18.

The most prominent Ukrainian translators of the 19th – 21st centuries and their
major translations.

Many translations into Ukrainian made in the first decades of the 19th century were
characterized by the influence of I. Kotliarevsky's "Eneida". They included loose poetic
translations of Horace's odes ("Harasko songs", "Гараськові пісні") by P. Hulak-
Artemovsky, translation of Pushkin's "Poltava" by Ye. Hrebinka, and other translations that
brimmed over with the vernacular language and vulgarisms. 

Romantic poetry was translated as well: L. Borovykovsky translated from Russian (S.
Zhukovsky's poem "Svetlana"); М. Kostomarov translated from English (Byron's poems); О.
Shpyhotsky translated from Polish (sonnets of Mickiewicz). With his "David psalms", T.
Shevchenko gave examples of high-standard translation of solemn and passionate biblical
texts. At that time, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" was translated from Old Slavic into
Ukrainian. Translations from ancient authors (Homer, Virgil, and Sophocles), from
Shakespeare and Serbian folklore enriched the Ukrainian language with vivid expressions.

I. Franko (1856-1916) was the first in the Ukrainian literature to demonstrate the unparalleled
translation professionalism. He was a master of all stylistic registers of the Ukrainian
language and approached translations using the scientific analysis and artistic flair. Before
Franko, Ukrainian translators translated only European authors. Franko was the first to
translate Eastern authors. At that time, other writers started to translate from Estonian,
Latvian, Armenian, Georgian, and other languages.

One should mention the following prominent masters of literary translation, who worked at
the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century: V. Samiilenko
(translated Molière's plays and Béranger's songs), Lesia Ukrainka (translated Heine's lyrics,
extracts from Homer and Dante, and Hauptmann's "The Weavers"), V. Schurat (translated
"The Song of Roland"), and A. Krymsky (translated works of Hafez, Saadi and other Eastern
poets).

At the beginning of the 20th century, Ukrainian translations of prose writings of such authors
as G. de Maupassant, K. Hamsun, L. Tolstoy, E. Zola, E. Poe, A. France, R. Kipling, H.
Ibsen, and B. Bjornson were widely published. 

In Soviet times (1917-1991), the translation activity became a way to the "internal
emigration" for those Ukrainian writers, who strived to get out of clutches of the socialist
realism. M. Zerov was among recognized translation professionals of those times. He made
excellent translations of ancient poetry (Catullus, Virgil, Horace, Ovid), Russian poets (A.
Pushkin, N. Lermontov, V. Bryusov), and French lyrics (P. de Ronsard, J.-M. de Heredia).

In the Soviet period, the art of Ukrainian literary translation reached its fullest flower under
the hands of M. Rylsky, whose translations conveyed subtle shades of meaning of the original
in combination with the distinguishing features of its art form. M. Rylsky translated
Mickiewicz's "Mister Thaddeus", Voltaire's "The Maiden of Orleans", Pushkin's "Eugene
Onegin", and many lyric works of European poets. 

The ability to mobilize resources of the old-Ukrainian vocabulary and modern abstract
Ukrainian lexicon was typical of translations of M. Bazhan ("The Knight in Panther's Skin"
by Sh. Rustaveli, "Farhad and Shirin" by A. Navoi, poetry of C. Norwid and R.-M. Rilke).
Translations of N. Lukash (the full text of Goethe's "Faust", Boccaccio's "Decameron",
poetry of Julian Tuwim, Flaubert's "Madame Bovary", excerpts from Rabelais's "Gargantua
and Pantagruel") were characterized by linguistic excellence and successful creation of
neologisms.

The development of the translation theory and criticism in Ukraine in the post-war period
(after 1945) contributed to the enhancement of translation skills. Multi-volume Ukrainian
translations of works of Shakespeare, Heine, Pushkin, Balzac, Maupassant, France, Tolstoy,
and London were published. Dozens of masters of the word worked on those translations.

Among translators of the Ukrainian diaspora, the most famous are Yu. Klen (O. Burhardt;
translated several Shakespeare's plays), M. Orest (German and French poetry), I. Kostetsky
(Shakespeare's sonnets), I. Kachurovsky (Petrarch's sonnets and European lyrics of the 19th
century), O. Zuievsky (works of Mallarmé and other French poets), and V. Vovk (dramas of
F. Garcia Lorca). 

Economic hardships of the post-Soviet, transitional, period affected Ukrainian literary

translators who started to lose their jobs because of the decline in book publishing. Today, the
renowned tradition of Ukrainian translation has not restored yet, and there is a lack of
experienced literary translators in Ukraine.

The situation with technical translators into/from Ukrainian is better. Local universities
prepare a sufficient quantity of philologists who find jobs at industrial companies, public
institutions, translation companies, advertising agencies, the Chamber of Commerce, customs
offices, business centers, travel companies, representative offices of international
organizations, i.e. everywhere where there is a need for translation of scientific and technical
publications and business literature.

The gaining of independence by this country in 1991 awoke an unknown before increase in
the employment of both oral and written translation, which became needed for the
establishment of international relations with the rest of the world. These two types of transla-
tion provided the newly independent country in its first years with the mass of the official
international texts of diplomatic and legal nature (treaties, agreements, memoranda, etc). 

The required level of the necessary international relations with the help of translation
as well as interpretation had been achieved by Ukraine already in 1993-1994.

It was not so, however, with the artistic translation. The economic and financial crisis
that followed after the collapse of the Soviet Union forced all major publishing
houses of Ukraine to temporarily or completely suspend their operations. As a result
the belles-lettres translation in state publishing houses during the second half of the
1990's came practically to a standstill.

The only functioning organ except some small capacity private publishing houses,
which continued to publish the works of foreign literatures in Ukrainian translation
unabated at the close of the twentieth century remained the Vsesvit journal. During its
forty-two years of active and fruitful participation in the literary process of Ukraine
the journal has succeeded in publishing thousands of belles-lettres works - novels,
narratives, short stories and poetic works of classics and promising foreign authors,
poets and playwrights from one hundred and ten foreign languages.
Closely collaborated with the journal in some years also our well-known translators
M.Lukash, H.Kochur, I. Steshenko, BorysTen, Yu.Lisnyak, A.Perepadya, Y.Popovych,
O.Senyuk, H.Filipchuk, M.Lytvynets', O.Mokrovolskyi, M.Moskalenko, V.Shovkun, to name
but a few. 

19.Modern translation theories (aspect, denotative, transformational, functional

equivalence theories, the “Skopos theory”).

What are the aspects of translation?

In translating these terms, it is essential to consider first some important aspects in
translation: translation shifts, kinds of norms types of equivalence, and emotive meaning.

Much recent work in the field of translation studies derives from unease and dissatisfaction
about the way translation has been treated (or not treated at all) over a substantial period of
time by translation theorists and by linguists and psychologists.

Methods of Analysis in Translation

Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text
to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.
Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text
to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.
Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text
to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.
The language of this text is obviously a complex and intricate language. The text is chiefly
composed of a
standard language which an enriched lexis. Comparing the texts both in English and
Albanian, I have
witnessed different ways of conveying the message.
Methods of Analysis in Translation
It’s worth mentioning that amidst many other methods of analysis experimented
during the different
pieces only three of them are apparently more applicable. Beside other methods, respectively
the method
of functional analysis, which strives to scrutinize the role and style concerning the whole
structure of a
particular literary work, this is enabled through the psychological and literary methods of
analysis and
from the statistical method as well, Ristani (2010). A subtle and in-depth analysis of
these is utterly
demanding, and is unavoidable to leave apart the method of key words which is interwoven
in its entirety
with these three methods of analysis and is probably a key method of linguistic analysis. I
have briefly
elaborated only two of them.
Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text
to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.
The language of this text is obviously a complex and intricate language. The text is chiefly
composed of a
standard language which an enriched lexis. Comparing the texts both in English and
Albanian, I have
witnessed different ways of conveying the message.
Methods of Analysis in Translation
It’s worth mentioning that amidst many other methods of analysis experimented
during the different
pieces only three of them are apparently more applicable. Beside other methods, respectively
the method
of functional analysis, which strives to scrutinize the role and style concerning the whole
structure of a
particular literary work, this is enabled through the psychological and literary methods of
analysis and
from the statistical method as well, Ristani (2010). A subtle and in-depth analysis of
these is utterly
demanding, and is unavoidable to leave apart the method of key words which is interwoven
in its entirety
with these three methods of analysis and is probably a key method of linguistic analysis. I
have briefly
elaborated only two of them.
Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text
to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.
The language of this text is obviously a complex and intricate language. The text is chiefly
composed of a
standard language which an enriched lexis. Comparing the texts both in English and
Albanian, I have
witnessed different ways of conveying the message.
Methods of Analysis in Translation
It’s worth mentioning that amidst many other methods of analysis experimented
during the different
pieces only three of them are apparently more applicable. Beside other methods, respectively
the method
of functional analysis, which strives to scrutinize the role and style concerning the whole
structure of a
particular literary work, this is enabled through the psychological and literary methods of
analysis and
from the statistical method as well, Ristani (2010). A subtle and in-depth analysis of
these is utterly
demanding, and is unavoidable to leave apart the method of key words which is interwoven
in its entirety
with these three methods of analysis and is probably a key method of linguistic analysis. I
have briefly
elaborated only two of them.
Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text
to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.
The language of this text is obviously a complex and intricate language. The text is chiefly
composed of a
standard language which an enriched lexis. Comparing the texts both in English and
Albanian, I have
witnessed different ways of conveying the message.
Methods of Analysis in Translation
It’s worth mentioning that amidst many other methods of analysis experimented
during the different
pieces only three of them are apparently more applicable. Beside other methods, respectively
the method
of functional analysis, which strives to scrutinize the role and style concerning the whole
structure of a
particular literary work, this is enabled through the psychological and literary methods of
analysis and
from the statistical method as well, Ristani (2010). A subtle and in-depth analysis of
these is utterly
demanding, and is unavoidable to leave apart the method of key words which is interwoven
in its entirety
with these three methods of analysis and is probably a key method of linguistic analysis. I
have briefly
elaborated only two of them.
Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text
to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.
Functional Method
As far as the functional approach is concerned, the stylistic is defined as a linguistic element
for literary
purposes in a given literary work. The style does not appear as a psychological document but
as one of the
most necessary and essential documents of a literary work. Consequently, to the
main issues of the
stylistic analysis as matter of fact ought to be in the size of an optimal context. Context in
the stylistic
studies is clearly and fully treated through the presence and the distinctive features between
the micro-
context and the direct straightforward context that shapes the entirety of
stylistically unmarked
components. On the contrary, macro-context implies a broad context, specifically that part
of message
that anticipates the stylistic utterances. If we choose the micro-context to analyze prose and
poetry, we are
obliged to go through an inept and limited analysis, which enables just a mere scrutiny of the
way how
stylistic devices interact and influence each other, Ristani (2010). Nevertheless, as it is
mentioned above
only the ability to point out the most remarkable stylistic traits and to penetrate in the
structure of the text

to determine the basic pillars how to develop the structure, can lead to precise conclusions.

Theories of Equivalence
Jacobson’s Equivalence Theories: R.Jakobson (1959), believes that equivalence comes in
three types;
inter-semiotic equivalence, (equivalence between sign systems), inter-lingual (equivalence
between two
languages), and intra-lingual, (equivalence within one language; paraphrasing or
rewriting the same
content). The second type, intra-lingual, is one where translation equivalence is classified in.
Nida Equivalence Theories: Conversely, E.A Nida (1964), has written that there
are two kinds of
equivalence; a) formal equivalence (also known as formal correspondence), and dynamic
equivalence.
Formal equivalence is more concerned with word-for-word translation and content
faithfulness, while
dynamic equivalence is focused upon context and sense-for-sense adaption.
The bottom line here is that all translation theories are somehow connected with the notion of
equivalence
in one way or another. Consequently, equivalence is an important philosophy when it comes
to translation
theory and its many different practical applications. Actually, both target and source
language include
equivalent ranges from the least significant morphemes to the most meaningful levels
(sentences).
These levels of language are the ones that keep the ones that help strike the proper balance
between two
much faithfulness to the original text and too much pandering to the target
audience. Accordingly,
translation is all about creating a balance between the original language document and the
target language
document.

The Denotative Approach According to the denotative approach the process of translation is
not just a mere substitution but consists of the following mental operations: -translator reads
(hears) a message in the source language; -translator finds a denotatum and concept that
correspond to this message; -translator formulates a message in the target language relevant
to the above denotatum and concept. 

 It should be noted that according to this approach during translation we deal with similar
word forms of the matching languages and concepts deduced from these forms, however, as
opposed to the transformational approach, the relationship between the source word and the
target word is occasional rather than regular. To illustrate this difference let us consider the
following examples: 1.The sea is warm today=сегодня вечером море теплое. Mare este calt
azi. 2.Staff only= служебное помещение. Înc ă pere oficial ă. 

In the first example the equivalencies are regular and concept, pertaining to the whole
sentence, may be divided into those relating to its individual components (words and word
combinations): sea - море - mare; tonight – сегодня - azi; is – is not translated into Russian
but into Romanian is translated. Warm - теплое - calt. In the second example equivalence
between the original sentence and its translation is occasional (worth only for this case) and
the concept, pertaining to the whole sentence, cannot be divided into individual components. 

Transformation theory of translation

The basis of the transformation theory of translation is the activity of an interpreter, which
consists in converting or transforming the source text into a translated (output) text. The
emergence of this theory with the thoughts of linguistic teaching, which many people know
as “transformational grammar.” She explores the rules for creating syntactic structures that
can be characterized as a set of lexemes and logical-syntactic links.

Any language has its own grammar, which has no analogues and coincidences. The value of
structures that do not reach during the translation process is compensated by transformation.
Transformational grammar defines a number of linguistic structures and calls them nuclear,
and the remaining structures, which are called “transforms”, deduce from the number of
nuclear or vice versa introduces it. More often than not, the nuclear structure reflects the
“action-action” relationship.

In translation theory, the principles of transformational grammar are reflected in two

directions. The whole process of the translation text formation can be interpreted as the
transformation of units and structures of the source text into units and structures of the output
text, namely translation occurs as interlingual transformation – this is the first direction. Units
of the source text are represented by language structures, from which, in the translation
process, the corresponding structure of the output text will be obtained. The essence of the
translation process is to select the language units of the output text, which fall into one
transformation-translation range with the units of the original. This theoretical model makes
it possible to see the most probable correspondences or methods of translation. The second
direction shows a number of periods of the translation process in the definitions of
transformation. There is a theory that nuclear structures are the same in all languages and it is
possible to combine the entire variety of linguistic forms of the source and target languages
into a relatively small number of structures. Based on the assumption that there is a complete
equivalence between the source and target languages, the translation at the level of these
structures will lead to an elementary replacement of the nuclear language structures of the
source material, to the nuclear structures of the output. Even if the language structures of the
two languages are not the same, this theory can be applied, because any proposals can be
transformed into similar structures in another language.

It is interesting that the transformation theory does not explain the facts of situational
equivalence, it is applicable only to the comparison of the grammatical structures of the
source and target languages.

In order to understand why difficulties arise in the translation process, predetermined by the
peculiarities of the language being studied, one must remember and understand what a
grammar is. Grammar – the external structure of the language, this formation of words,
syntax and morphology, which, together with phonetics and vocabulary, makes up the
general structure of the language.

A large number of translators and translation agency when working on tests, face the

morphological features of the language they are interested in. Morphology studies the parts of
speech of their category and form of words and is a section of grammar.

All words can be divided into parts of speech, some are independent parts of speech and can
be parts of sentences. For example, in English, these parts of speech are distinguished:
1. Noun

2. Adjective

3. Numeral

4. Pronoun

5. Verb

6. Adverb

7. Preposition

8. Conjunction

9. Interjection

Noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb and adverb are all independent parts of speech.
Prepositions and conjunctions are service parts of speech that demonstrate individual
relations between members of a sentence or sentences, and they are not included in sentences.
Prepositions and conjunctions cause some difficulties in the translation. Interjections, have no
relation either to independent parts of speech, or to the service parts of speech, and differ in
their meaning and functions. In order to avoid difficulties in translating interjections, it is
necessary to resort to the help of thematic directories and dictionaries. It must be remembered
that different parts of speech in different languages have a huge number of categorical and
other features that can cause a considerable number of difficulties in the translation process.

A thorough knowledge and understanding of how to correctly translate a particular part of

speech will help an interpreter avoid difficulties in the translation process and perform his
work qualitatively. The study of morphological features will benefit both a beginner and a
professional translator.

The Skopos Theory

Skopos theory (German: Skopostheorie), a niche theory in the field of translation studies,

employs the prime principle of a purposeful action that determines a translation strategy.
[1]
 The intentionality of a translational action stated in a translation brief, the directives, and
the rules guide a translator to attain the expected target text translatum.
Rules
The three main rules of the Skopos Theory that encompass the six underlying directives are:
1. The Skopos rule
2. The Coherence rule
3. The Fidelity rule
The third rule, the Fidelity rule, is subordinate to the second rule, the Coherence rule, which
in turn is subordinate to the Skopos rule.
The Skopos rule
The first rule to obey in the process of translation is the purpose of an overall translational
action, which can also be interpreted as “the end justifies the means”.[24] As defined by
Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states:
Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule
thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your
text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it
and precisely in the way they want it to function.
It presupposes other socio-cultural conventions and the orientation towards the source text as
observed in previous translation theories. Instead, the Skopos Theory places emphasis on a
top-down approach that underscores the target text.

20.Give the definition of translation and interpretation as interlingual and cross-

cultural communication. Describe the basic types of translation and interpretation.
Translation as a means of intercultural communication
 
The problem of relations between language, culture and speaker is one of the
fundamental problems in modern linguistics. This problem is defined by many researchers as
“anthropological”. Language is a reflexion of an ethnic group’s culture, a means of
transmitting cultural values through generations and the major tool of cognition. As language
sets the parameters of human perception of the world and stereotypes of daily behavior, any
linguistic research in the field of language semantics deals with the interrelations of the
concepts of language, culture, and personality.
Along with that, the globalization of cultures actualizes the concept of intercultural
communication. In many areas, such as linguistics, literary criticism, culture studies,
sociology, psychology, new researches are devoted to the problem of intercultural
communication. The political and social situation in the modern world generates the problem
of adequate communication, but speaking about adequacy is possible only under condition of
full mutual understanding of the representatives of different cultures speaking in different
languages. In S. Ter-minasova’s opinion, communication is a dialogue act, connection
between two and more individuals which is, first of al, based on mutual understanding. 
M. Bergelson gives the following definition of intercultural communication:
“intercultural communication is a dialogue carried out in conditions of cultural difference in
the communicative competence of the participants which is so considerable that it has
essential influence on the success or failure of the communicative event”. Intercultural
communication is characterized by the use of special language variants and discourse
strategies of direct contact participants which are different from those they use in
communication within one culture. 
Е. Vereschagin and V. Kostomarov in their work “Language and culture” suggest the following
definition: “intercultural communication is adequate mutual understanding of two participants of a
communicative act belonging to different national cultures”.
One of the basic points of consideration in the definition of translation is understanding that
communication is interaction of individuals in which communicants appear as subjects of culture and
representatives of a lingvosociocultural community, and translation as a type of mediation is a means
not only of interlingual but also of intercultural communication.
The view of translation as of a means of intercultural communication follows from the
idea of language as a culture component, and culture - as an aggregate of material and
spiritual achievements of the society, including all the varied historical, social and
psychological features of the ethnos, its traditions, views, values, institutions, behavior, living
conditions – in short, all the sides of its life and consciousness, including language.
The concept of translation is central in the translation studies. It is important to mention
that the concept of translation is polysemantic. Firstly, it refers to translation as an intellectual
activity, that is a process, secondly – to translation as the result of this process, a product of
translational activity, in other words, the text of translation created by the translator.
V. Komissarov considers that “translation is a complicated and many-sided kind of
human activity. Though usually people speak about translation “from one language on
another”, actually, it is not simply a replacement of one language with another. The different
cultures, people, ways of thinking, literatures epochs, levels of development, traditions and
world vies clash with each other in translation”.
According to M. Brandes, “translation is a kind of language mediation where the
content of the foreign text (original) is transferred to other language by way of creating a
communicatively equivalent text in this language”.
In L. Barkhudarov’s opinion, “translation is a process of transformation of a speech
product in one language into a speech product in another language, the invariable meaning
being preserved”.
G. Toury believes that “translation is kind of activity which inevitably involves at least
two languages and two cultural traditions”.
Serving as a means of communication between people of various ethnic groups,
translation is a means of interlingual and intercultural communication. According to A.D.
Schweitzer, “translation can be defined as a unidirectional and two-phase process of
interlingual and intercultural communication, where a secondary text (metatext) text is
created on the basis of the primary text subjected to purposeful (“translational”) analysis, the
secondary text replacing the primary one in another language and cultural environment’.
 The analysis of the prominent researchers’ works in the field of translation shows that
they all consider translation in the light of intercultural communication. The cultural factor in
translation is obvious and undeniable. Communication is impossible unless the message is
transmitted and is understood by the communicants. However, this understanding can be
achieved only if the information contained in the language units corresponds to the
background knowledge of the facts mentioned in the message. The people speaking one
language are the representatives of a certain culture. They have many common traditions,
habits and ways to do and to speak about things. They possess the common knowledge about
their country, its geography, history, climate, its political, economic, social and cultural
institutions. All this information is the basis of the communicants’ presuppositions which
enable them to produce and understand messages in their linguistic form.
Not only two languages interact in translation process, but also two cultures having both
common features and national specificity. Revealing this specificity is crucial in studying
intercultural communication and translation. 
The translator plays an important role in the process of intercultural communication,
since he/she has frequently not only to translate sentences, but also to interpret the cultures of
the communicants. He serves as the mediator for both sides explaining to them the main rules
of behavior and customs of the countries. The translator should pick up an equivalent for the
language phenomenon which directly reflects another culture. Empathy is the basis of mutual
understanding in communication. It is the ability to imagine oneself in the place of another
person, attempt to see the world with his eyes. And if the translator manages to do it, the
translation process is full-fledged and successful. 
Collateral elements and uncollateralized elements are distinguished by comparison of
languages and cultures. Being a culture component, language as a whole is an
uncollateralized element. First of all, equivalent-lacking lexicon is uncollateralized element.
The insufficient knowledge of history of a country, traditions and culture lead to
misunderstanding of comparisons, historical references, to wrong understanding even in daily
conversation, in other words, to language incompetence. J. Catford specifies that “besides
language untranslatability there is cultural untranslatability”.
Translators tend to omit or change culturally incongruous items so that finally they
become translatable or comprehensible. As cultural distinctions are part of culture, cultural
untranslatability depends on the combination of languages in translation. It means that
cultural untranslatability is not equally applicable to all language combinations, audiences
and translators. The concept of cultural untranslatability is important for translation. A good
translation should not sound as a translation. The key requirement is naturalness. Cultural
untranslatability is important only when cultural distinctions are very big, because without
facing these distinctions, it is difficult for translators to achieve naturalness or even to convey
the communicative function of the initial text.
 In conclusion, it is important to notice that translation is the basic mechanism of
intercultural communication. With the help of translation, languages interact, influence each
other, get richer and change. In translation of texts representing a certain national culture, not
only the target language, into which the words naming realities of another culture penetrate,
but also the receiving culture is exposed to a certain influence. However, the compromise
between two interactive national cultures is not always reached in favor of the culture which
has generated the original text. Radical changes of a cultural and historical background of a
translated material should always be justified, pertinent, plausible and consistent.
Inappropriate or inconsistent cultural displacements deform the image and create the reader’s
incorrect idea of the initial culture and the author’s intention.