-sheaves. Then f induces
a morphism
fx : Fx - Gx

of stalks at any point x.

Sheaf associated to a presheaf .

Motivated by the previous example, in case a pre-sheaf F is not a sheaf, we want to associate to it a sheaf
F ` which locally resembles F. First of all, we define the etalé space of a presheaf F.

Definition 3.2.17. Let X be a topological space and F be a pre-sheaf over X. The etalé space EtpFq of F
set
ž
EtpFq “ Fx .
xPX
š
The projection p : EtpFq “ xPX Fx - X is a set-theoretic fibration with fiber Fx over a point x.

Remark 3.2.18. In the hypothesis of the previous definition, if s P FpU q, then s defines a section of the
fibration p, as spxq “ sx P Fx P EtpFq. The sets rs, U s “ tsx | x P U u Ď EtpFq, where s P FpU q behave like
Et
a basis for a topology over EtpFq that makes p : EtpFq - X continuous and the sections s : U - pFq
– for each s P FpU q – local homeomorphisms. Therefore EtpFq acquires the structure of topological space.
Remark 3.2.19. Let f : X - Y be a continuous surjective map of topological spaces. Then the presheaf
over Y given by U - ΣpU q “ ts : U - X | s continous, f ˝ s “ idU u is a sheaf in sets.
Remark 3.2.20. By the preceding remark, if F is a pre-sheaf over a topological space X, then the presheaf
over X given by
U - tσ : U - EtpFq | σ continuous and p ˝ σ “ idX u

is a sheaf over X. Note that the fibers of EtpFq are abelian groups (or any other abelian structure), so that
the sheaf of just defined is a sheaf in abelian groups (or in another abelian structure).

174
Definition 3.2.21. Let F be a pre-sheaf over a topological space X. Denote with F ` the sheaf over X
defined by
F ` pU q “ tσ : U - EtpFq | σ continuous and p ˝ σ “ idX u

that is, the sheaf of continuous sections of its étale space EtpFq. We call F ` the sheaf associated to the
presheaf F.

Remark 3.2.22. Note that s : U - EtpFq is continuous if and only if the following condition holds

˚ for each x P U , there exists an open neighbourhood Vx of x in U and a section t P FpVx q such that
spyq “ ty for any y P Vx .
Remark 3.2.23. Let F be a pre-sheaf over a topological space X and let F ` the sheaf associated to the
pre-sheaf F. Note that we have a natural map of pre-sheaves

j:F - F`

Et
sending j : FpU q - F ` pU q mapping a section s P FpU q to the section jpsq : U - pF̧q defined as
jpsqpxq “ sx .

Proposition 3.2.24. Let X be a topological space. The construction F - F ` is functiorial, in the sense
that
• if f : F - G is a morphism of pre-sheaves, we have an induced natural morphism f ` : F ` - G`
of associated sheaves, such that the diagram

f
F - G

jF jG

f` - `
? ?
F` G
is commutative
• the construction pq` respects compositions of morphisms.

Proof. If s is a section of F ` pU q over U , then s is a continuous section s : U - EtpFq of EtpFq; we can

` ` `
define f psq as f psqpxqfx pspxqq, for each s P U . Of course f psq defines a section of EtpGq: we just have
to prove that f ` psq is continuous. Consider x P U : there exists an open subset Vx and a section t P FpVx q
such that for each y P Vx , we have spyq “ ty . Then, over Vx , we have

f ` psqpyq “ fy pspyqq “ fy ty “ fVx ptqy ,

now fVx ptq P GpVx q; but this means that f ` psq is locally induced by sections of G. Hence f ` psq is continuous
section of EtpGq by the remark ??. The fact that the diagram above commutes is now immediate.
If f : F - G and g : G - H are morphism of pre-sheaves, then it is easy to prove that

pg ˝ f q` “ g ` ˝ f `

hence the compatibility with compositions is readily done.

175
Exercise 158. Let F be a sheaf over a topological space X. Consider an open subset U of X and two
sections s, t P FpU q. Suppose that sx “ tx for each x P U . Prove that s “ t.

Exercise 159. Let F be a sheaf over a topological space X. Then the map jF : F - F ` is an
isomorphism of sheaves.

Theorem 3.2.25. Let X be a topological space, and F be a pre-sheaf over X. Then there exists a sheaf F `
over X, together with a morphism of pre-sheaves j : F - F ` satisfying the following universal property:
for each sheaf G and for any morphism of pre-sheaves f : F - G, there exists a unique morphism of
sheaves fp : F ` - G such that fp ˝ j “ f .

Proof. We will show that the associated sheaf F ` defined above satisfies the universal property. Suppose
that now G is a sheaf and f : F - G is a morphism of pre-sheaves. Then, by the preceding exercise, in
the diagram

jF - `
F F

f f`
?
? jG - `
G G

the morphism jG is an isomorphism of sheaves. Set ιG “ jG´1 and fp “ ιG ˝ f ` . Then by construction

fp˝ jF “ f . To prove that fp is unique, suppose that there exists another f 1 : F ` - G morphism of sheaves
such that f 1 ˝ jF “ f . Take a section s : U - EtpFq, locally, over a covering Ui of U equal to sections
si P FpUi q, that is spyq “ si pyq for each y P Ui . Then, over Ui jG ˝ f 1 psqpyq “ fy psi qy “ pf psi qqy for each
ˇ ˇ
y P Ui . This means that jG ˝ f 1 psq is the unique section of G ` such that jG ˝ f 1 psqˇUi is induced by f ˇUi psi q.
But this section is f ` psq, by construction. Hence jG ˝ f 1 “ f ` and hence f 1 “ fp.
Since the sheaf F ` satisfies the universal property, to prove that it is unique up to isomorphism is done
as with any other universal property object.

Exercise 160. Let F a pre-sheaf over a topological space X. Then, as abelian groups Fx` » Fx . Deduce
that, as topological spaces EtpFq » EtpF ` q and that, as sheaves pF ` q` » F ` .

Remark 3.2.26. From now on, we will never talk about presheaves again and by image, cokernel of a morphism
of sheaves, we will always intend the associated sheaves. Similarly, by quotient of a sheaf by a subsheaf, we
will always intend the associated sheaf of the quotient. For example, if d : ΩpM - Ωp`1 is the exterior
M
differential between sheaves of p and p ` 1-forms on a manifold, by dΩpM we intend the sheaf associated to
the image presheaf. Figure out how the sheaf dΩpM is the sheaf of locally exact p ` 1 forms over M .

Exercise 161. Let f : F - G a morphism of sheaves over a topological space X. Consider the sub
-presheaf of G, given by

HpU q “ tt P GpU q | t is locally the image of a section of Fu .

By t is locally the image of a section of F we mean: for any x P U there exists an open subset Vx of U
ˇ
containing x such that tˇVx “ fVx psq, with s P FpVx q. Prove that H is a subsheaf of G and that im f “ H as
sheaves.

176
Hint: it is natural to give a morphism of pre-sheaves

OX {IY - i˚ IY
ˇ
associating to OX pU q{IY pU q - OY pU X Y qsendingf mod IY pU q - fˇ
Y XU
. Therefore, by the uni-
versal property of the associated sheaf, we get a morphism of sheaves

pOX {IY q` - i˚ OY .

One has just to prove that this morphism of sheaves is an isomorphism.

Proposition 3.2.27. Let f : F - G be a morphism of sheaves over a topological space X. Then f is an

isomorphism if and only if, for each x P X, the map of stalks

fx : Fx - Gx

is an isomorphism.

Proof. The necessity of the condition is clear. Let’s prove the sufficiency. Suppose that fx is an isomorphism
for any x P X. Then the map of sheaves f is injective. Indeed, take s P FpU q such that f psq “ 0. This
means that f psqx “ fx psx q “ 0 for any x P X. But fx is injective, hence sx “ 0. But, by exercise ??, a
section s P FpU q such that sx “ 0 for any x P U is identically zero. Let’s prove the surjectivity. Take a
section t P GpU q. Consider x0 P U . Since fx0 is surjective, we have that tx0 “ fx0 psx0 q. Suppose that the
germ sx0 lives in an open set Wx0 of U containing x0 . The equation tx0 “ fx0 psx0 q. means that there exists
ˇ ˇ
an open set Vx0 in Wx0 containing x0 such that tˇ “ fVx psˇ q. Then t is locally the image of sections
Vx0 0 Vx0
of F, and hence t P im f , by exercise 161.

Definition 3.2.28. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be a closed subset (closed algebraic subvariety) of
X. Denote with IY the presheaf defined as
ˇ
IY pU q “ tf P OX pU q | f ˇY XU “ 0u .

Prove that IY is a sheaf, and a subsheaf of OX .

Example 3.2.29. Let f : X - Y a continuous map of topological space. Let F be a sheaf over X. Then
the presheaf f˚ F, defined as
pf˚ FqpU q :“ Fpf ´1 pU qq

is a sheaf over Y , called the direct image of F by f .

Exercise 162.

Exercise 163. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be a closed subset (closed algebraic subvariety) of X.
Denote with IY the sheaf of ideals of regular functions vanishing on Y (see above). Let OY the sheaf on Y
of regular function on Y . Let i : Y Ă - X the inclusion. Prove that we have the isomorphism of sheaves
over X:
i˚ OY » OX {IY .

177
Exercise 164. Let f : F - G be a morphism of sheaves. Prove that we have an isomorphism of sheaves

F{ ker f » im f .

Exercise 165. Let F, G be sheaves of abelian groups over a topological space X. Then the set of morphism
of sheaves HompF, G is naturally an abelian group. Let now f : F - G be a morphism of sheaves and let
coker f be the cokernel sheaf. Take another sheaf H. Prove that there is an exact sequence of abelian groups

0 - Hompcoker f, Hq - HompG, Hq - HompF, Hq .

This means that a morphism G - H factors through a unique morphism coker f - H if and only if
the composition F - G - H is zero.
f g
Definition 3.2.30. A sequence F - G - H of morphism of sheaves is the data of morphism of sheaves
f :F - G and G g- H such that g ˝ f “ 0. It is said to be exact at G if ker g “ f as sheaves. A
sequence of sheaves
f g
0 - F - G - H - 0

is said to be a short exact sequence if the sequences

0 - F - G is exact at F
f g
F - G - H is exact at G
g
G - H - 0 is exact at H

or, equivalently, if
• ker f “ im g;
• f is injective, g surjective

Definition 3.2.31. Let F be a sheaf in abelian groups over the topological space X. We define SupppFq “
tx P X | Fx ‰ 0u.

Exercise 166. Let X be an algebraic variety and Y be a closed subset of X. Let IY be the ideal sheaf of
Y . Let i : Y Ă - X be the inclusion. Prove that one has the exact sequence of sheaves over X:

0 - IY - OX - i˚ OY - 0

where OY is the sheaf of regular functions over the (reduced) algebraic variety Y .

3.2.3 Reconstruction/Definition of a sheaf using a base for the topology

Recall that a family B of subset of a set X is called a basis for a topology on X if
• YAPB A “ X;
• For any A1 , A2 P B and for any x P A1 X A2 , there exists A3 P B such that x P A3 Ď A1 X A2 .

178
Remark 3.2.32. Let X be a topological space and F be a sheaf over X. Let B a basis of the topology in
X. Set Bx “ tA P B | x P Au. Then, by the appendix, since Bx is a cofinal subset of the set of open sets
containing x, we have
lim F pU q » Fx .
ÝÑ
U PBx

So one can define the stalk Fx of the sheaf F at a point x, and hence the étale space EtpF q, only in term
of the base B. There’s more: even the topology on EtpF q can be given in term of the base. Indeed, taken
U P B, and s P F pU q, the sets rs, U s “ tsx | x P U u form a basis for the topology in EtpF q, which coincides
with that we defined earlier. Hence, even the associated sheaf to a pre-sheaf can be done only in term of
the base B. Of course, in all the proofs, we need compatibility with restrictions, that is, we need, that, if
U, V P B, we have restrictions
ρU,V : F pU q - F pV q

such that, if U, V, W P B, such that W Ď V Ď U , then

ρV,W ˝ ρU,V “ ρU,W .

Remark 3.2.33. Another way to see that the base of the topology B, and the data F pU q, U P B determine
in a unique way the sheaf F is the following exercise. Prove that if F is a sheaf over the topological space
X, and if B is a basis for the topology of X, then for any V open set in X, we have

F pV q » lim
ÐÝ
F pU q .
U PB ,U ĎV

To see that there is a map

F pV q - » lim
ÐÝ
F pU q
U PB ,U ĎV

one has just to see that the restrictions

ρV,U : F pV q - F pU q

define, when U varies in B, with U Ď V , a morphism from F pV q to the inverse system pF pU q, U P B , U Ď V q.

Hence, by universal properties of the inverse limit, we get the arrow.

Theorem 3.2.34. Let X be a topological space and B be base for the topology in X. In order to give a
sheaf of abelian groups (or any other abelian structure) over X, it is sufficient to give the data F pU q, U P B,
together with restrictions
ρU,V : F pU q - F pV q

if U, V P B, V Ď U , satisfying
ρV,W ˝ ρU,V “ ρU,W

if if U, V, W P B, such that W Ď V Ď U , and such that ρU,U “ idF pU q ; we need moreover that the glueing
conditions work on the open set of the base, that is, suppose that V P B, and Ui P B, Ui Ď V , Yi Ui “ V :
then
ˇ
• if and if s P F pV q such that sˇUi “ 0 for any i P I, then s “ 0in F pV q;
ˇ ˇ
• given si P F pUi q for any i P I, such that, for any W P B, W Ď Ui X Uj , we have si ˇW “ sj ˇW , then
ˇ
there exists s P F pV q such that sˇ “ si .
Ui

179
Proof. Sketch of the proof. Define, for any open set U of X, F pU q as the set of sections10 s : U - š
xPU Fx
such that for any x P U there exists an element Vx P B such that x P Vx and such Vx Ď U such that there
exists t P F pVx q such that for any y P Vx , we have that spyq “ ty . This (long) condition means exactly that
the section s : U - EtpF q is continuous (we saw that the topology in EtpF q can just be given in terms of
the basis of the topology). Hence F is actually the sheaf of continuous sections of the continuous fibration
EtpF q - X.
Alternatively, one can define F pU q as the projective limit

F pU q “ lim
ÐÝ
F pV q
V PB ,V ĎU

but then it is slightly more difficult to prove that F pU q is actually a sheaf.

Example 3.2.35. Consider a finitely generated k-Algebra A and take X “ Specmax pAq. Then X becomes
a topological space with the Zariski topology. The open sets of the form Xg , g P A form a basis for the
Zariski topology. The settings
OX pXg q :“ Ag

with natural restrictions, satisfy the conditions of the previous theorem (prove it! It might not be so easy)
and hence define a unique sheaf OX over X, called the structural sheaf. Of course we have OX,m “ Am for
any m P X. Prove that OX pXq “ A.

3.2.4 Ringed Spaces. Sheaves of Modules

Definition 3.2.36. A ringed space is a couple pX, OX q where X is a topological space and OX is a sheaf in
commutative k-algebras over X, called structural sheaf. A morphism of ringed spaces pX, OX q - pY, OY q
is a couple pf, ϕq where f : X - Y is a continuous function and ϕ is a morphism of sheaves

ϕ : OY - f˚ O X .

Remark 3.2.37. Composition of morphisms of ringed spaces are morphisms of ringed spaces. Hence the
notion of isomorphism of ringed space makes sense (categorically).
ˇ
Example 3.2.38. Let pX, OX q a ringed space and U be an open set of X. Then the couple pU, OX ˇU q is
a ringed space; denote with i : U - X the inclusion. The map pi, jq where j is the morphism of sheaves
j : OU - i˚ OX is a morphism of ringed spaces.

Example 3.2.39. Let X an algebraic variety, and OX the sheaf of regular functions over X. The couple
pX, OX q is a ringed space.

Example 3.2.40. Let X “ Specmax pAq, for a finitely generated k-algebra A. Consider the sheaf OX over
X defined in example 3.2.35. The ringed space pX, OX q is called a (non necessarily reduced) affine variety.
Prove that if pX, OX q and pY, OY q are nonnecessarily reduced affine varieties, with X “ Specmax pAq, and
Y “ Specmax pBq, with A and B finitely generated k-algebras, then a morphism of k-algebras ϕ : B - A
induces a morphism of ringed spaces
pX, OX q - pY, OY q .
10 such that spxq P Fx for any x P U

180
Definition 3.2.41. Let pX, OX q be a ringed space. A sheaf of OX -modules over X is the data of a sheaf F
in k-vector spaces and, for each open set U of X, of the structure of OX pU q-modules over FpU q, such that,
for each open set V Ď U , the restriction ρU,V : FpU q - FpV q is a morphism of (OX pU q,OX pV q)-modules,
respectively11 . If F and G are OX -modules, then a morphism of sheaves f : F - G is a morphism of
OX -modules if, for any open set U of X, the map fU : FpU q - GpU q is OX pU q-linear. We denote with
HomOX pF, Gq the morphisms of OX -modules between F and G. The set HomOX pF, Gq is a OX pXq-modules.

Remark 3.2.42. Compositions of morphisms of OX -modules are morphisms of OX -modules. Hence the
notion of isomorphisms of OX -modules makes sense categorically.

Example 3.2.43. Consider a morphism pf, ϕq : pX, OX q - pY, OY q of ringed spaces. Then f˚ OX is
sheaf in k-algebras which is an OY -module, via the map

ϕ : OY - f˚ O X .

Example 3.2.44. Let pX, OX q be a ringed space. Let F and G two sheaves in OX -modules over X. We
define the tensor product of sheaves F and G over OX as the sheaf associated to the pre-sheaf:

U - FpU q bO pU q GpU q .
X

It stalk at x P X is isomorphic to
pF bOX Gqx » Fx bOX,x Gx .

Example 3.2.45. Let pX, OX q be a ringed space. Let F and G two sheaves in OX -modules over X. We
define the sheaf of OX -homomorphisms HomOX pF, Gq between two sheaves of OX -modules F and G as the
sheaf
ˇ ˇ
U - Hom ˇ pF ˇ , G ˇ q .
OX ˇ U U
U

Prove that this definitions gives directly a sheaf, not just a presheaf. Beware that in general one has a
natural morphism
HomOX pF, Gqx - HomO pFx , Gx q
X,x

but this morphism is not an isomorphism. (See Le Potier’s notes, page 109,110) 12 . In any case, by definition

HompF, GqpXq “ Homsh pF, Gq .

This also means that, to prove that two morphisms f, g of sheaves are equal, it is sufficient to prove that
ˇ ˇ
f ˇUi “ g ˇUi for all i, where pUi qiPI is a covering of X.
11 This means that for any s P F pU q and for any f P F pU q, we have that ρU,V pf sq “ ρU,V psqρU,V pf q
12 However, we have to say, with the right hypothesis on F , that is, when F is coherent over X, the morphism

HomOX pF , Gqx - HomOX,x pFx , Gx q

is an isomorphism (see Hartshorne, III, prop. 6.8). The sheaf F is called coherent if it admits locally a 1-presentation (exact
sequence):
ˇr
OX ˇU - OX ˇˇs - F ˇˇ - 0.
U U

Coherent sheaves are, by far, the most used sheaves in algebraic geometry, followed by quasi-coherent ones (for which that map
might not be, any more, an isomorphism).

181
3.2.5 Locally Free Sheaves
Definition 3.2.46. Let X be an algebraic variety. A sheaf of OX -modules is said to be locally free of finite
rank over X if for any point x P X, there exists an open set U containing x and a natural r P N such that
ˇ ˇ
r ˇ
F ˇU » OX U
.

Of course the integer r remains constant along the connected components of X. As we shall see locally
free sheaves are intimately related to vector bundles.

Proposition 3.2.47. Let X be an algebraic variety. If E is a vector bundle of rank r over X, then the
pre-sheaf
OX pEqpU q :“ ΓpU, Eq

is a locally free sheaf of rank r over X, called the sheaf of sections of the vector bundle E. Moreover, if
f :E - F is a morphism of vector bundles over X, then f induces a morphism of locally free sheaves

fp : OX pEq - OX pF q .

Finally, if f : E - F and g : F ˝ f “ gp ˝ fp
- H are morphism of vector bundles, we have that gz
as morphism of locally free sheaves OX pEq - OX pHq. We then obtain an addictive functor form the
category of vector bundles to the category of locally free sheaves.
ˇ „
Proof. Take an open subset U , where E trivializes as Φ : E ˇU - U ˆ k r . Then we have isomorphism
ˇ ˇ „ ˇ
of vector bundles ΦˇV : E ˇV - V ˆ k r over any open set V Ď U . Then Φˇ induces isomorphisms of
V
OX pV q-modules
ˇ
r ˇ
OX pEqpV q - OX
V
ˇ ˇ
associating to a section s P OX pEqpV q the components si P OX pU q such that ΦˇV psqˇV “ ps1 , . . . , sr q P
ˇ ˇr ˇ
OX pU qr . This means, that OX pEqˇU » OX ˇU as sheaves of OX ˇU -modules. It is immediate to see that if
f : E - F is a morphism of vector bundles f induces a morphism of OX -modules

f : OX pEq - OX pF q

associating to a section s P ΓpU, Eq “ OX pEqpU q, the section f psq P ΓpU, F q “ OX pF qpU q. The fact that the
map of sheaves induced by the composition is the composition of the induced maps of sheaves is immediate
from the definition. Therefore we have a functor from the category of vector bundles to the category of
locally free sheaves. We note that Homvb pE, F q is a vector space over k, as well as Homsh pOX pEq, OX pF qq.
Moreover the functorial map

Homvb pE, F q - Homsh pOX pEq, OX pF qq

is a map of k-vector spaces. Moreover OX pE ‘ E 1 q » OX pEq ‘ OX pE 1 q. Hence the functor is said to be

additive.

Remark 3.2.48. We want to show the local form of morphism of locally free sheaves OX pEq - OX pF q
induced by a morphism of vector bundles f : E - F . Over an open set U , where both E and F trivialize,
say E - U ˆ k r and F » U ˆ k s , we know by ?? that f is given locally by f px, vq “ px, Apxqvq, with

182
Apxq : k r - k s a linear map (a matrix) for each x P U , such that the map x - Apxq is regular. This
implies that the morphism of locally free sheaves
ˇr
- OX ˇs » OX pF qˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ
OX pEqˇU » OX ˇU U U

is given by t ps1 , . . . , sr q - Apxq ¨ t ps1 , . . . , sr q.

ˇ ˇ »
Suppose now E ˇV » V ˆ k r and F ˇV - V ˆ k s is another pair of trivializations, with U X V ‰ H.
We have transition functions gU,V for E and for the pair of trivializations, and transition functions hU,V for
F . Over V , the morphism of locally free sheaves is given by a matrix B : V - Mrˆs pkq. Since the local
expressions of f with respect to U and V is locally compatible with gU,V andhU,V , the following diagram of
morphism of sheaves is commutative:
ˇ ˇ
ˇ ΦU ˇU XV ˇr A ˇs ΨU ˇU XV ˇ
OX pEqˇU XV - OX ˇ
U XV
- OX ˇ
U XV
 OX pF q ˇ
U XV

Φ ˇ gU,V hU,V
V
ˇ U XV
ˇ ˇ
UX
V - ? Ψ V
ˇr B ˇ? 
OX ˇ - OX ˇs
U XV U XV

Remark 3.2.49. Suppose that F and G are two locally free sheaves of rank r and s, respectively, over an
ˇ ˇr
algebraic variety X. Of course, for each x P X, we can find an open set U containing x such that F ˇU » OX ˇU ,
ˇ ˇs ˇ ˇ ˇ
and G ˇU » OX ˇU . Let now f be a morphism of OX -modules f : F - G. Hence f ˇ : F ˇ
Uˇ U ˇ
- G ˇ is
U
ˇ ˇ ˇr s
a morphism of OX ˇU -modules. Composing with the isomorphisms F ˇU » OX ˇU and G ˇU » OX ˇU we have
ˇr
- OX ˇs . Now, a section s P OX ˇr pV q is a bunch ps1 , . . . , sr q
ˇ ˇ ˇ
a morphism of OX ˇU -modules fp : OX ˇU U U
ˇs ˇr
of sections si P OX pV q; similarly for OX ˇ . We have distinguished sections ei P OX ˇ pU q correspongind to
U U
the vector of regular functions p0, . . . , 1, . . . , 0q (1 in the i-th place); similarly for fj as distinguished sections
ˇs ˇ
for OX ˇU . Since fp is a morphism of OX ˇU -modules, to determine fp we just need to determine the sections
ˇs
fppei q. But fppei q is a section of OX ˇ , and hence given by
U
ÿ
fppej q “ aij pxqfi
j

where A “ paij qij : U - Msˆr pkq is a matrix of regular functions, that is, a morphism of algebraic
varieties.
Remark 3.2.50. Let E be a vector bundle of rank r over the variety X. Consider the locally free sheaf OX pEq
and its stalk OX pEqx at a point x. The stalk OX pEqx is clearly a OX,x -module and the evaluation map
evx
OX pEqx bOX,x kx » OX pEqx bOX,x OX,x {mx » OX pEqx {mx OX pEqx - Ex

yields an isomorphism13 with the vector fiber Ex . The proof is easily done by trivialization around x.
It turns out that the functor E - OX pEq is particularly good, and shows two sides of the same
concept, at least on a connected variety.
13 Here we mean that the evaluation map
evx : OX pEqx - Ex
associating the germ of a section s to its value spxq P Ex is surjective and has, as kernel, the submodule of sections mx OX pEqx
vanishing over x

183
Theorem 3.2.51. Let X be a connected algebraic variety. The functor E - OX pEq is an equivalence
of categories between the category of vector bundles over X and the category of locally free sheaves over X.
This means that the functor E - OX pEq satisfies the following two properties:
• it is fully faithful: that is, for any pair of vector bundles E1 , E2 the map

Homvb pE1 , E2 q - Homsh pOX pE1 q, OX pE2 qq

is an isomorphism of k-vector spaces;

• it is essentially surjective: that is, for any locally free sheaf F over X, there exists a vector bundle F
over X such that OX pF q » F.

Proof. Full-faithfullness. We will use that Homsh pOX pE1 q, OX pE2 qq “ HomppOX pE1 q, OX pE2 qqqpXq is the
space of global section of the sheaf HomppOX pE1 q, OX pE2 qqq. Consider a covering pUi qiPI over which E and
F trivialize. We also saw that if f : E - F is given locally by matrices Ai : Ui - Msˆr pkq, then Ai
ˇr ˇs
give the corresponding morphism of sheaves OX ˇU - OX ˇ . Suppose now that f P Homvb pE, F q gives
U
i i

the morphism zero between OX pEq and OX pF q. This means that the local matrices Ai would be identically
zero on Ui , and this means that f “ 0 as a morphism of vector bundles between E and F . Hence the map
Homvb pE1 , E2 q - Homsh pOX pE1 q, OX pE2 qq is injective.
For the surjectivity, consider a morphism f of locally free sheaves Homsh pOX pE1 q, OX pE2 qq. We saw
that, over Ui f is determined by matrices aij pxq P Msˆr pkq. These matrices define local morphisms of
ˇ ˇ ˇ
vector bundles f ˇUi : E ˇUi - F ˇ (by composing adequately with trivializations of E and F over Ui ).
Ui
We now have to prove that these local morphisms glue to a global morphism f . This is true if and only
if the local matrices aij commute with the transition functions gU,V . and hU,V of F and G, respectively,
ˇ ˇr
where U and V are two of the open sets Ui , i P I. Consider the isomorphisms OX pEqˇU » OX ˇU induced
ˇr
by the trivializations ΦU , and still called ΦU . We have also an isomorphism ΦV : OX pEq » OX ˇV induced
by the trivialization ΦV . For OX pF q, trivializations ΨU and ΨV over U and V of the vector bundle F ,
ˇ ˇr ˇs
induce isomorphisms ΨU : OX pF qˇU » OX ˇU and ΨV : OX pF q » OX ˇV . Since f : OX pEq - OX pF q is a
morphism of OX -modules, we have that, over U X V we have the commutative diagram
ˇr A - OX ˇs
ˇ
OX ˇU XV U XV
ΦU
ˇˇ

V
ˇˇ
X
U
U

U
X

 Ψ
V
-

ˇ
ˇ f ˇU XV ˇ
g̃U,V OX pEqˇU XV - OX pF qˇ
U XV
h̃U,V

-

ΨV
ˇˇ
V
ˇˇ
X
U

U
V

X
Φ

ˇr? B ˇ?
OX ˇ - OX ˇs
U XV U XV

Here A and B are the matrices determined by the local versions of the morphism of locally free sheaves
ˇ
f : OX pEq - OX pF q, as in remark ??. Moreover, g̃U,V and h̃U,V are the morphism of free OX ˇ
U XV
ˇ ˇ
-modules ΦV ˝ ΦU ˇU XV and ΨV ˝ ΨU ˇU XV . But these sheaves are the morphism of sheaves of free vector
bundles U X V ˆ k r and U X V ˆ k s and g̃U,V and h̃U,V are given by the same matrices as the morphism of
trivial vector bundles, as we saw. Hence gU,V and hU,V are given by the matrices of transition functions of

184
E and F , respectively. This means that the local isomorphisms fi built above commute with the transitions
functions of E and F , respectively, and hence define a global morphism of vector bundle f : E - F .
Essential Surjectivity. Consider a locally free sheaf F of rank r over X. Set as Fpxq the vector space:

Fpxq :“ Fx bOX,x kx » Fx bOX,x OX,x {mx » Fx {mx Fx .

Set now F the set-theoretic vector fibration

ž
F :“ Fpxq .
xPX
ˇ ˇr
We show that the local isomorphisms F ˇU » OX ˇU induce a structure of vector bundle on F over X. Let
ˇ ˇr
pUi qiPI be an open cover over such that we have local isomorphisms ϕi : F ˇ » OX ˇ . These trivializations
Ui Ui
induce, for any x P Ui , isomorphisms of vector spaces ϕi pxq : Fpxq - k r and hence bijections τi :
ˇ »
F ˇUi - Ui ˆ k r , which are fibered over Ui and inducing the linear map ϕpxq over each fiber. Over the
open set Ui XUj the map τj ˝τi : Ui XUj ˆk r - Ui XUj ˆk r sends px, vq to px, ϕj pxq˝ϕi pxq´1 pvqq and, since
ˇr
- O X ˇr
ˇ
ϕj pxq ˝ ϕi pxq´1 is the map induces over the fiber txu ˆ k r by the map ϕj ˝ ϕ´1 : OX ˇ
i Ui XUj Ui XUj
we get that τj τi´1 is the isomorphism of trivial vector bundles associated to the morphism of free sheaves
ϕj ˝ ϕ´1 ´1
i . Moreover, the map τj τi is induced by the same matrix of regular functions that induces the
morphism ϕj ˝ ϕ´1
i . But these matrices, say gi,j , satisfy the cocycle condition by construction. Hence we
deduce a structure of vector bundles over F . Now it is easy to prove that OX pF q » F. Indeed we can build
a map
F - OX pF q
ˇ
in the following way. Take an open set U and consider a section s P FpU q. The section ϕi psˇU q correspond to
ˇ ˇi
section of the trivial bundle U X Ui ˆ k r . Consider τi´1 ϕi psˇU XU q: it gives a section si of F ˇUi XU . Moreover,
ˇ ˇ i ˇ
it is easy to see that si ˇU XUi XUj “ sj ˇU XUi XUj . Hence the different si ˇU XUi define by glueing a unique section
of F over U . This gives a morphism F - OX pF q, which is an isomorphism locally (over any Ui ). Hence
it is an isomorphism.

Exercise 167. Let E - F - G an exact sequence of vector bundles. Prove that the sequence of
locally free sheaves
OX pEq - OX pF q - OX pGq

is exact.

Exercise 168 (Important Example). Let E - F - G an exact sequence of locally free sheaves. It is
not true, in general, that we have an exact sequence of associated vector bundles E - F - G. Indeed,
consider an irreducible variety X, a line bundle L and a section ΓpX, Lq, such that s is not identically zero.
s
Let Y be the hypersurface of zeros of s, say W psq. The morphism of locally free sheaves OX pL˚ q - OX
s
is injective (prove it!), but the morphism of vector bundles L˚ - kX is not injective over Y (over Y it
has rank zero).

Exercise 169. Prove that an exact sequence

f g
0 - E - F - G - 0

185
of locally free sheaves induce an exact sequence of associated vector bundles

0 - E - F - G - 0.

(Why this case is different from the other? Look carefully at the rank of local matrices of f and g, respec-
tively).

Exercise 170. Let E and F be vector bundles over a reduced algebraic variety X. Establish a canonical
isomorphism
OX pE b F q » OX pEq bOX OX pF q .

3.3 Divisors
We invite the reader to take a look at the section ”Height and codimension” in the appendix. It provides a
new definition of codimension of a closed subset in an algebraic variety.

3.3.1 Weil Divisors

Definition 3.3.1. Let X be an algebraic variety. An integral hypersurface Z of X is a closed integral
subvariety of codimension 1. This means that if Z Ď W Ď X and W is irreducible, then W has to be an
irreducible component of X. If X is affine equidimensional, then this means that IZ is a prime ideal of height
1 in krXs. Denote by HpXq the set of integral hypersurfaces of X.

Definition 3.3.2 (Weil Divisor). Let X be an algebraic variety. A Weil divisor over X is a finite linear
combination
ÿ
D“ nY Y
Y PHpXq

with nY P Z, obviously almost all zero. We say that the divisor D is effective if nY ě 0 for all Y . The
reduced hypersurface |D| “ YY,nY ‰0 Y is called the support of the divisor. The divisor is called irreducible
if nY ‰ 0 for a unique Y0 P HpXq, or, equivalently, if |D| is irreducible. The divisor is called reduced if
nY ‰ 0 ùñ nY “ ˘1.

Definition 3.3.3. Let X be an algebraic variety. The group WDivpXq of Weil divisors is the free abelian
group generated by the set HpXq of integral hypersurfaces of X:

WDivpXq :“ ‘Y PHpXq Z ¨ Y .

Before proving the following fundamental theorem, recall that on a factorial variety, an integral hyper-
surface is locally given by a single equation, which is the statement of Theorem 2.13.101.

Theorem 3.3.4. Let X be a factorial algebraic variety. Let Y be an integral hypersurface of X. Then there
exists a line bundle L and a section s of L such that the subscheme14 of zeros of s is precisely Y : this means
that the ideal sheaf IY is precisely the image of the morphism of locally free sheaves:
s
OX pL˚ q - OX .

The couple pL, sq is determined in a unique way, up to isomorphism, by this condition.

14 or nonnecessarily reduced variety

186
Proof. Existence. Theorem 2.13.101 states that, for any point p P Y , there exists an affine open set U of
ˇ
X containing p such that IY XU “ tg P krU s | g ˇY “ 0u is principal and given by an equation fU “ 0, that is
ˇ ˇ
IY XU “ pfU q. This implies that, for any V Ď U , IY pV q “ tg P OX pV q | g ˇY XV “ 0u is exactly fU ˇV ¨ OX pV q.
Indeed, by localization at some h P krU s, we surely have
ˇ ˇ
IY pUh q “ tg P OX pUh q | g ˇY XV “ 0u “ tg P krU sh | g ˇY XV “ 0u “ pfU q ¨ krU sh

But then we can cover V with a (finite) cover made by Uhi where the statement is true. Hence, take
ˇ ˇ
g P IY pV q; the restriction to Uhi provides g ˇU “ fU ¨ gi Since pfU q ¨ OX ˇU is a sheaf, then the local pfU q ¨ gi
hi

glue to a function in pfU qOX pV q: hence g P pfU qOX pV q. So we proved that the sheaf of ideals IY is locally
principal, but this means that it is locally free of rank 1: indeed over such U we have the isomorphism of
sheaves:
ˇ ¨fU- ˇ
O X ˇU IY ˇU
α - fU ¨ α
Therefore, the ideal sheaf IY is locally free of rank 1, and hence by by theorem ??, it is the sheaf of sections
of a line bundle L˚ (it is not restrictive to take the dual of a line bundle, since pL˚ q˚ » L). Then there
exists a line bundle L over X such that, as locally free sheaves

IY » OX pL˚ q .

Composing the isomorphism OX pL˚ q » IY with the inclusion IY Ă - OX gives an injective morphism of
locally free sheaves
OX pL˚ q Ă - OX

which, in turn, gives a morphism of line bundles

L˚ - kX .

The dualization of this last morphism is a morphism of vector bundle

kX - L

which corresponds to a section of L: take as s the image of 1 P k in each fiber. With this definition of s,
then the morphism L˚ - kX is the contraction with the section s. So the contraction with the section s
induces the injection of locally free sheaves OX pL˚ q Ă - OX . Hence the image, that is, the ideal sheaf IY ,
is locally defined by the section s.
Before going on, to undestand concretely the construction above, do the following exercise:

Exercise 171. Consider X “ P2 and Y “ Vpx2 ` y 2 ´ z 2 q. Prove that IY » OP2k p´2q » H ´2 . Find the
section of H b2 “ OP2k p2q giving Y as subvariety of zeros.

Unicity. We proved that s P ΓpX, Lq, and that W psq “ Y and that IY » OX pL˚ q. Suppose there exists
another couple pM, tq, where M is a line bundle, t is a section of M over X, such that the image of the
t
morphism of sheaves OX pM ˚ q - OX is exactly IY . We would have the commutative diagram
»
OX pL˚ q - OX pM ˚ q
s

t
»

»
-

IY

187
But this would correspond to an isomorphism h˚ : L˚ - M ˚ such that h˚ exchanges the contraction with
s with the contraction with t. Dualizing everything, we would have an isomorphism h : M - L such that
the diagram

h
M - L

-
s
t
»

»
kX
commutes. But this says precisely that hptq “ s, which is the unicity up to isomorphism.

Important Alternative Construction. We saw that the sheaf IY is locally generated by a single equation.
ˇ ˇ
This means that we can cover the variety X with an affine open cover Uα such that IY ˇUα “ pfα qOX ˇUα .
ˇ ˇ ϕ´1 ˇ
Hence the (inverse of the ) trivialization ϕα : IY - OX ˇUα sends a function OX ˇUα Q h α- fα ¨h P IY ˇUα .
The transition functions for L˚ “ IY are then given by

ϕβ ˝ ϕ´1
α :h
- h ¨ fα P OX
˚
.
fβ
˚
hence the cocycles gα,β , relative to L˚ is given by fα {fβ . Note that fα {fβ has to be in OX , from which
we deduce that two local equation for Y have to differ by a nonzero regular function. By construction, the
cocycle relative to L is now
´1 fβ
γα,β “ gα,β “
fα
and the local equations fα now verify
γα,β fα “ fβ

so the local equations fα glue to give a section s of L, by exercise 132. Moreover Y coincides, scheme-
theoretically, with W psq, since locally s coincides with fα on the open set Uα and hence the map of sheaves
s
OX pL˚ q - OX has image IY .

Exercise 172. Do the alternative construction in the case of exercise 171, relative to the standard affine
open cover Ux , Uy , Uz of P2k .

Exercise 173. Find the transition functions of OP1k prq b OP1k psq over P1k ˆ P1k – with bihomogeneous coor-
dinates prx, ys, rz, wsq – with respect to the open covering Ux ˆ Vz , Ux ˆ Vw , Uy ˆ Vz , Uy ˆ Vw .

Exercise 174. Consider the curve C “ Vpy 3 z 2 ´ w2 pyx2 ´ x3 qq in P1k ˆ P1k , with bihomogeneous coordinates
prx, ys, rz, wsq. Prove that IY » OP1k prqˆOP1k p´rqbOP1k p´sq, for some r, s. Which ones? Use the alternative
construction relative to the covering Ux ˆ Vz , Ux ˆ Vw , Uy ˆ Vz , Uy ˆ Vw to build the line bundle associated
to the divisor C. Is the section s transverse to the zero section in this case? Draw the curve C in P1k ˆ P1k .

Exercise 175. Let X be a smooth algebraic variety and Y be a smooth integral hypersurface. Then the
canonical section s of the line bundle L associated to Y and vanishing over Y is transverse to the zero section.

188
3.3.2 Cartier Divisors
Definition 3.3.5 (Picard Group). Let X be a (reduced) algebraic variety over a field k. The set of isomor-
phism classes of line bundles over X has the structure of abelian group with the operation given by of tensor
product. The identity element is given by the trivial bundle and the inverse by the dual line bundle. This
abelian group is called the Picard Group and is denoted with PicpXq.

Definition 3.3.6. Let X be an integral algebraic variety. A Cartier divisor is the isomorphism class rL, ss
of couples pL, sq, where L is a line bundle over X and s : U - L is a nonzero rational section15 of L.

Definition 3.3.7. Let X be an integral algebraic variety. The set of Cartier divisors CapXq has a natural
structure of abelia group with the operation given by16

rL, ss ¨ rM, ts :“ rL b M, s b ts .

The class rkX , 1s is the identity element of CapXq and the inverse of a class rL, ss is given by rL, ss´1 “
rL˚ , s˚ s, where s˚ is the unique section of L˚ such that s˚ b s “ 1 in L˚ b L » kX .

We invite the reader to revise the definition of local ring of a variety X along an integral subvariety Y ,
definition 2.13.11 and proposition 2.13.12.

Proposition 3.3.8. Let X be an algebraic variety such that the singular locus SingpXq is a closed subset
of codimension ě 2. Let Y be an integral hypersurface. Then OX,Y is a noetherian regular local ring of
dimension 1, and hence a discrete valuation ring.

Proof. Since codimX SingpXq ě 2 and codimension is decreasing monotone, we have that Y Ę SingpXq.
Take a point p P Y z SingpXq and let U be an affine open subset of X inside Xz SingpXq containing U . Then
U is a smooth affine variety and U X Y ‰ H. Moreover,

OX,Y » OU,U XY .

Restricting U if necessary, we can suppose that U is irreducible17 and that IY XU is defined by a single
equation ptq by 2.13.101. Set then A “ krU s and p “ IY XU . Then the maximal ideal pAp is defined by
the element t. The algebra Ap is a noetherian local domain of dimension dim Ap “ htA p “ codimU Y “ 1,
with the maximal ideal pAp generated by a single element (principal). By proposition .7.6, we have that
Ap » OX,Y is regular of dimension 1 and hence a Discrete Valuation Ring.

Notation 3.3.9. Let X be an integral algebraic variety such that the singular locus SingpXq is a closed
subset of codimension ě 2. Let Y be an integral hypersurface. We denote with νY : RpXqzt0u - Z the
discrete valuation associated to Y .

The key difficulty in the proof of the main theorem 3.3.18 is the following lemmas. The reader should re-
read the propositions proving that a normal variety is nonsingular in codimension 1 (see the last propositions
in the section Normality). We introduce fractional ideals.
15 A rational section of a line bundle L over an integral algebraic variety X is a section s : U - L over a nonempty open
set U .
16 The reader can prove easily that it is well defined
17 the point p is contained in a unique irreducible component of X, since X is smooth at p

189
Definition 3.3.10. Let R be an integral domain and KR be its field of fractions. The field of fractions KR
is naturally an R-module. A sub-R-module I of KR is called a fractional ideal of R if I ‰ 0 and there exists
α P R, α ‰ 0, such that αI Ď R. If I is a fractional ideal of I, then we set

I ´1 “ tβ P KR | βI Ď Ru .
ř
We say that I is invertible if II ´1 “ t i ai bi P KR | ai P I bi I ´1 u “ R.

Lemma 3.3.11. Let R be an integral domain and I be an invertible fractional ideal. Then then for any
maximal ideal m of R, we have that the fractional ideal Im “ IRm of Rm is principal.
ř
Proof. If II ´1 “ R, then there exists ai P I, bi P I ´1 , i “ 1, . . . , r such that i ai bi “ 1. Let m a
ř
maximal ideal of R. Since ai bi P R for any i, the relation i pai bi q “ 1 makes sense in the local ring Rm .
If all pai bi q P mRm , then 1 P mRm , which is the maximal ideal of Rm , so we would have a contradiction.
Therefore, there exists i0 P t1, . . . , ru such that pai0 bi0 is in Rm zmRm , that is, it is a unit in Rm . This means
that pai0 bi0 qRm “ Rm as ideals of Rm . Therefore if x P I, then

xRm “ xpai0 bi0 qRm “ ai0 pxbi0 qRm Ď ai0 Rm

since xbi0 P R. On the other hand ai0 Rm Ď IRm . Hence we proved

IRm “ ai0 Rm

that is, IIRm is a principal fractional ideal of Rm .

Proposition 3.3.12. Let R be a noetherian integral domain and p a nonzero prime ideal of R. If p is
invertible, then ht p “ 1 and Rp is a DVR.

Proof. If p is invertible, the maximal ideal pRp of Rp is principal by the previous lemma. Then A “ Rp is
a noetherian local ring of strictly positive dimension such that the maximal ideal m “ pRp is principal. Set
m “ tA. If ts “ 0 for some s, then we would have that dim A “ 0 (prove it). Therefore ts ‰ 0 for any s P N˚ .
i s
By the Krull intersection theorem we have that X8
i“1 m “ p0q in A. Therefore XsPN˚ t R “ p0q. Therefore,
if 0 ‰ y P R, there exists a unique s P N such that y P pts q. Setting νpyq “ s defines a discrete valuation on
the field of fractions KA of A, that is, on KR whose valuation ring is A. Hence A “ Rp is a DVR.

Proposition 3.3.13. Let R be a noetherian integral domain, integrally closed in its field of fractions KR .
Let paq be a proper nonzero principal ideal. Then all associated primes of paq have height 1. For a geometric
ring (if R is a finitely generated integral k-algebra) this means that paq has no embedded components.

Proof. If p is one of the associated primes of paq, then there exists b P R such that p “ Annpb ` paqq, where
b ` paq P R{paq, or equivalently, p “ ppaq : pbqq “ paR : bq. Set m “ pRp “ m and Rp “ A. Note that
m is a fractional ideal of A “ Rp . Therefore, as ideals of Rp we have paRp : bq “ m, so that ba´1 m Ď Rp
and ba´1 P m´1 . But ba´1 R Rp , otherwise, paRp : bq “ Rp . Suppose that ba´1 m Ď m: take x1 , . . . , xn
generators of m: we would have
ÿ
ba´1 xi “ aij xi
j

and proceeding as in the proof of Cayley-Hamilton [AM94, proposition 2.4], we would have that ba´1 is
integral over Rp . But Rp is integrally closed, because localization of an integrally closed. Hence ba´1 P Rp ,

190
which is absurd. Hence ba´1 m “ Rp . But this implies that m´1 m “ Rp . Hence m is an invertible ideal of
Rp an ht m “ 1, but now ht m “ ht p.

Lemma 3.3.14. Let R be an integral finitely generated k-algebra. Then R is integrally closed in KR if an
only if the two conditions hold:
• for any prime p of R of height 1 (equivalently, minimal nonzero), we have that Rp is a regular local
ring of dimension 1;
Ş
• R “ p,ht p“1 Rp .

Proof. The easiest step is to prove sufficiency of the conditions. Indeed, if Rp is a regular local ring of
dimension 1, then Rp is a valuation ring of its function field KRp “ KR and hence integrally closed in KR .
An arbitrary intersection of integrally closed ring in KR is integrally closed in KR . Hence R is integrally
closed in KR .
We now prove necessity. In our case, since R is an integral finitely generated k-algebra, we have that R
is the algebra of regular functions of an integral affine algebraic variety X, with krXs “ R. If p is a prime
ideal of R of height 1, then Y “ W ppq “ V ppq is an integral hypersurface of X; on the other hand, if Y is
an integral hypersurface of X, then IY is a prime ideal of R of height 1. Since R is integrally closed, then
X is normal and SingpXq is a closed of codimension ě 2 in X. Therefore all local rings OX,Y are regular of
dimension 1 by the previous lemma and by ??. Therefore, all local rings Rp , since they are isomorphic to
some OX,Y , by ??, are regular of dimension 1 (we could just use .7.6 instead). We just need to prove that
č
R“ Rp .
p,ht p“1

The inclusion Ď is clear, since R is a domain. Let’s prove the reverse inclusion. Take b{a P KR , with a ‰ 0.
Consider a primary decomposition of the ideal paq:

paq “ q1 X ¨ ¨ ¨ X qr
?
where qi are primary ideals and pi “ qi are the associated primes of the ideal paq. By [?, Proposition 3.25],
for each i, there exists xi P R such that pi “ p0 : xi q in R, with xi ‰ 0. Therefore, by the previous theorem,
all pi have height 1. Hence b{a P Rpi for all i “ 1, . . . , r. Hence b P aRpi Ď qi Rpi for each i. Hence

b P qi Rpi X R

for any i. Now, since qi is pi -primary (and hence contained in pi ), and since all pi are minimal primes of
paq, having height 1 (there are no embedded prime components in paq), we have

qi Rpi X R “ qi

recovering the minimal primary component [?, Cor. 7.61], we have that

b P qi

for any i, and hence b P paq. Then b{a P R, as required.

Corollary 3.3.15. Let X be an affine integral normal algebraic variety and f P kpXq. Suppose that νY pf q ě
0 for each Y P HpXq. Then f P krXs.

191
Proof. If νY pf q ě 0 for each Y P HpXq, then

f P XY PHpXq OX,Y Ď kpXq .

By the previous theorem, the intersection is precisely krXs.

Definition 3.3.16. Let X be an integral algebraic variety such that the singular locus SingpXq is a closed
subset of codimension ě 2. Let Y be an integral hypersurface. Let L a line bundle over X and let s be a
rational section on L. Define νY psq as follows: let U be an open set of X intersecting Y such that L is trivial
over U ; let e be a local frame for L over U . The rational section s can be written, over U , as s “ f e, with f
a rational function f P RpXq. Set
νY psq “ νY pf q .

The integer νY does not depend on the open set U or the choice of the local frame e. The integer νY psq
denotes, if positive, the order of vanishing of s along Y ; if negative, the order of vanishing of 1{f along Y ,
that is, the order of the poles of s along Y .

Exercise 176. Prove that the integer νY does not depend on the open set U or the choice of the local
frame e.

Lemma 3.3.17. Let X be an integral algebraic variety such that the singular locus SingpXq is a closed subset
of codimension ě 2. Let L a line bundle over X and let s be a rational section on L. The set of integral
hypersurfaces Y of X such that νY psq ‰ 0 is finite.

Proof. Note that νY psq is computed over an open set U over which L is trivial an such that U X Y ‰ H.
We know that L is trivial over U . The section s over U is given by s “ f e, with e a local frame for L
over U and f a rational function f P RpU q “ RpXq. Let V Ď U the open set of definition of V , which we
can always take as affine. The hypersurfaces Y of X such that νY psq ‰ 0 can intersect V , or not. In the
second case, they are contained in T “ XzV , which is a closed subset of X: in this case Y is an irreducible
component of T , and hence such hypersurfaces are finite. Consider an hypersurface Y intersecting V such
ˇ ˇ
that νY psq ‰ 0. But νY psq “ νY pf q “ νY pf ˇV q. Now f ˇV P OX pV q and hence f defines an element in OX,Y :
ˇ ˇ
hence νY psq “ νY pf ˇV q ě 0: we have νY pf ˇV q ŋ 0 if and only if f belongs to the maximal ideal of OX,Y ,
that is, if and only if f vanishes on Y X V . But Y X V is then an irreducible component of the hypersurface
V pf q. Hence such integral hypersurfaces Y are in finite number.

Theorem 3.3.18. Let X be a normal integral algebraic variety. We have the injective morphism of abelian
groups:
CapXq Ă - WDivpXq

sending
ÿ
rL, ss - νY psqY .
Y PHpXq

If X is factorial, the preceding monomorphism is an isomorphism.

Proof. The map rL, ss - ř νY psqY is a group homomorphism due to the properties of the valuation
Y PHpXq
νY associated to a hypersurface: in particular psbtq “ νY psq`νY ptq and νY p1q “ 0. Let’s prove it is injective.
ř
Suppose we have a Cartier divisor rL, ss such that Y PHpXq νY psqY is zero; in other words, suppose that

192
νY psq “ 0 for any Y P HpXq. Over an open set U where L is trivial, write s “ f e, with f P RpU q.
Therefore, νY pf q “ 0 for any Y P HpXq such that Y X U ‰ H. Therefore, by corollary 3.3.15, f is regular
and everywhere nonzero over U (prove it!), hence inversible over U . Varying U we get that the section s is
regular over X and everywhere nonzero. Hence L is the trivial bundle and s is a global frame. This implies
that the couple pL, sq is isomorphic to the couple pkX , 1q: hence rL, ss “ rkX , 1s, which is the neutral element
of the group CapXq.
Suppose now that X is factorial. Set ϕ : CapXq - WDivpXq the monomorphism of abelian groups in
the statement. After theorem 3.3.4, we can associate to an integral hypersurface Y of X, a line bundle LY
and a section sY of LY such that W psY q “ Y . By Z-linearity, we can extend the definition Y - rLY , sY s
to WDivpXq giving a map of abelian groups

ψ : WDivpXq - CapXq

such that ψϕ “ idWDivpXq . Let’s prove that ϕ ˝ ψ “ idWDivpXq . Since WDivpXq is the free abelian group
generated by HpXq, it is sufficient to prove that ϕprLY , sY sq “ Y for Y an integral hypersurface of X. Let
U be an affine open set of X intersecting Y over which the ideal IY XU in krU s is generated by a single
ˇ
element f . Then LY ˇ is trivial and sY is given, over U , by the regular function f (to see this properly,
U
re-read the alternative construction in the proof of theorem 3.3.4). Now, if Z is an integral hypersurface of
X intersecting U , we have that νZ pf q ě 0 and νZ pf q “ 0 if and only if Z ‰ Y , since f is invertible over U zY
and νY pf q “ 1, because in OX,Y the ideal pf q is the maximal ideal. Therefore the Weil Divisor associated
to rLY , sY s is exactly Y . This proves the surjectivity of the map ϕ in the statement.

Definition 3.3.19. Let X be an integral algebraic variety such that the singular locus SingpXq has codi-
mension ě 2. Let L be a line bundle over X and s be a rational section of L. The Weil Divisor associated
ř
to rL, ss is given by D :“ Y PHpXq νY psqY . Set
ÿ
D` “ νY psqY
Y PHpXq
νY psqą0
ÿ
D´ “ ´ νY psqY
Y PHpXq
νY psqă0

Then D` is called the divisor of zeros of the rational section s; while D´ is called the divisor of poles of s.
It’s clear that D “ D` ´ D´ .

Exercise 177. Let X be a integral affine algebraic variety such that the singular locus SingpXq has codi-
mension ě 2, but not necessarily normal.
• Prove that if f P kpXq such that νY pf q ě 0 for each Y P HpXq does NOT imply that f P krXs.
• p˚˚q However, is it true that if f P kpXq such that νY pf q “ 0 for all Y P HpXq, then f P krXs, f
everywhere nonzero? (Try to use example (B), Mumford Red Book, page 199).

Exercise 178. Let X be an integral algebraic variety and L, M be a line bundles over X. Let s P ΓpU, Lq
a rational section of L such that rL, ss “ rM, ts, where t is a regular section of M . Then s can be extended
to a regular section of L.

193
3.3.3 Linear Equivalence
Lemma 3.3.20. Let X be an integral algebraic variety. The natural map

CapXq - PicpXq

sending rL, ss - rLs is a surjective morphism of abelian groups.

Proof. The proof that the map is well defined is easy and left to the reader: (it is is evident taking isomor-
phism classes). Let’s prove that it is surjective. Take a line bundle L over X and an open set U such L is
trivial over U . Hence, over U , L has a section s. The section s is a rational section of L over X. Hence the
class rLs comes from the Cartier divisor rL, ss via the map of the statement.

Theorem 3.3.21. Let X be an integral algebraic variety. We have the following exact sequence:

0 - OX pXq˚ - RpXq˚ - CapXq - PicpXq - 0

where OX pXq˚ are inversible regular functions over X and RpXq˚ are inversible (that is, nonzero) rational
functions over X.

Proof. Let f P RpXq˚ be a nonzero rational function. One can see f as a rational section of the triv-
ial bundle kX , and hence associate to f the Cartier divisor rkX , f s. This defines the homomorphism
RpXq˚ - CapXq. It is also clear that any class rL, ss such that L is trivial is equivalent to some
rkX , f s for a rational function f P RpXq˚ . Let’s find the kernel of RpXq˚ - CapXq. Let f P RpXq˚
such that rkX , f s is equivalent to rkX , 1s. This means that there exists a global nonzero regular function
g P OX pXq˚ (giving an automorphism of kX ) such that f g “ 1. Then f “ 1{g is a global regular function
on X, everywhere nonzero.
On the other hand a function f P OX pXq˚ everywhere nonzero by definition, induces a everywhere
nonzero section of the trivial bundle, and hence a local frame. Therefore rkX , f s “ rkX , 1s as Cartier
divisors.

Definition 3.3.22. Let X be an integral algebraic variety such that the singular locus SingpXq has codi-
mension ě 2. A divisor D P WDivpXq is called principal if it is the Weil divisor associated to an nonzero
rational function. Two divisors in WDivpXq are said to be linearly equivalent if they differ by a principal
divisor.

Theorem 3.3.23. Let X be an irreducible factorial variety. The isomorphism CapXq - WDivpXq
induces an isomorphism
»
WDivpXq{ PrincpXq - PicpXq ,

where PrincpXq is the subgroup of WDivpXq given by principal divisors.

Proof. The statement is an easy consequence of the previous exact sequence, together with the fact that
PrincpXq is exactly the image of RpXq˚ in WDivpXq by the composition RpXq˚ - CapXq - WDivpXq.

Notation 3.3.24. Let X be a factorial variety and D be a Weil divisor. We denote with OX pDq the
line bundle associated to D by the map WDivpXq - PicpXq. By abuse of notation, (on more general
hypothesis) if D “ rL, ss is a Cartier divisor, we denote with OX pDq the line bundle L.

194
Exercise 179. Let D be a reduced effective Cartier divisor (a Cartier divisor rL, ss, with s a regular section
such that its Weil divisor is reduced) over an integral algebraic variety regular in codimension 1. Let Y be
the support of D. Prove that IY » OX p´Dq.

Theorem 3.3.25. Let X be an irreducible factorial algebraic variety. Let U be a nonempty open set of X.
Let Y1 , . . . , Yr be the irreducible components of the closed XzU . and set LYi the line bundle associated to the
integral hypersurface Yi . The restriction homomorphism

PicpXq - PicpU q
ˇ
defined as L - Lˇ is surjective and the kernel is generated by the line bundles LYi .
U

Proof. Set Y “ Yi Yi as a reduced subvariety. Set PrincY pXq the set of principal divisors with support in
ˇ
Y , that is, principal divisors pf q of rational functions such that f ˇXzY is everywhere nonzero. Consider the
commutative diagram induced by the restriction to U :

0 - PrincY pXq - PrincpXq - PrincpU q - 0

? ? ?
0 - xY1 , . . . , Yr y - WDivpXq - WDivpU q - 0

? ? ?
0 - xLY1 , . . . , LYr y - PicpXq - PicpU q - 0

The map xY1 , . . . , Yr y - WDivpXq is the inclusion. The first line is exact by definition: indeed, any
principal divisor over U associated to a rational function f P RpU q comes from a principal divisor over X,
to f P RpXq “ RpU q. On the other hand, the map PrincpXq - PrincpU q has kernel exactly PrincY pXq.
ˇ
The second line is exact: indeed, if D P WDivpXq and DˇU “ 0, then D has to be supported in Yi Yi
and hence it has to be supported in xYi y. The vertical arrow up left is the induced map between kernels.
The map xYi y - xLYi y sends Yi to LYi . The other two lower vertical arrows are the morphisms induced
by the previous theorem: hence the middle and right vertical sequences are exact. Moreover the map
xLYi y - PicpXq is the inclusion.
So we are left to prove that the last horizontal sequence is exact in the middle and on the right. Surjectivity
of the map PicpXq - PicpU q is easy, since the composition WDivpXq - WDivpU q - PicpU q is
surjective because composition of two surjective maps. But this composition coincide with the composition
WDivpXq - PicpXq - PicpU q. But if a composition is surjective, necessarily the second map has
to be surjective. Hence PicpXq - PicpU q is surjective. We are left with proving that the last sequence
ˇ
is exact in the middle. Take L P PicpXq that LˇU is (isomorphic to the) trivial (bundle). Lift L to a
ˇ ˇ
Weil divisor D P WDivpXq. For sure Dˇ goes to the trivial bundle in PicpU q. Then Dˇ is the divisor
U U
of a rational function h P RpU q. But that function gives a divisor div phq P PrincpXq. Consider now
ř
D ´ div phq P WDivpXq. It goes to zero on WDivpU q. Hence D ´ div phq “ i γi Yi , since the middle
sequence is exact. Send now this relation between divisors in PicpXq: we get L “ bi LγYii proving that
actually L came from the subgroup xLYi y. The theorem is proved.

195
Exercise 180. Let X be an integral variety regular in codimension 1. Let U be a nonempty open set of X.
Let Y1 , . . . , Yr be the irreducible components of the closed XzU . Prove that one still has

0 - xY1 , . . . , Yr y - WDivpXq - WDivpU q - 0.

The previous theorem allows us to compute the Picard group of Pnk .

Corollary 3.3.26. We have that PicpAnk q “ 0.

Proof. An integral hypersurface Y of Ank is given by the ideal of an irreducible polynomial pf q. Indeed, take
f P IY , nonzero and factorize it in irreducible elements:

f “ g1α 1 ¨ ¨ ¨ grα r .

Then, since Y Ď V pf q “ V pg1 ¨ ¨ ¨ gr q “ Xi V pgi q. But now V pgi q are irreducible. Hence Y “ V pgj0 q for some
?
gj0 . Since Yi is integral, IYi is prime and hence radical. Then IY “ IY “ pgj0 q. So any divisor is principal.
Since Ank is factorial, by the previous theorem we have that WDivpAnk q{ PrincpAnk q “ 0 “ PicpAnk q.

The same vanishing for the Picard group also works for more general situation. If we remember the
theorem

Theorem 3.3.27. Let A be an integral noetherian domain. Then A is UFD if and only if every height 1
prime ideal is principal.

Proof. [Mat89, Theorem 20.1]. The proof is not difficult. It just makes use of Krull’s Hauptidealsatz (the
fact that any minimal associated prime of a principal ideal paq is of height 1: this is exactly our Krull’s
theorem, proved in the first part of the course).

then we can prove the following theorem

Theorem 3.3.28. Let X be an affine integral algebraic variety. Then krXs is a UFD if and only if PicpXq “
0 and X is normal.

Corollary 3.3.29. We have that PicpPnk q “ ZOPnk p1q.

Proof. Let Y be a hyperplane of Pnk : it is given by a linear equation in the homogeneous coordinates x0 , . . . , xn
and hence associated to a global section of OPnk p1q. The complementary Pnk zY is isomorphic to Ank . Hence
PicpPnk q is generated by OPnk p1q. We just have to prove that OPnk p1q is not a torsion element in PicpPnk q.
Suppose that OPnk p1qbk » OX for some k. We can suppose, without loss of generality, that k ă 0, that is,
suppose tha H bk » OX . But H is isomorphic to the ideal of an hyperplane, as locally free sheaf. But H bk
is isomorphic to the ideal sheaf of k hyperplanes H1 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ Y Hk , two by two distinct (not to have multiple
components). Set Z “ H1 Y ¨ ¨ ¨ Y Hk . If H bk » IZ , since the sheaf IZ is a subsheaf of OPnk , we have the
exact sequence of sheaves
0 - IZ - OPn - i˚ OZ - 0
k

and hence we would have the exact sequence at the level of global sections

0 - ΓpPnk , IZ q Ă - ΓpPnk , OPn q - ΓpZ, OZ q

k

196
since if F is a subsheaf of G, then, on any open subset U , we have the injection FpU q Ă - GpU q and where
the last map is the restriction of a regular function to Z. But since ΓpPnk , OPnk q “ k, and the restriction to
a constant function to Z is injective, we would have that ΓpPnk , IZ q is the kernel of the injective restriction
map k “ ΓpPn , OPn q Ă - ΓpZ, OZ q and hence zero, which implies ΓpPn , H bk q “ 0, so it can’t be trivial.
k k k

Exercise 181. Prove that PicpPnk ˆ Pnk q is isomorphic to Z2 , via the map associating pp, qq - OPn ppq b
k

OPm
k
pqq.

Exercise 182. Prove, by hand, that any line bundle over an open set U of Ank is trivial.

Exercise 183. Compute the Picard group of the circle x2 ` y 2 ´ 1 “ 0 in A2 .

Exercise 184. Suppose that k is of characteristic ‰ 2. Prove that the Picard group of the sphere S2 in A3k ,
given by the equation x2 ` y 2 ` z 2 “ 1 is isomorphic to Z.

Exercise 185. Let k an algebraically closed field of characteristic zero. Prove that the circle x2 ` y 2 ´ 1 “ 0
in k 2 is a factorial variety, but its ring of regular functions krx, ys{px2 ` y 2 ´ 1q is not factorial.

Exercise 186. Let k an algebraically closed field of characteristic zero. Let C the circle of the previous
exercise. Find an isomorphism f : P1k - C. (for example, use the stereographic projection). What is the
degree of the line bundel f ˚ TC˚ ?

Definition 3.3.30. The degree of a divisor D P WDivpPnk q is the coefficient d P Z such that OPnk pDq »
OPnk pdq.

Exercise 187. Let X be an integral variety regular in codimension 1. Let Z a closed subset of X, of
codimension ě 2. Let U “ XzZ. Prove that WDivpXq » WDivpU q.

Exercise 188. Let C be an irreducible curve in P2k of degree d. Prove that WDivpP2k zCq » Z{dZ.

We end with the fundamental definition of the canonical divisor. We use that fact that if X is nonsingular
in codimension 1 and U “ Xsmooth “ Xz SingpXq the open set of smooth points, then WDivpXq “ WDivpU q.

Definition 3.3.31. Let X be a normal irreducible variety of dimension n, and hence smooth in codimension
1. Let U “ Xsmooth the set of smooth points of X. The canonical divisor of X, denoted with KX , is the
ˇ
Weil divisor in WDivpXq given by the divisor of any rational differential form ω : V - KU ˇ (section of
V
the canonical line bundle KU of U ), with V Ď U nonempty open set. The canonical divisor is only defined
up to linear equivalence.

Remark 3.3.32. It is not clear, a priori, that two distinct rational differential forms ω1 ‰ ω2 over U give the
same Weil divisor. Suppose that ω1 is defined over V1 and ω2 is defined over V2 . Then ω2 “ f ω1 , with f a
rational function on V1 X V2 . Hence, as Weil divisors over U , we have div pω1 q “ div pω2 q ` div pf q. So it is
not true that two rational differential forms on U give the same divisor, but only linearly equivalent divisors.
Also, any formula involving the canonical divisor has to be true up to linear equivalence.

Exercise 189. Let KPnk the canonical divisor of Pnk . Let H be any hyperplane of Pnk . Prove that in
WDivpXq{PrincpXq, we have
KPnk „ ´pn ` 1qH .

Exercise 190. Find the canonical divisor of the cone X: x2 ` y 2 “ z 2 in A3k .

197
3.3.4 Linear systems and immersions in the projective space
A criterion for a morphism to be an closed immersion

Lemma 3.3.33. Let f : X - Y be an injective finite morphism of algebraic varieties. Let x P X and
y “ f pxq. Then the morphism of local algebras

f ˚ : OY,y - OX,x

makes OX,x a finitely generated module over OY,y .

Proof. Being finite (and hence closed) and injective, this means, that topologically f is an homeomorphism
onto a closed subset of Y . This means that, at any point x P X, a bases of neighbourhoods around x is
given by open sets of the form f ´1 pV q, with V open set in Y containing y. Take u P OX,x : by what we said
we can imagine that u is the germ of a regular function on a neighbourhood of x of the form f ´1 pV q, with
V an affine open set of y in Y . Since f is finite and the morphism OY pV q - OX pf ´1 pV qq is integral,
then it follows that u is integral over OY,y . But we still need to prove that OX,x is a finitely generated as
OY,y -algebra: in this case by proposition ?? we will have that OX,x is a finitely generated OY,y -module.
Fixing V and U “ f ´1 pV q as above, take v1 , . . . , vn generators of the finite type algebra OX pU q: then the
germes vi,x generate OX,x : indeed, if wx is the germ of a function OX pf ´1 pW q, with W Ď V , W affine, say
W “ Vq , q P OY pV q, qpyq ‰ 0, then we will have wf ˚ pqqk P OX pU q, for some k ą 0. Then

wf ˚ pqqk “ P pv1 , . . . , vn q

in OX pU q and then
P pv1 , . . . , vn q
w“
f ˚ pqqk
which shows that wx is a polynomial in vi,x with coefficients in OY,y .

Lemma 3.3.34. Let f : X - Y be a finite injective morphism of algebraic varieties. Let x P X; take
y “ f pxq. Suppose that the tangent map Tx f : Tx X - Ty Y is injective. Then the morphism of local
k-algebras
f ˚ : OY,y - OX,x

is surjective.

Proof. Set A “ OY,y and OX,x be the local rings of Y at y and of X at x, respectively, and let mA and
mB the corresponding maximal ideals. By the previous lemma we know that, under our hypothesis, the
morphism of local k-algebras
f˚ : A - B

makes B a finite A-module. The induced morphism

f ˚ : mA {m2A - mB {m2B

is exactly the cotangent map, hence injective, since the dual of the tangent map in the statement. This
means that the image f ˚ pmA q in mB {m2B is everything: hence

mB “ f ˚ pmA qB ` m2B .

198
Now mB is a finite B-module (because B is noetherian). Then Nakayama’s lemma (in the form [?, Corollary
2.7]) implies that mB “ f ˚ pmA qB. Consider now the isomorphism of A-modules (both are residue fields at
a point, hence isomorphic to k):
f ˚ : A{mA - B{mB .

Then, with the same argument, we get that B “ f ˚ pAq ` mB “ f ˚ pAq ` f ˚ pmA qB. Now we apply Nakayama
to the finitely generated A-module B and its submodule f ˚ pAq and we get

f ˚ pAq “ B ,

as requested.

Lemma 3.3.35. Let f : Y - X be an injective finite morphism of algebraic variety such that one has
the surjection of sheaves OX -- f˚ OY . Then, for each x P X there exists an open affine neighbrouhood
U of x in X such that the morphism of k-algebras

krU s - krf ´1 pU qs

is surjective.

Proof. If the morphism of sheaves OX - f˚ OY is surjective, then the morphism of stalks at x:

-

f ˚ : OX,x - OY,y

is surjective, where y “ f pxq. Take W be any affine open neighbourhood of x in X. The map f ˚ :
krW s - krf ´1 pW qs is integral, hence krf ´1 pW qs is a finitely generated krW s-module. Let v1 , . . . , vr be
a set of generators of krf ´1 pW qs over krW s: we have
ÿ
krf ´1 pW qs “ vi f ˚ krW s .
i

Now the germs vi,y P OY,y come from OX,x via f : hence vi,y “ f ˚ pui,x q, for some germe ui,x P OX,x .
˚

Consider now an affine open set U Ď W of X around x such that all ui,x are regular over U : one can take
U principal, say U “ Wg , for some g P krU s and take ui,x germs of regular functions ui on krU s. Localizing
ř
at f ˚ pgq the relation krf ´1 pW qs “ i vi f ˚ krW s, we get
ÿ ˇ ÿ ˇ
krf ´1 pU qs “ krf ´1 pW qsf ˚ pgq “ vi ˇf ´1 pU q f ˚ krW sg “ vi ˇf ´1 pU q f ˚ krU s
i i

´1
Now pf pui qqy “ vi,y by construction and hence, up to restricting to a smaller principal open set (i.e:
localizing further at another h), since all open neighbourhood of Y are of the form f ´1 pAq for some open
set A in X around x, we can suppose that vi “ f ˚ pui q. Hence
ÿ ˇ ÿ ˇ
krf ´1 pU qs “ vi ˇf ´1 pU q f ˚ krU s “ f ˚ pui qˇf ´1 pU q f ˚ krU s
i i

˚ - krf ´1 pU qs is surjective.
which shows that f : krU s

Lemma 3.3.36. A finite injective morphism f : Y - X of algebraic varieties such that the natural
morphism of sheaves OX - f˚ OY is surjective is a closed immersion, that is, the image f pY q is closed
and f induces an isomorphism f : Y - Z, where Z has the reduced structure induced by the restriction
of regular functions in X.

199
Proof. The map f : Y - Z is an homeomorphism, since continuous, injective and closed, because finite
(and hence open). If ϕ is a regular function on Z, then it is locally a restriction of a regular function on
X (take an affine open subset U of X such that U X Z is inside the domain of definition of ϕ). Hence, if
ˇ ˇ
ϕˇU XZ “ ψ ˇZ , for some ψ P OX pU q, then f ˚ ϕ “ f ˚ ψ which is regular over f ´1 pU q, since f : Y - X is a
morphism. So we just need to prove that if ϕ P OY pV q, then ϕ ˝ f ´1 is a regular function on Z. Since f is
an homeomorphism, f pV q is an open set of Z, and hence f pV q “ Z X U for some open set U of X. Hence
f ´1 pU q “ V . This means that all open sets of Y are of the form f ´1 pU q with U open set of X. Consider
y P V “ f ´1 pU q. We prove that ϕ ˝ f ´1 is regular around f pxq. Indeed, by the previous lemma, restricting
U near x we can assume that the map f ˚ : krU s - krf ´1 pU qs is surjective. Hence ϕ “ f ˚ ψ for some
ˇ
ψ P krU s. By definitiono of the algebraic structure in Z, ψ ˇZ is a regular function in U X Z. But now it is
ˇ
easy to prove that ϕ ˝ f ´1 “ ϕˇ over U X Z. Hence ϕ´1 ˝ f is regular around x in Z.
Z

Remark 3.3.37. We proved that a finite injective morphism f : Y Ă - X such that OX - f˚ OY is

-
surjective is a closed immersion. We do not actually need the first hypothesis. Indeed one can prove that
a injective closed morphism such that the morphism of sheaves OX - - f˚ OY is surjective is a closed
immersion. But this is more difficult to prove (one needs the coherence of the ideal sheaf, kernel of the
morphism OX - - f˚ OY ). See Mumford, Red Book, pages 104–¿ 108.

We can now summarize all the lemmas we proved in the statement of the following Theorem.

Theorem 3.3.38. A finite injective morphism f : Y - X of algebraic varieties such that the tangent
map Ty f : Ty Y - Tf pyq X is injective for all y P Y is a closed immersion.

Proof. By the various lemmas we proved, the condition on the injectivity of the differential implies, at any
x P X, the surjectivity of morphism of local k-algebras

f ˚ : OX,x - OY,y ,

where x “ f pyq. But this means that the morphism of sheaves

f ˚ : OX - f˚ OY

is surjective. We conclude with the previous lemma.

Linear systems

Definition 3.3.39. A linear system on an irreducible algebraic variety X is the data of a finite dimensional
vector subspace W of the space of global section ΓpX, Lq of a line bundle L over X. If ΓpX, Lq is finite
dimensional, the linear system defined by the full vector space ΓpX, Lq is called the complete linear system
associated to L.

Remark 3.3.40. Let W Ă ΓpX, Lq a linear system over the algebraic variety X. Any element s P W
defines a Cartier divisor rL, ss on X, whose associated line bundle is L. Of course section differing by a
constant give the same divisor: hence it is better to take the projective space PpW q of the projective space
|L| :“ PpΓpX, Lqq. So a linear system W defines a projective subspace of the projective space of (Cartier)

200
divisors whose associated line bundle is L. If dim PpW q “ 1, we talk of a pencil of divisors, if dim PpW q “ 2
we talk of a net of divisors over X. The set of base points of the linear system W is

BspW q “ tx P X | spxq “ 0 , @s P W u .

If BspW q “ H, we say that W is base-point free. In other words, a linear system W Ď ΓpX, Lq is base-point
free if and only if the evaluation morphism of vector bundles

ev : X ˆ W - L

sending px, sq - spxq is surjective.

Exercise 191. Prove that a pencil of plane algebraic curves of degree n has exactly n2 base points (counted
with multiplicities). (Use Bézout theorem).

Exercise 192. Let f : X - Y be a morphism of algebraic variety. Suppose that 0 - E - F - G - 0

is an exact sequence of vector bundles over Y . Prove that the induced sequence

0 - f ˚E - f ˚F - f ˚G - 0

is exact.

Exercise 193. Let V be a n-dimensional vector space over the field k. Let X be an algebraic variety
and let Homalg pX, Grpm, V q the set of morphisms of algebraic varieties from X to the Grassmannian of
m-dimensional vector spaces of V . Let S be the universal subbundle of VGr . Let Sm pX, V q the set of rank
m subbundles of the trivial vector bundles of VX . Prove that for any morphism f P Homalg pX, Grpm, V q,
the pull-back f ˚ S is in Sm pX, V q. Prove that the map

Homalg pX, Grpm, V q - Sm pX, V q

sending
f - f ˚S

is a bijection. This means that giving a morphism from a variety to the Grassmannian Grpm, V q is equivalent
to giving a subbundle of rank m of the trivial vector bundle VX “ X ˆ V .

Remark 3.3.41. Let W be a vector space of dimension m`1. The dual projective space PpW q˚ is by definition
PpW q˚ :“ Grpm, W q, that is, the projective space (grassmannian) of hyperplanes in W . If Z P PpW q˚ , then
W {Z is a one-dimensional quotient of W . On the other hand, if Q is a one dimensional quotient q : W -- Q
of W , then ker q is an hyperplane of W . This means that PpW q˚ parametrizes also one-dimensional quotients
of W . Moreover, if Z is an hyperplane of W , the exact sequence

0 - Z - W - W {Z - 0

can be dualized to get the exact sequence

0 - pW {Zq˚ - W˚ - Z˚ - 0.

Note that
rest
pW {Zq˚ » kerpW ˚ - Z ˚ q “ tw˚ P W ˚ | w˚ phq “ 0@h P Zu “ Z K

201
and hence pW {Zq˚ (or better its image in W ˚ ) can be identified with Z K . This means we have a canonical
isomorphism
PpW q˚ - PpW ˚ q

given by Z - pW {Zq˚ » Z K , or, in term of one-dimensional quotients Q of W , pq : W -

- Qq - q ˚ pQ˚ q.
We now describe briefly the charts and tangent spaces, in order to compute tangent maps later. If
` P PpW q, we have, similarly to grassmannians, that a fundamental affine neighbourhood around ` (such
that ` is the origin) is given by
Homk p`, W {`q .
Similarly, we have HompZ, W {Zq, or HompKQ , Qq, if KQ “ kerpV - Qq (forgetting, by abuse of notation,
-
the map q), is a fundamental affine neighbourhood of Z P PpW q˚ , or of the quotient Q in PpW q˚ . Hence

TZ PpW q˚ » HompZ, W {Zq » HompZ, Z K q .

Similarly, in term of the one-dimensional quotient Q:

TQ PpW q˚ “ HompKQ , Qq .

Now, since PpW q˚ and PpW ˚ q are canonically isomorphic, their tangent spaces have to be canonically
isomorphic as well, and hence TZ PpW q˚ “ HompZ, W {Zq has to be canonically isomorphic to TZ K PpW ˚ q »
HompZ K , V ˚ {Z K q, but Z K » pW {Zq˚ and V ˚ {Z K » Z ˚ and hence HomppV {Zq˚ , Z ˚ q » HompZ, V {Zq,
where the canonical isomorphism is given by dualization. Hence

TZ PpW q˚ “ HompZ, W {Zq » HomppW {Zq˚ , Z ˚ q » HompZ K , W ˚ {Z K qTZ K PpW ˚ q

In terms of one dimensional quotients q : W - Q,

TQ PpW q˚ » HompKQ , Qq » Hompq ˚ pQ˚ q, KQ

˚
q » HompQ˚ , W ˚ {Q˚ q » TQ˚ PpW ˚ q .

Fix now a basis e0 , ¨ ¨ ¨ , en of V and suppose that the hyperplane Z (or the quotient W {Z) has Plückerian
coordinates r1, 0, . . . , 0s, that is W {Z “ xre0 sy and pW {Zq˚ “ Z K “ xe˚0 y and Z “ xe1 , . . . , en y. Consider
řn
the open set U0 “{ i“0 αi e˚i | α0 ‰ 0u of PpW ˚ q. The chart

U0 - HompZ, W {Zq » HomppW {Zq˚ , Z ˚ q

is given by
n n
ÿ ÿ αi ˚
αi e˚i ei b πpe0 q
-
i“0
α
i“1 0
where π : W - W {Z. Note that the expression řn αi e˚ b πpe0 q defines automatically an element of
i“1 α0 i
HomppW {Zq˚ , Z ˚ q.

Exercise 194. Let W be a vector space of dimension m ` 1. Consider the isomorphism of algebraic varieties

f : Grpm, W q - PpW ˚ q

sending Z - Z K . Let S be the universal bundle of rank m over the Grassmannian. Consider the universal
quotient (of rank 1).
0 - S - W - Q - 0.

Then prove that

f ˚ OPpW ˚ q p1q “ Q .

202
Proof. Hint: dualize the sequence 0 - S - W - Q - 0 over Grpm, W q to obtain

0 - Q˚ ˚
- WGr - S˚ - 0.

Find out how this implies that f ˚ OPpW ˚ q p´1q » Q˚ .

Theorem 3.3.42. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety. Let L be a line bundle over X and W Ď ΓpX, Lq
be a linear system. Then W induce a map

ϕ : U :“ XzBspW q - PpW ˚ q
ˇ
such that ϕ˚ OPpW ˚ q p1q “ LˇU .

Proof. Set m ` 1 “ dim W . Over U the morphism of vector bundles

ˇ ev ˇ
WX ˇU - Lˇ
U

is surjective. Hence, for any x P U , ker evx “ Zx Ď W is a vector subspace of dimension m and ker ev is a
ˇ
subbundle of WX ˇ . By projective duality, we can see PpW ˚ q as the projective space of hyperplanes in PpW q,
U
that is, we have the isomorphism Grpm, W q » PpW ˚ q. The map U Q x - Zx P Grpm, W q » PpW ˚ q
defines a morphism
U - PpW ˚ q .

Since the isomorphism Grpm, W q » PpW ˚ q is given by K - K K , and since W » Zx ‘ Lx , then

ev˚
0 - L˚x - W˚
x - Zx˚ - 0

hence ZxK » L˚x , so that one can prove that the morphism U - PpW ˚ q is precisely given by x - ev˚x pL˚x q Ď
W ˚ . The morphism ψ : U - Grpm, W q is such that ψ ˚ S » Z. Hence
ˇ
ϕ˚ OPpW ˚ q p1q » ψ ˚ Q » Lˇ U

since
ˇ
0 - Z - WX ˇ
U
- L - 0

over U . As a consequence the pre-image of the hyperplane defined by s P W zt0u is the hypersurface V psq
over U .

Corollary 3.3.43. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety. Let L be a line bundle over X and W Ď ΓpX, Lq
be a linear system without base points. Then W induce a map

ϕW : XzBspW q - PpW ˚ q

such that ϕ˚ OPpW ˚ q p1q “ L. Moreover, for a point x P XzBspW q, we have

TϕW pxq PpW ˚ q » Hompev˚x pLx q˚ , Zx˚ q » HompZx , Lx q .

Corollary 3.3.44. Suppose that ΓpX, Lq is finite dimensional. If L is globally generated, then the complete
linear system ΓpX, Lq is base-point free and allows a regular morphism

ϕL : X - PpΓpX, Lq˚ q ,

such that ϕ˚L OPpΓpX,Lq˚ q p1q » L.

203
Definition 3.3.45. Let X be an algebraic variety. We say that a linear system W Ď ΓpX, Lq separates
points if, for any a, b P X, a ‰ b, there exists a section s P W such that spaq ‰ spbq.

Remark 3.3.46. Prove that if W separates points then BspW q “ H.

Definition 3.3.47. Let X be an algebraic variety and let L be a line bundle over X. Consider the OX,x -
modules OX pLqx of germs of the sheaf OX pLq at the point x. The vector space

Jxr pLq :“ OX pLqx {mxr`1 OX pLqx

is called the vector space of jets of order r of sections of L at the point x P X. The natural map

j r : OX pLqx - Jxr pLq

associates to any germ of a section of L its jet of order r.

Remark 3.3.48. The vector space Jx0 pLq :“ OX pLq{mx OX pLqx is isomorphic to Lx , since mx OX pLqx is
exactly the kernel of the evaluation map evx : OX pLqx - Lx at the point x P X. Therefore we have an
exact sequence (by definition):

0 - mx OX pLqx {m2x OX pLqx - Jx1 pLq - Lx - 0.

Now the first vector space over k is isomorphic to

mx OX pLqx {m2x OX pLqx » mx {m2x bOX,x OX pLq

since OX pLqx is a OX,x -free module and

mx {m2x bOX,x OX pLqx » pmx {m2x bkx OX,x {mx q bOX,x OX pLqx » mx {m2x bkx bpOX,x {mx bOX,x OX pLqx q
» mx {m2x bkx bOX pLqx {mx OX pLqx » Tx˚ bk Lx

Hence we have an exact sequence of vector spaces over k:

0 - Tx˚ bk Lx - Jx1 pLq - Lx - 0.

This means that, for a germ of a section s P OX pLqx , if spxq “ 0, then jx psq “ dx s, the intrinsic differential
of the section s at x.
Remark 3.3.49. The exact sequence of the previous remark is valid in general, for any (reduced) algebraic
variety X. In general, we have, with a similar proof exact sequences

0 - mm m`1
x {mx bk Lx - Jxm pLq - Jxm´1 pLq - 0.

If the variety X is smooth at the point x, the previous sequence is exactly the exact sequence

0 - S m Tx˚ bk Lx - Jxm pLq - Jxm´1 pLq - 0.

We now compute the differential of the map ϕL .

204
Proposition 3.3.50. Let X be an algebraic variety and L be a line bundle over X. Let W Ď ΓpX, Lq a
finite dimensional vector space of ΓpX, Lq. Let x0 P XzBspXq. The tangent map Tx0 ϕW of the map

ϕW : XzBspW q - PpW ˚ q

can be identified with the map

Tx0 X - HompZx , Lx q
0 0

sending ´ ¯
v - s - pdx sqpvq ,
0

where dx0 s : Tx0 X - Lx0 is the intrinsic differential of a section s P Zx0 of L vanishing at x0 .

Proof. Fix the point x0 P XzBspXq and consider a basis s0 , . . . , sm of the vector space W , such that s1 , . . . , sm
is a basis of ker evx0 “ Zx0 , as in remark 3.3.41. Therefore s0 px0 q P Lx0 is a basis of Lx0 and xps˚0 qy is a
basis of ev˚x0 L˚x0 . Set as U0 the open set

V “ ty P X | s0 pyq ‰ 0u .
ř
Of course, by definition V Ď XzBspXq. For any y P V , the hyperplane Zy is given by sections i γi si P W
ř
such that i γi si pyq “ 0 and hence it has Plückerian coordinates rs0 pyq, . . . , sm pyqs in PpW ˚ q: therefore it
can be identified with the line
m
ÿ
ev˚y Ly “ x si pyqs˚i y
i“0

but, since s0 pyq ‰ 0, we also have

m
ÿ si pyq ˚
ev˚y Ly “ xs˚0 ` s y
s pyq i
i“1 0
řm
in PpW ˚ q. Consider now the fundamental affine open set U0 “ tx i“0 αi s˚i y Ă W ˚ | α0 ‰ 0u. We use the
chart θ
U0 - LpZx0 , Lx0 q

of remark 3.3.41, given by

n n
ÿ ÿ αi ˚
αi s˚i - si b s0 px0 q ,
i“0
α
i“1 0

since, in this case, the projection W - - W {Zy is identified to evx0 : W - Lx0 . Compose the map
ˇ
ϕW ˇV with this local chart θ. We get the map
m
ˇ ÿ sj pyq ˚
θ ˝ ϕW ˇV : y - s b s0 px0 q .
s pyq j
j“1 0

Set fi pyq the regular functions on V defined by s0 pyqfi pyq “ si pyq (remember that s0 pyq is, over V a frame of
řm
L, while si pyq, for i ‰ 0 is any other section). Then the map θ ˝ ϕW is iven by y - fj pyqs˚ b s0 px0 q.
j“1 j
The tangent map of θ ˝ ϕW at x0 is given by
m
ÿ
Tx0 pθ ˝ ϕW q “ pdx0 fj qs˚j b s0 px0 q .
j“1

205
But now
m
ÿ m
ÿ
Tx0 pθ ˝ ϕW qpvq “ pdx0 fj qpvqs˚j b s0 px0 q “ s˚j b pdx0 fj qpvqs0 px0 q
j“1 j“1
ÿm
“ s˚j b dx0 pfj s0 qpvq
j“1
ÿm
“ s˚j b dx0 sj pvq P HompZx0 , Lx0 q
j“1

that is
m
ÿ
Tx0 pθ ˝ ϕW q “ dx0 sj b s˚j
j“1

as an element of Tx˚0 X b Lx0 b Zx˚0 . But this coindices with the map

v - pt - dx0 tpvqq

ř ř
since, if t “ i αi si , then dx0 tpvq “ i αi dx0 spvq and
m
´ÿ ¯ ÿ ÿ ÿ
dx0 sj b s˚j pv, tq “ dx0 sj pvq b s˚j p αi si q “ αj dx0 sj pvq .
j“1 j“1 i j

Hence
Tx0 pθ ˝ ϕW q : v - pt - dx0 tpvqq

as requested.

Remark 3.3.51. If V and W are vector spaces with basis vi and wj , if a linear map f : V - W is expressed
ř
as f “ ji αij vj˚ b wi as an element of V ˚ b W , the same element defines the dual f ˚ : W ˚ b V ˚ in terms
of the dual basis.

Corollary 3.3.52. In the hypothesis of the previous proposition, the cotangent map Tx˚0 ϕW of the map ϕW ,
saw as a map
Tx˚0 ϕW : Zx0 - Tx˚ X b Lx0
0

is given by
t - dx0 t .

Proof. By the previous proposition, we proved that the tangent map Tx0 ϕW has the form v - ps - pdx sqpvqq
and it is given, in terms of the basis s0 , . . . sn of W , by
n
ÿ
pdx0 si q b s˚i
i“1

as an element of Tx˚0 b Zx˚0 b Lx0 . But this defines a map Zx0 - Tx˚ b Lx0 — which is precisely the dual
0

by the previous remark – defined by

n
ÿ
t - pdx0 si q b s˚i ptq “ dx0 t .
i“1

206
Definition 3.3.53. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety and let L be a line bundle over X. Consider
a linear system given by a finite dimensional vector space W Ď ΓpX, Lq; suppose that W is base-point free.
We say that the linear system W separates tangents if the map W - Jx pLq sending s - jx psq is
0 0

surjective.

Remark 3.3.54. For a base-point free linear system W , the composition W - Jx0 pLq - Lx0 coincides
with evx0 and hence it is always surjective. Therefore, the condition of separating tangents is equivalent to
the fact that the induced map
Zx0 - Tx˚ X b Lx0
0

sending t - dx0 t is surjective. By the previous corollary, this, in turn, is equivalent to the fact that
Tx0 ϕW is injective.
Putting all pieces together, and assuming the

Proposition 3.3.55. Let X be a proper variety. Any injective morphism f : X Ă - PpV q into a projective
space is finite18 .

whose proof is still somewhat difficult at this point, we proved the following fundamental theorem

Theorem 3.3.56. Let X be a proper variety and L be a line bundle over X. Let W Ď ΓpX, Lq be a linear
system over X such that
a) W separates points;
b) W separates tangents.
Then the morphism ϕW : X - PpW ˚ q sending x to the hyperplane Zx of sections of W vanishing over x
is a closed immersion such that ϕ˚W OPpW ˚ q p1q » L.

On the other hand, any morphism from an irreducible variety X to a projective space PpV q is obtained
as a map ϕW for some W Ď ΓpX, Lq for some L over X. Indeed

Theorem 3.3.57. Let X be an irreducible algebraic variety. Let f : X - PpV q a morphism to the
projective space PpV q, for V of dimension n ` 1. Then the line bundle L :“ f ˚ OPpV q p1q is globally generated
by the section f ˚ e˚i , where e˚i are a basis of sections of ΓpPpV q, OP p1qq. Moreover, setting W “ xf ˚ pei q, i “
0, . . . , en y, we naturally have that W ˚ Ă - V and that we have j ˝ ϕW “ f , where j is the natural morphism
PpW ˚ q Ă - PpV q.

Proof. Over PpV q we have the exact sequence

ev
ΓpPpV q, OPpV q p1qq b kPpV q -- OPpV q p1q

since OPpV q p1q is globally generated. Pulling back to X via f we have

f ˚ pevq
ΓpPpV q, OPpV q p1qq b kX - f ˚ OPpV q p1q .
-
18 We actually need a somewhat weaker result, the fact that OPpV q,f pxq - OX,x makes OX,x a finitely generated OPpV q,f pxq -
module. This is a consequence of the fact that the sheaf f˚ OX is coherent. This is not so difficult, but still far for us now. The
most straightforward to prove this way is cohomological. See Hartshorne [Har77, II. 5.20] for a non-cohomological proof in the
case X is projective. For the case X is proper, see EGA III, 3.2.1. We wanted to give the statement of the main theorem in
the most general form, in order to make as clear as possible the concept of ample line bundle.

207
Now the morphism of vector bundles f ˚ pevq takes a section s P ΓpPpV q, OPpV q p1qq and evaluates f ˚ psq at a
point x. So
f ˚ pevqx psq “ evx f ˚ psq “ spf pxqq .

Hence the map of vector bundles

evx
W b kX - f ˚ OPpV q p1q

is surjective. This proves that f ˚ OPpV q p1q is globally generated by f ˚ pe˚i q, i “ 0, . . . , n. Set L “ f ˚ OPpV q p1q.
f˚
Of course f ˚ pe˚ q P ΓpX, Lq. Set W “ xf ˚ pe˚ q, i “ 0, . . . , my. Of course we have that V ˚ -
i i
- W and hence
that W ˚ Ă - V . We just have to prove that for any x P X, j ˝ ϕW pxq “ f pxq. First of all, if x P X, we
have that
ÿ ÿ
Zx “ t αi f ˚ pe˚i q | αi f ˚ pe˚i qpxq “ 0u
i i
ÿ ÿ
“ t αi f ˚ pe˚i q | αi e˚i pf pxqq “ 0u
i i
˚ ˚
“ tf psq | s P V , spf pxqq “ 0u
“ tf ˚ psq | s P Hf pxq u
“ f ˚ pHf pxq q

where Hf pxq is the hyperplane of sections in ΓpPpV q, OPpV q p1qq “ V ˚ vanishing on f pxq. It is clear that under
the surjective map f ˚ : V ˚ - W , codim f ˚ pHf pxq q ď 1. But since OPpV q p1q is globally generated on PpV q,
there exists t P V ˚ such that tpf pxqq ‰ 0. Hence f ˚ ptqpxq ‰ 0, with f ˚ ptq P W . Hence codim f ˚ pHf pxq q ě 1
and hence f ˚ pHf pxq q is an hyperplane in W . Therefore ϕW is a well defined map and sends

XQx - f ˚ pHf pxq qK P PpW ˚ q .

We just have to prove that j ˝ ϕW “ f . Now j : W ˚ Ă - V is exactly the dual of the linear map (pull back)
f˚ : V ˚ -- W . Hence the identity we want to prove reduces to the linear algebra identity

jpj ˚ pHf pxq qK q “ f pxq

By standard linear algebra19 we get that

´1
jpj ˚ pHf pxq qK q “ pj ˚ pj ˚ pHf pxq qqqK

Now j ˚ ´1 pj ˚ pHf pxq qq “ Hf pxq , since the inclusion Ě is clear, and j ˚ ´1 pj ˚ pHf pxq qq is a codimension 1 subspace
of V since j ˚ is surjective. Hence
jpj ˚ pHf pxq qK q “ HfKpxq .

But this is exactly f pxq by projective duality.

Exercise 195. Consider the nodal projective cubic zy 2 “ x3 ` zx2 in P2k , with homogeneous coordinates
rx, y, zs. Find a morphism f : P1 - P2 , generically injective, and having as image the curve C. (Project
k k
the curve minus the origin from the point O “ r0, 0, 1s: that’s the rational parametrization of the nodal
curve). Find L and W over P1 such that f “ ϕW . Does W separate points? Does it separate tangents?
19 Consider a linear map a : V1 - V2 between finite dimensional vector spaces. It is easy to prove that if Z Ď V2 is a
vector subspace, then a˚ pZ K q “ pa pZqqK
´1 in V1˚ .

208
Definition 3.3.58. Let X be an irreducible variety. A line bundle A over X is said to be very ample if
there exists an immersion20 ϕ : X Ă - PpV q into a projective space such that ϕ˚ OPpV q p1q » L.

Proposition 3.3.59. Let X a proper irreducible variety. Then X is projective if and only if X admits a
very ample line bundle L.

Proof. Indeed, if X is projective, then X is a closed subvariety of PpV q and if i is the inclusion i˚ OPpV q p1q
is very ample by definition. On the other hand, if X is proper and L is a very ample line bundle on X, then
there exists an immersion ϕ : X Ă - PpV q such that ϕ˚ OPpV q p1q » L. But being X proper, ϕpXq is closed
and ϕ is a closed immersion, so X is isomorphic to a closed subvariety of the projective space PpV q, and
hence projective.

What does a very ample line bundle has to do with a linear system separating points and tangents? First,
we have

Proposition 3.3.60. Let X a proper variety and L be a line bundle over X. Then dim ΓpX, Lq ă 8.

Proof. Still a consequence that the push forward f˚ L of L via a proper morphism is coherent. In this case
take f : X - tptu. Being a coherent sheaf over a point means that f˚ L is a finite dimensional vector
space over k, and it coincides with the sections ΓpX, Lq.

Theorem 3.3.61. Let X be a proper irreducible variety. Then a line bundle L over X is very ample if and
only if the complete linear system ΓpX, Lq separates points and separates tangents.

Proof. Since X is proper the vector space ΓpX, Lq is finite dimensional. If ΓpX, Lq separates points and
tangents, the rational map ϕL is a morphism and a closed immersion into PpΓpX, Lq˚ q by the main theorem.
Moreover, ϕ˚ OPpΓpX,Lq˚ q p1q » L. Hence L is very ample over X. On the other hand, if L is very ample,
there exists an immersion ψ : X Ă - PpV q – and hence a closed immersion, since X is proper – such
that ψ ˚ OPpV q p1q » L. Considering a basis e˚0 , . . . , e˚n of V ˚ » ΓpPpV q, OPpV q p1qq, we have that the sections
ψ ˚ pe˚i q globally generate L. Hence W “ xψ ˚ pei q, i “ 0, . . . , my Ď ΓpX, Lq globally generate L and is such
that ψ “ j ˝ ϕW by theorem 3.3.57. But ψ “ j ˝ ϕW is a closed immersion, and hence ϕW is a closed
immersion and hence W separates points and tangents. Hence, a fortiori, ΓpX, Lq separates points and
tangents.

Definition 3.3.62. Let X be a proper irreducible variety. A line bundle L is ample if there exists m P N˚
such that Lbm is very ample.

Exercise 196. Consider the projective space PpV q, with V finite dimensional. Prove that OPpV q pmq is very
ample if and only if m ě 1. Prove that, if m ě 1, ΓpPpV q, OPpV q pmqq » S m V ˚ » pS m V q˚ . Prove that the
embedding PpV q Ă - PpS m V q associated to the complete linear system ΓpPpV q, OPpV q pmqq can be identified
to Veronese embedding.

Exercise 197. Prove that if X is a proper variety and A, B are line bundles over X such that A is very
ample and B is globally generated, then A b B is very ample.
20 A morphism of algebraic varieties i : X - V of varieties is an immersion if it induces an isomorphism of X with a
subvariety (not necessarily closed) of V .

209
3.4 References for further interesting topics
3.4.1 27 lines on a cubic surfaces
Harris: 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 16.21, 16.22, 16.23.
Gathmann: https://www.mathematik.uni-kl.de/ gathmann/class/alggeom-2014/alggeom-2014-c11.pdf

Relation with 28 bitangents to smooth plane quartics?

3.4.2 Riemann-Hurwitz formula

We begin with Riemann-Hurwitz formula for curves.

Definition 3.4.1. Let f : X - Y a dominant morphism of smooth curves. Let P P X. The ramification
index of f at P is defined as
eP :“ νP pf ˚ tq

where t is the uniformizer of OY,f pP q and νP is the valuation of the DVR OX,P . If eP ą 1 we say that f is
ramified at P and that f is unramified at P if eP “ 1. Moreover, if eP ą 1 and if χk “ 0 or χk ffl eP , we say
that f is tamely ramified at P ; while if χk  eP , we say that f is wildly ramified at P .

Definition 3.4.2. The geometric genus gC of a smooth projective curve C is

gC “ dimk ΓpC, Ω1C q .

Remark 3.4.3. By the Riemann-Roch theorem, we know that

deg KC “ 2gC ´ 2 .

Theorem 3.4.4 (Riemann-Hurwitz formula). Let f : X - Y a finite separable tamely ramified morphism
of smooth projective curves. Then we have the relation in WDivpXq{ PrincpXq:
ÿ
KX „ f ˚ KY ` peP ´ 1qP .
P | eP ą1
ř
The divisor R “ P | eP ą1 peP ´ 1qP is called the ramification divisor of the morphism f . Taking degrees in
both sides, we get
ÿ
2gX ´ 2 “ dp2gY ´ 2q ` peP ´ 1q ,
P | eP ą1

where d “ deg f .

Theorem 3.4.5. Let f : X - Y a generically finite dominant morphism of smooth irreducible algebraic
varieties. Then in WDivpXq{ PrincpXq, we have KX » f ˚ KY ` R where R is an effective divisor with the
same support as ΩX{Y “ cokerpf ˚ Ω1 - ΩX q.
Y

Theorem 3.4.6. Let k a field of characteristic zero21 Let f : X - Y a finite surjective morphism of
smooth irreducible algebraic varieties22 . Let B be the branch locus of f . Write it as B “ Yi Bi , where Bi are
21 in characteristic p we need the χk ffl ei , that is, tame ramification, to have the same formula
22 The important thing here is that the morphism is generically étale, see Debarre, Higher Dimensional Alg. Geom.

210
the irreducible components of B. In the previous formula, the divisor R can be written as
ÿ
R “ pej ´ 1qRj
j

where Rj are the irreducible components of |f ´1 pBq| and ej are defined as

ej “ νBj pti q

where Bj “ f pRj q and νRj is the evaluation of the DVR OX,Rj and tj is a uniformizer of OY,Bj .

Proof. Sketch of the proof. One has to recall the result that q P B, the branch locus if and only if |f ´1 pqq| ă
deg f if and only if there exists p P f ´1 pqq such that Tp f is not an isomorphism. Then, throwing out
codimension 2 closed subsets, one can assume X and Y smooth. So, the formula Kx » f ˚ KY ` R, with
R supported in f ´1 pBq is done. (actually |R| “ |f ´1 pBq|). The closed subset |R| has components Ri of
codimension 1. Take B “ Yi Bi , with Bi irreducible components of B. Take q P Bi zpYh‰i Bh and suppose
that q is a smooth point of Bi . Locally around q the equation of Bi is given by ti “ 0. Complete ti to a
system of regular parameters of Y around q: ti , u1 , . . . , un´1 , over an open set V . Now take a meromorphic
section ω of Λn TY . Over V , we can write

ωpyq “ gpyqdti ^ du1 ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ dun´1

ˇ
for a meromorphic function gpyq. Then f ˚ ω is a section of Λn TX
˚
. Hence, over V , KX ˇV “ div pf ˚ ωq. Now
νRi pti q “ ei by definition, while ui do not vanish identically over Bi . Take p P Ri and suppose Ri is smooth
at p. Hence νRi pui q “ 0. Hence

f ˚ ω “ gpf pxqqdf ˚ ti ^ df ˚ pu1 q ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ df ˚ pun´1 q

“ f ˚ gdf ˚ ti ^ df ˚ pu1 q ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ df ˚ pun´1 q

One has to prove that the sequence df ˚ pu1 q, . . . , df ˚ pun´1 q is linearly independent in Ω1X and that if si is
the uniformizer of the local ring OX,Ri , then si , f ˚ u1 , . . . , f ˚ un´1 is a system of parameters around p. But
ˇ
since f ˇR : Ri - Bi is generically étale, since finite and surjective between irreducible varieties, it is true
i
„
that, generically over the base, f ˚ ΩBi - ΩRi and hence dsi ^ df ˚ pu1 q ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ df ˚ pun´1 q is a system of
parameters inside Ri (around the point q we chose). Hence si , f ˚ u1 , . . . , f ˚ un´1 is a system of parameters
around q in X. Then f ˚ ti “ αsei i and

f ˚ ω “ f ˚ gdsei i ^ df ˚ pu1 q ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ df ˚ pun´1 q “ f ˚ gsiei ´1 dsi ^ df ˚ pu1 q ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ df ˚ pun´1 q

Hence, over V ,

KX “ div pf ˚ ωq “ div psei i ´1 q ` div pf ˚ pgqdsi ^ df ˚ pu1 q ^ ¨ ¨ ¨ ^ df ˚ pun´1 qq

McKernan gives, as hypothesis, that X and Y are just normal varieties.

Theorem 3.4.8 (Topological Riemann-Hurwitz formula for complex varieties). Let f : X - Y a finite
map of smooth complex projective varieties of degree d. Let B be the branch locus. Then

χtop pXq “ dχtop pY q ` pχtop pZq ´ dχtop pBqq .

211
Exercise 198. Compute the Euler-Poincaré characteristic of a smooth degree d hypersurface in PnC (Use
that every such hypersurface is diffeomorphic to the Fermat hypersurface xd0 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` xdn “ 0).

Exercise 199. Take X as a smooth quartic surface in P3k , χk “ 0. Suppose that X is a 2 : 1 ramified cover
of a curve C in P2k . Find the degree of the curve.

Exercise 200. Consider a smooth irreducible cubic surface X in P3k , χk “ 0. Project X to P2 from a point
O R X. Suppose that every line through O meet X in at least two points. Prove that the projection π from
O defines a degree 3 ramified cover X -- P2 , ramified over a curve C. Find the degree of the curve.

Hartshorne, IV.2
Higher dimensional: mathoverflow question 71950
McKernan, http://math.mit.edu/ mckernan/Teaching/07-08/Autumn/18.735/l2.pdf
Barth-Peters-Van De Ven, Complex Surfaces (full proof in case of complex topology)

3.4.3 Blow-up
Mumford, Red Book: III.3
Shafarevich, BAG1, II.4, BAG2, 2.2
Eisenbud-Harris, IV.2

3.4.4 Chow’s Theorem

Shafarevich, BAG2, 3.

3.4.5 Bézout’s Theorem

Hartshorne, I.7
Gathmann: https://www.mathematik.uni-kl.de/ gathmann/class/alggeom-2014/alggeom-2014-c12.pdf

212
.1 Topology
Definition .1.1. A topology on a set X is a collection T of subsets of X such that
• HPT, X PT;
• if tUα uαPA is an arbitrary family of elements of T , then YαPAuUα PT ;
• If U1 , . . . , Un P T , then Xni“1 Ui P T .
A set X equipped with a topology T is said to be a topological space; the subsets U , elements of T , are called
open sets for the topology T . A closed subset for the topology T is a complementary of an open subset.
Given a topological space pX, T q, a neighbourhood of a point x P X is any subset V such that V contains
an open subset containing x.

.2 Height and Codimension

Definition .2.1. Let A be a nonzero noetherian ring and p be a prime ideal of A. The height of p, denoted
ht p is the (Krull) dimension of the local ring Ap :

ht p :“ dim Ap .

Remark .2.2. Since prime ideals of Ap correspond to prime ideals of A contained in p, by definition ht p is
the maximum lenght of a sequence of prime ideals p0q Ĺ q1 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ qr “ p. Therefore, one immediately gets
the inequality
dim A{p ` ht p ď dim A .

Remark .2.3. In the case A is a finitely generated equidimensional k-algebra, we have the equality

dim A{p ` ht p “ dim A .

For a proof, see [Pes09, Proposition 10.34].

Remark .2.4. Let X be an integral affine variety. Let Y be an integra subvariety of X. We have that

dim Y ` codimX Y “ dim X

with codimX Y “ ht IY .
Remark .2.5. For an arbitrary variety X and an irreducible closed subset Y of X, we say that codimX Y is
the maximum lenght of chains closed irreducible subsets

Y “ Z0 Ĺ Z1 Ĺ ¨ ¨ ¨ Ĺ Zr .

If Y is any closed subset, the codimension codimX Y “ mini codimX Yi , with Yi the irreducible components
of Y . If X is integral, we have the relation, for a general closed subset Y

dim Y ` codimX Y “ dim X .

213
.3 Nakayama’s Lemma and consequences
Very few results are so simple and elementary and yield so many important consequences as Nakayama’s
Lemma. We will give the statemente of the lemma and will discuss some corollaries here.

Definition .3.1. Let A be a commutative ring. The Jacobson radical of A is the intersection of all maximal
ideals of A.

Proposition .3.2. Let A be a commutative ring and JA its Jacobson radical. If a P A, then 1 ` a is
invertible.

Theorem .3.3 (Nakayama’s Lemma). Let A be a commutative ring and M be a finitely generated A-module.
Let a be an ideal of A inside the Jacobson radical JA of A. Then

aM “ M ùñ M “ p0q .

The most common version is for local rings. The proof is immediate from the previous form
understanding the m “ JA .

Corollary .3.4. Let pA, mq a commutative local ring and M a finitely generated A-module. If mM “ M ,
then M “ 0. This implies that if M {mM “ 0 then M “ 0 over A.

Remark .3.5. Let A be commutative ring and M be an A-module. Let m be a maximal ideal of A, and m
the maximal ideal of Am . Then
M m “ M b A Am

and
Mm {mMm » Am {m bAm Mm » Am {m bAm Am M » M bA Am {m » M b A{m » M {mM

since, as A-modules Am {m » A{m.

Proposition .3.6. Let A be a commutative ring and M be an A-module. The following are equivalent:
• M “ 0 as an A-module
• Mm “ 0 as an Am -module for any m P Specmax pAq;
• Mp “ 0 as a Ap -module for any p P SpecpAq.

Proof. Atiyah-Macdonald, prop 3.8.

Corollary .3.7 (Nakayama’s Lemma, Mumford’s version). Let A be a commutative ring and let M be a
finitely generated A-module. Let m be a maximal ideal of A. If M bA A{m “ M {mM “ 0, then there exists
a principal open set Xf in X “ Specmax pAq such that Mf “ M bA Af “ 0. Of course, for any n P Xf , we
have that Mn “ 0.

Proof. Consider the module M {mM . Since

M {mM » Mm {mMm “ 0

then by Nakayama’s Lemma, Mm “ 0. Now if m1 , . . . , mr are generators of M as an A-module, they are

surely generators of Mm as an Am -module. But the map

M - Mm

214
is zero, hence mi “ 0 in Mm . Since
Mm “ lim
ÝÑ
Mf
f Rm

there are fi P Azm such that mi “ 0 in Mfi . Therefore, taking f “ f1 ¨ f2 ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ fr , we have that mi “ 0
in Mf for all i “ 1, . . . , r. But mi are generators of Mf . Hence Mf is zero as an Af -module. The last
statement follows seeing Mn as the direct limit of Mg , g R n: among these g, we have our f : but Mf “ 0 as
we proved.

Corollary .3.8. Let A be a commutative noetherian ring and let M be a finitely generated A-module. If the
classes m̄1 , . . . , m̄r of elements m1 , . . . , mr generate M {mM for a certain m P X “ Specmax pAq, then there
exists a principal open set Xf of m in Specmax pAq such that m1 , . . . , mr generate Mf as an Af -module.

Proof. Define a morphism Ar - M sending ei - mi . Let K be the cokernel. Take the exact sequence
Ar M - K - 0, localize at m and tensorize by kpmq “ Am {m. We still get an exact sequence
r - M {mM - K{mK - 0 which implies that K{mK » Km b Am Am {m “ 0 and hence, by
pA{mq -
the previous lemma, that Kf “ 0 as a Af -module for some f P A. Take the previous sequence and tensorize
by Af : we get a surjective map
Arf - Mf

which implies that m1 , . . . , mr generated Mf as an Af module.

Corollary .3.9. Let A be a noetherian commutative ring and M be a finitely generated A-module. Set

dpmq :“ dimkpmq Mm {mMm “ dimkpmq M {mM .

Then d is upper semicontinuous. Moreover, if A is reduced, the following are equivalent

• d is constant is some neighbourhood of m0 PSpecmax pAq
• there exists f P A, f R m0 such that Mf is a free Af -module.

Proof. To prove that d is upper-semicontinuous, we have to prove that if dpmq “ c, then there exists an
open neughbourhood U of m in Specmax pAq such that dpnq ď c for any n P U . If dpmq “ c, this means that
Mm {mMm is a c-dimensional kpmq-vector space. Take a basis m1 , . . . , mc and lift it to elements m1 , . . . , mr
in M : this is possible because Mm {mMm “ M {mM . By the previous corollary, we have that m1 , . . . , mc
generate Mf as an Af module for some f P A. Then we have a surjective map

Acf - Mf .
-

Localizing this map at any maximal n P Xf , we have that m1 , . . . , mc generate Mn as an An -module for any
n P Xf and hence m1 , . . . , mc generate Mn {nMn for any n P Xf . Hence dpnq ď c for any n P Xf and the
upper semicontinuity is proven.
Let’s prove the second statement. If there exists f R m0 such that Mf is free, then Mf » Arf for some
r. Then, for any n P Xf , we have that Mn » Arn and hence Mn {nMn » kpnqr and hence dpnq “ r over Xf ,
and hence constant over Xf . On the other hand, suppose that d is constant d “ c over an open set U of m0
in Specmax pAq. By restriction, we can suppose that U is principal, that is U “ Xf , with some f P A. As in
the first part, or in a previous corollary, there is a smaller Xg Ď Xf , such that we have a surjective map

Acg - Mg - 0. (5)

215
Let K be the kernel. Suppose that K ‰ 0. Since K Ď Acg , there is a nonzero s “ ps1 , . . . , sc q P K. Then
some sj is nonzero in Ag . So there exists an element ps1 , . . . , sc q P Acg going to zero in Mg . Now we use that
A is reduced. For brevity’s sake we will also use that A is a finitely generated k-algebra, with k algebraically
closed23 . Since A is reduced, then Ag is reduced and since the radical coincides with the Jacobson radical
(because of Nullstellensatz), we have
č č
0 “ NAg “ JAg “ n“ n.
nĎAg gRn

So, if sj ­“ 0 in Ag , there exists a maximal n0 such that sj ‰ 0 in An0 and that sj ­“ 0 in kpn0 q “ An0 {n0 “ k.
Localize equation 5 at n0 :
Acn0 - Mn 0 .

not that the nonzero element ps1 , . . . , sc q still goes to zero. Now tensorize by bAn0 : we have a surjective
map of vector spaces
kpn0 qc - Mn0 {n0 Mn0

where a nonzero element

ps1 , . . . , sc q

goes to zero. Hence

dpn0 q “ dimkpn0 q Mn0 {n0 Mn0 ň c

but this is absurd, because over Xg , we had that dpn0 q is constant c. Hence the absurd comes from supposing
that K ‰ 0. Hence K is actually zero as Ag -module, and Mg is a free Ag -module.

.4 Nullstellensatz
Theorem .4.1. Let k be an algebraically closed field. Let J be an ideal in the ring of polynomials krx1 , . . . , xn s.
Then
?
IpV pJqq “ J.

Corollary .4.2. If k is algebraically closed, any maximal ideal of krx1 , . . . , xn s is of the form px1 ´
a1 , . . . , xn ´ an q; in other words, any maximal ideal m of krx1 , . . . , xn s is the ideal of a point m “ IpP q, for
some point P “ pa1 , . . . , an q P k n .

Proof. Let’s prove first that if P is a point, than IpP q is a maximal ideal. Indeed, if P is a point of k n , then
P “ pa1 , . . . , an q, ai P k. Then px1 ´ a1 , . . . , xn ´ an q Ď IpP q. Moreover 1 R IpP q, hence IpP q is proper. But
px1 ´ a1 , . . . , xn ´ an q is maximal, since24

krx1 , . . . , xn s{px1 ´ a1 , . . . , xn ´ an q » k .

But then px1 ´ a1 , . . . , xn ´ an q “ IpP q.

Now, if m is a maximal ideal, then m Ĺ krx1 , . . . , xn s “ p1q, hence H “ V pp1qq Ĺ V pmq, that is,
V pmq ‰ H, hence P P V pmq for some point P . Then IpP q Ă m. But IpP q is maximal, hence m “ IpP q.
23 This is not required for the proof to work (see Mumford, Red Book, page 153); however, this simplifies the proof. The
hypotheis of A being a finitely generated k-algebra is the working hypothesis when we deal with algebraic varieties, or even
finite-type schemes over a field, that is, it is a pretty general hypothesis
24 Consider the obviously surjective evaluation map ϕ
a1 ,...,an : krx1 , . . . , xn s
- k and quotient over the kernel

216
Remark .4.3. Note that only the implication m maximal ùñ m “ IpP q for some P point of k n needs
the Nullstellensatz (or the hypothesis of k being algebraically closed). Denote, in all generality, if B is a
commutative ring, the maximal spectrum of B:

Specmax pBq :“ tm | m maximal ideal of Bu .

In general we have the injection

kn Ă - Specmax pkrx1 , . . . , xn sq

sending P - IpP q. If k is algebraically closed, the injection is surjective and the map is a bijection. One
can define a Zariski topology over the maximal spectrum of a commutative ring B using as closed sets the

V pIq “ tm P Specmax pBq | I Ď mu

with I ideal of B. With this topology the previous injection k n Ă - Specmax pkrx1 , . . . , xn sq is continuous
and even an homeomorphism if k is algebraically closed. The points in Specmax pkrx1 , . . . , xn s are called
rational over k.

Example .4.4. Consider the injection

R Ă - Specmax pRrxsq .

The maximal ideal px ´ πq is rational over R “ Ipπq, while the maximal ideal px2 ` 1q is a point of
Specmax pRrxsq which is not rational over R. In general, points which are not rational over k correspond to
points in E n , with E some algebraic extension of k. For example px2 ` 1q corresponds to the point i P C.

Exercise 201. The previous example does not mean that Specmax pRrxsq » C!!! Indeed, take the map

C - Specmax pRrxsq

sending w P C to mw :“ ker evw : Rrxs - C, sending x - w. It is continuous and surjective, but not
injective (prove it!). In order to understand the precise relation between Specmax pRrxsq and Specmax pCrxsq “
C, see [EH00, II.2]: the Galois group GalpC{Rq will appear.

Corollary .4.5. Let J be an ideal of krx1 , . . . , xn s. We have that

? č
J“ m
mĚJ

where the intersection runs over all maximal ideals m containing J.

Proof. By what we proved above,

č č č ?
m“ IpP q “ IpP q “ IpV pJqq “ J.
mĚJ IpP qĚJ P ĎV pJq

? Ş
Remark .4.6. It is much simpler to prove that J“ pĚJ p, that is, the radical of an ideal is the intersection
of all its prime ideals containing it (one does not need the Nullstellensatz). The nullstellensatz allows to say
that the radical is just the intersection of the maximal ideals containing J.
The Jacobson radical of a commutative ring is the intersection of all its maximal ideals r :“ Xm m. The
nullstellensatz says that, for a finite generated k-algebra A over an algebraically closed field k, the Jacobson
a
radical r coincides with the radical of A, the latter being defined as the radical p0q of the zero ideal.

217
.5 Hilbert Basis’ Theorem
Theorem .5.1. If R is a noetherian ring, then Rrxs is noetherian as well.

Corollary .5.2. Let k be a field. The polynomial ring krx1 , . . . , xn s is noetherian.

.6 Integral Dependence
Definition .6.1. Let ϕ : A - B a morphism of commutative rings (with unity). We say that α P B is
integral25 over A if there exists a (nonzero) monic polynomial ppxq P ϕpAqrxs such that ppαq “ 0, that is, if

αn ` ϕpa1 qαn´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ϕpan´1 α ` ϕpan q “ 0

for certain ai P A, i “ 1, . . . , n. We say that B is integral over A (or that ϕ is integral) if any element α P B
is integral over A.

Remark .6.2. Let ϕ : A - B a morphism of commutative rings. Then B can be seen as an A-module,
with the exterior operation a.b :“ ϕpaqb if a P A, b P B.
The proof of the following propositions can be found in [AM94].

Proposition .6.3. app: integral]Let ϕ : A - B a morphism of commutative rings and let α P B. The
following are equivalent.
• α P B is integral over A;
• Arαs :“ ϕpAqrαs is a finitely generated A-module;
• there exists an A-subalgebra26 C of B such that α P C and C is finitely generated as an A-module.

Proposition .6.4. Let ϕ : A - B, and ψ : B - C two integral morphisms of commutative rings.

Then the composition ψ ˝ ϕ : A - C is integral.

Proposition .6.5. • The morphism ϕ : A - B is integral if and only if, for any ideal I Ď ker ϕ, the
induced morphism ϕ̃ : A{I - B is integral.
• The morphism ϕ : A - B is integral if and only if, for any surjective morphism ψ : A1 -- A, the
induced morphism ϕ ˝ ψ : A1 - B is integral.

Proposition .6.6. Let ϕ : A - B an integral morphism of commutive rings.

• Let b Ď B an ideal of B and bc “ ϕ´1 pbq its contraction in A. Then the induced morphism

p : A{bc
ϕ Ă - B{b

is integral.
• Let S a multiplicative part of A. Then the induced morphism

ϕS : S ´1 A - ϕpSq´1 B

is integral.
25 Note that Shafarevich or Atiyah-Macdonald define that x P B is integral over A only when ϕ is injective, or even an
inclusion. An element α P B is integral over A in our definition, if and only if α is integral over A{ ker ϕ, via the induced
morphism ϕ p : A{ ker ϕ Ă - B, which is now injective.
26 this means that C is a subring of B containing ϕpAq

218
Proposition .6.7. Let ϕ : A Ă - B an injective integral morphism of commutive domains. Then A is a
field if and only if B is a field.

Corollary .6.8. Let ϕ : A - B an integral morphism of commutive rings. Let q be a prime ideal of B,
c
q “ϕ ´1
pqq the contracted prime ideal in A. Then q is maximal if and only if qc is maximal.

p : A{qc
Proof. We have the induced injective integral morphism ϕ Ă - B{q. Then q is maximal if and only
if B{q is a field if and only if A{qc is a field if and only if qc is maximal.

Remark .6.9. Let A be a commutative ring and m a maximal ideal of A. Consider the morphism i :
A - Am . The ring Am is a local ring with maximal ideal m “ me :“ mAm , that is, the extension of m in
A. Then i´1 pmq “ m. Indeed i´1 pmq is a prime (and hence proper) ideal such that m Ď i´1 pmq. Hence they
have to be equal.
Remark .6.10. Let ϕ : A - B a morphism of commutative rings. Let S a multiplicative part of A. If
ϕ is injective, then ϕS : S ´1 A - ϕpSq´1 B is injective. Indeed, let a{s an element in ker ϕS . we have
ϕS pa{sq “ ϕpaq{ϕpsq “ 0. Hence, there exists an element ϕpsq P ϕpSq such that ϕpsqϕpaq “ 0 in B. Hence
ϕpsaq “ 0 in B and since ϕ is injective sa “ 0 in A, and hence a{s “ 0 in S ´1 A.

Theorem .6.11. Let ϕ : A Ă - B an injective integral morphism of commutative rings. If m is a maximal

ideal of A then there exists a maximal ideal n of B such that ϕ´1 pnq “ m.

Proof. Let S :“ pAzmq. It is a multiplicative part of A, since m is a prime ideal. Consider the diagram

ϕ
A Ă - B

i j
? ?
ϕS
Am “ S ´1 A Ă- ϕpSq´1 B “: Bm

The maps ϕ and ϕS are injective, by definition and by the previous remark. Hence ϕpSq´1 B is a nontrivial
ring. Hence it has a maximal ideal ñ. Then, since ϕS is integral, ϕ´1
S pñq is maximal in Am and hence it has
to coincide with m. Let now n :“ j ´1 pñq: it is a prime. Hence

m “ i´1 pmq “ i´1 ϕ´1

S pñq “ ϕ
´1 ´1
j pñq “ ϕ´1 pnq .

Since ϕ is integral and n is a prime such that ϕ´1 pnq “ m is a maximal, then n is a maximal.

Remark .6.12. In the same hypothesis of the theorem, one can more generally prove, taking S “ Azp, that
if p is a prime of A, there exists a prime q of B such that ϕ´1 pqq “ p.

Corollary .6.13. Let ϕ : A Ă - B an injective integral morphism of commutative rings. Let a a proper
ideal of A. Then ae “ aB ‰ B.

Proof. Let m a maximal of A such that a Ď m. Let n a maximal of B such that ϕ´1 pnq “ m. But then
ϕpaq Ď n and hence ae Ď n ‰ B.

Proposition .6.14. A factorial domain (UFD) is integrally closed in its field of fractions.

219
 KA
Proof. Let A be a Unique Factorization Domain A. We have to prove that the ring A of elements in KA
which are integral over A belong to A. The proof is the same as that in order to prove that Z is integrally
closed inside Q.

Proposition .6.15. Let A Ă - B an injective integral morphism of domains, of which A is factorial (UFD).
Let a, b P A, px, yq „ 1. Let b P B such that x  yb. Then x  br , for some r P N˚ .

Proof. We have the algebraic extension of fields KA Ă - KB . The minimum polynomial fb of b over KA
has coefficients in A (see proposition 5.15 in [AM94]):

fb ptq “ tm ` a1 tm´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` am´1 t ` am .

Consider the element yb{x P KB : it has minimum polynomial over KA :

a1 y m´1 am´1 y m´1 am y m

g “ tm ` t ` ¨¨¨ ` m´1
` .
x x xm
But yb{x P B and hence integral over A: hence the coefficients ai y i {xi P A. Hence x divides a1 y, a2 y 2 , . . . ,
am y m . Since px, yq „ 1 in A, and A is factorial, x  ai , for all i. But the relation bm `a1 bm´1 `¨ ¨ ¨`am bm “ 0
implies that x  bm .

.7 Discrete Valuation Rings

Definition .7.1. Let K be a field. A discrete valuation on K is a mapping ν : K ˚ - Z such that

• νpf gq “ νpf q ` νpgq, for all f, g P K ˚ (ν is a homomorphism of groups);

• νpf ` gq ě mintνpf q, νpgqu.

Definition .7.2. Let K be a field, and B an integral domain with field of fractions K. B is a valuation ring
of K if x P K ˚ , then x P B or x´1 P B (non-exclusive).

Remark .7.3. If ν is a valuation on the field k, the set A “ tx P K ˚ | νpxq ě 0u Y t0u is an integral domain,
called the evaluation ring of ν. It is a valuation ring of the field K (in particular KA “ K).

Proposition .7.4. Let K be a field and B be a valuation ring of K. Then

• B is a local ring;
• if B Ď C Ď K, then C is a valuation ring of K;
• B integrally closed in K

Proof. Atiyah-Macdonald, prop. 5.18.

Definition .7.5. An integral domain A is a discrete valuation ring if there exists a discrete valuation ν on
KA such that A is the valuation ring of ν. In this case A is a local ring, with m “ tx P KA | νpxq ą 0u.

Proposition .7.6. Let A be a noetherian local domain of dimension 1, m its maximal ideal and k “ A{m
its residue field. The following are equivalent:
• A is a DVR;
• A is integrally closed;

220
 • m is principal;
• dimk m{m2 “ 1;
• every nonzero ideal is a power of m;
• there exist a (uniformizer) element t P A˚ such that m “ ptq and hence that every nonzero ideal is of the
form ptk q, k P N˚ .

.8 Transcendence Degree
Proposition .8.1. Let K be a field, and L be an field extension of K. A subset B of L is called a tran-
scendence basis for L over K if
• the elements of B are algebraically independent27 over K
• the field L is algebraic over kpBq.

Proposition .8.2. Let L be a field extension of K, finitely generated as a field over K, say L “ Kpα1 , . . . , αr q.
Then L has a finite transcendence basis over K; moreover, two transcendence basis of L over K have the
same number of elements. The cardinality of a transcendence basis of L over K is called the transcendence
degree of L over K and it is denoted with trdegK L.

Definition .8.3. Let K a field and let L be a field extension of K. An element α P L is called separable
over K if its minimum polynomial fα over K has distinct roots in its splitting field. A field extension L of
K is called separable if all elements of L are separable over K.

Proposition .8.4. Let k be a perfect field and K be an extension of k, finitely generated as an algebra over
k. Then K has a finite transcendence basis B over k such that the field K is separable over kpBq. Such a
transcendence basis is called a separable transcendence basis of K over k.

.9 Direct (Inductive) and Inverse (Projective) Limits

Definition .9.1. A directed set is a partially ordered set pI, ďq such that for any i, j P I, there exists k P I,
such that i ď k, j ď k.

Definition .9.2. An inductive system of k-algebras28 pA, ϕqiPI indexed on a directed set pI, ďq, is a collection
Ai of k-algebras and a collection, for any i ď j of homomorphism of k-algebras ϕij : Ai - Aj such that
• if i ď j ď k, ϕjk ˝ ϕij “ ϕik .
• ϕii “ idAi .
A morphism f : pA, ϕqiPI - pB, ψqjPJ of inductive system is the data of an order preserving map
α:I - J of partially ordered sets, and a colllections of maps

fi : Ai - Bαpiq

such that, for each i ď j, we have

ψαpiq,αpjq ˝ fi “ fj ˝ ϕij .
27 This means that any finite subset b1 , . . . , br of B is algebraically independent over K
28 We talk here of k-algebras, but the same construction works much more in general, for modules, commutative rings, etc...

221
Definition .9.3. Given a inductive system pA, ϕqiPI , its direct (inductive) limit is the quotient set
ž
lim
ÝÑ i
A :“ Ai { „
iPI i
š
where „ is the equivalence relation on iPI Ai given by x „ y iff x P Ai , y P Aj , i ď j and y “ ϕij pxq. If
the Ai are k-algebras, the inductive limit lim
Ñ
Ai is naturally a k-algebra.
iPI

Proposition .9.4. The inductive limit lim

ÝÑ i
A is the unique k-algebra, up to isomorphism with the following
iPI
universal property: for any k-algebra B and for any collection ψi : Ai - B of homomorphism such that

ψj ˝ ϕij “ ψi

then there exists a unique homomorphism of k-algebras

Φ : lim
ÝÑ i
A - B
iPI

commuting with the ψi , that is

ψi “ Φ ˝ πi

where πi are the natural maps πi : Ai - lim Ai .

ÝÑ
iPI

Exercise 202. A morphism f : pA, ϕqiPI - pB, ψqjPJ of inductive systems induces a morphsm

fp : lim
Ñ
Ai - lim Bj
Ñ
iPI jPJ

of inductive limits.

Exercise 203. Consider a order preserving surjective map: β : S - I of partially ordered directed
subsets, and an inductive system pAi , ϕqiPI . Then pAβpsq , ϕ qsPS is an inductive system29 with isomorphic
β

inductive limit.

Exercise 204. Consider an inductive system pA, ϕqiPI and a subset T of I, cofinal in I, meaning that for
each i P I, there exists t P T , such that t ě i. Then T is a directed set and the couple pA, ϕqtPT is a directed
system. The inclusion, α : T Ă - I induces identities

At - Aα ptq “ t

and a morphism of inductive systems

pA, ϕqtPT - pA, ϕqiPI

such that the inductive limit is isomorphic:

„
lim
Ñ
At - lim Ai .
Ñ
tPT iPI

29 Here we mean
ϕβ
s,t “ ϕβpsq,βptq

if s ă t

222
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[Eis95] David Eisenbud. Commutative algebra, volume 150 of Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1995. With a view toward algebraic geometry.
[GH94] Phillip Griffiths and Joseph Harris. Principles of algebraic geometry. Wiley Classics Library. John
Wiley {& Sons Inc., New York, 1994. Reprint of the 1978 original.
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Mathematics, No. 52.
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