Journal of the international Association of arson Investigators, Inc.

OCT2013 Volume 64 Issue 2

What's Inside:
Open Neutrals –
The Point of “No Return”

Lithium
Secondary Batteries
and Hobbies
Photo Credit:
2nd Place Accidental -
Geoff Hazard
 Cameron Novak - Staff Engineer, AEI Corporation

Brent Fukuda - Staff Engineer, AEI Corporation

Open Neutrals_
The Point of “No Return”
An open neutral is an abnormal condition that negatively affects the electrical system
of a structure, potentially leading to a fire or injury. This condition may be created in
many ways, including storms, corrosion, mechanical damage, and poor connections.
In this article, we’ll cover what constitutes an open (or floating) neutral and how it can affect
the electrical service to a residential structure.

Your typical residential wiring system in the United States (for a standard 120/240 volt application at
a frequency of 60 Hertz) will look like that depicted in Figures 1 and 2, and consists of two “hot” or line
conductors (L1, L2) and a neutral. It is important to note that the neutral and ground busses are bonded
(connected to each other) within the main electrical panel of a single-family dwelling. The transformer
connections are shown on the left side of the diagram, with the connections going to the house on the right.
Each of the line conductors (L1 and L2) have a voltage of 120VAC (root mean square, or rms) to the neutral.
If you were to measure the voltage between the two hot
conductors, you would measure 240VAC (rms). A key
point to remember is that all of the neutral conductors for
a structure are tied together at the neutral bus in the main
distribution panel (MDP). The equivalent circuit for the
electrical system will be that represented by Figure 2.

Figure 1 -
Typical electrical wiring set-up for residential structure.

Figure 2 -
Simplified electrical diagram for a residential electrical system.

16 www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator Oct2013

 The purpose of the neutral conductor is to provide a reference to ground and a return path for electric current to
the utility company’s electrical system. When this current path is lost, the current flowing through the system must
find another way to earth or ground. This alternate path can be provided by the grounding system, the home’s water
supply pipes (as long as they are metal), any grounded object, coaxial cables, or the metal lathe in the walls. Without
the neutral conductor the voltages on either leg, L1 or L2, of the electrical system can (in theory) vary between 0 and
240VAC. In reality, these voltage fluctuations are not this extreme. The factor that determines the voltage on each leg
is what appliances or loads are on.
One way to illustrate this concept is with the use of a demonstration aid constructed in the lab (Figure 3). As
you can see, on this board we have two strings of lights (three lights per phase, L1 and L2), with a receptacle on the
end of each phase. We’ll ignore these receptacles for now. As shown in Figure 3, all of the lights burn with the same
intensity. In this case, the neutral is still intact, as shown in the equivalent wiring diagram of Figure 4. Figure 5 is the
same board with various lights turned off, again
illustrating that with the neutral still intact, the
bulbs will glow with the same intensity.

Figure 3 -
Demonstration board with an intact neutral connection.

Figure 4 -
Simplified diagram of the electrical system represented by the
demonstration board.

Figure 5 -
Demonstration board with various lights turned off, illustrating how an intact neutral affects the system.

Now if we remove the neutral connection, (Figures 6 and 7) we effectively remove the system’s reference to
ground. You’ll notice that in Figure 8, when all of the lights are on, they burn with the same intensity. Turn one bulb off
on L2 (the bottom phase), and you’ll see that the bulbs on that same phase will get brighter while those on L1 (the top
phase) get dimmer. As the number of light bulbs (the load) turned on changes for each phase, the intensity with which
they burn changes (Figure 9). This may seem like black magic, but all it really comes down to is simple math and
physics that are well within the abilities of any investigator.

Continued on pg. 18

www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator Oct2013 17

 } . . . Open Neturals . . . .
Continued There are some important concepts to remember
when working with electricity, the most important being
Ohm’s Law (Equation 1). With Ohm’s Law, if you know
any two of three values (voltage, current, or resistance),
you can calculate the third. It’s important to know that the
voltage (V) across the load is dependent on the current (I)
flowing through the resistance (R).

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝑅𝑅) (1)

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (𝑅𝑅) (1
Another important equation to remember is how to
evaluate the equivalent resistance of several loads in
parallel. This is shown in Equation 2, where ‘n’ is the total
number of resistances or loads. This equation is assuming
that all of the loads are purely resistive in nature, and
have𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
no capacitance 𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
or inductance. In Figure (1)
(𝑅𝑅) 10 we’ve
simplified the circuit so that we’ll have two equivalent
resistances, one for each phase on the 240V system.
Now we have an equivalent circuit that behaves like a
simple series circuit. The voltage drop across any one
of the loads 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 􏷠􏷠􏷪􏷪 + by
is calculated 􏷠􏷠 the
􏷪􏷪
􏷠􏷠 + ⋯through
+ current
􏷪􏷪
(2)
+ 􏷠􏷠􏷪􏷪 the load
multiplied by the resistance 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅􏷫􏷫 of that
𝑅𝑅􏷬􏷬 load. 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛
􏷪􏷪

𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 􏷪􏷪
􏷠􏷠 + 􏷪􏷪
􏷠􏷠 + 􏷠􏷠
􏷪􏷪
+ ⋯+ 􏷠􏷠
􏷪􏷪
(2)
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠􏷪􏷪 + 􏷠􏷠 +
􏷪􏷪 𝑅𝑅􏷫􏷫
􏷠􏷠 +⋯
𝑅𝑅􏷬􏷬 + 􏷠􏷠 (2)𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛
􏷪􏷪
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
􏷪􏷪
𝑅𝑅􏷬􏷬
􏷪􏷪
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛
􏷪􏷪 􏷫􏷫

R1

R2

Figure 10 -
Equivalent circuit after the neutral has been removed.

Finally, to calculate the voltage drop across a given

resistance, you𝑉𝑉would use 𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠
𝑉𝑉 ∗Equations 3(3) and 4. In this
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠 =
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =(𝑅𝑅𝑉𝑉 ∗) (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠system, ) (3)
Figure 8 - equation, V is the total voltage𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡of the
𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
R1 and R2
Demonstration board with the neutral removed. Note that are the resistances of =the
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡 𝑉𝑉 elements
∗ (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡 ) in (4) question, and Rtotal
when the loads on each phase are equal, the lights burn is the total resistance
𝑉𝑉 of the circuit.
= 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡 ) (4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
with the same intensity.

𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠 = 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠 ) (3)

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡 = 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡 ) (4)

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 􏷠􏷠 = 􏷠􏷠 = 1∗ 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠 = 6 ohms (5)
􏷪􏷪 + 􏷪􏷪 + 􏷪􏷪 􏷬􏷬 􏷢􏷢
􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪

𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = switched 􏷠􏷠
= 􏷬􏷬 circle).
= 1 ∗ Notice = 6how
ohms 􏷠􏷠 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
Figure 9 – In the photograph on the left, the first light on the bottom circuit has been 􏷪􏷪 + 􏷪􏷪 + 􏷪􏷪off (red 􏷢􏷢 the other two(5)
lights on the same circuit are brighter, while the three lights on the other circuit are dimmer. On the􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪right, two lights have been turned
􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪
off (red circles). The top lights are now burning so dimly that you can’t tell they are on.

18 www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator Oct2013

 overload appliances or lighting. Motors can overheat
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠 = 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠 ) (3) from running above or below their intended voltage
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ratings, wire insulation can fail from overcurrent
conditions, or a high resistance connection can
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉 ∗ ( 𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡
𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠 = 𝑉𝑉 ∗ (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡
𝑅𝑅􏷠􏷠 )) (4)
(3) develop at a point where current normally does not
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 flow. It is possible for metal building components that
normally do not carry electric current (such as the
= 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡And (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅􏷡􏷡 )
so ∗on… (4) metal lathe in stucco or metal water piping) to become
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Because all of the light bulbs in this case are energized and arc, which can lead to the ignition of
the same wattage (60W), they should all have nearby materials.
approximately the same resistance. This was When an open neutral develops, the current that
measured and found to be approximately 18 ohms. normally flows through the neutral will try to find a new
Because each load has the same resistance, we path for current to flow. This new path is often through
will find that if all three light bulbs are turned on, the
the grounding system or at a neutral to ground fault.
equivalent resistance of the three bulbs is 6 ohms
(Equation 5). If there are only two light bulbs on, then This may cause excessive current to flow through the
the equivalent resistance would be 9 ohms. An easy ground wire, which has no current flow under normal
trick to remember is that if all of the resistances are conditions. This can be especially dangerous as there
equal, then the􏷠􏷠 total resistance (for􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
a parallel group of is no overcurrent protection of the ground wire. If this
𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = is􏷪􏷪 +
resistors) = 􏷠􏷠􏷬􏷬 =of a1single
the􏷪􏷪 +resistance
􏷪􏷪
∗ 􏷢􏷢 = 6 ohms
element divided (5) current is of sufficient magnitude and flows through a
by the total􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪number 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪
􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 of resistors. small enough wire, the wire can overheat and cause
ignition of nearby combustibles, or the insulation can
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 􏷠􏷠 = 􏷠􏷠 = 1∗ 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠 = 6 ohms (5) fail and allow an arc to form. This current can also flow
􏷪􏷪 + 􏷪􏷪 + 􏷪􏷪 􏷬􏷬 􏷢􏷢
􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 􏷪􏷪􏷪􏷪 through the grounded chassis of an appliance, posing
a shock hazard if not properly protected.
Now we can calculate the voltage drop across
So now you may be asking yourself, “Why do
each group of parallel resistances. Because we no
longer have an intact neutral, our voltage is 240V I care about why the lights are burning brighter or
instead of 120V. With the neutral open, and all the dimmer?” This is a common symptom of an open
light bulbs on both phases turned on, the voltage drop neutral, and one that can easily be noticed by the
across one phase would be: occupant(s) of the structure. Therefore it is important
on every investigation to ask the occupants about the
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 == 240
𝑉𝑉 240∗∗ 􏷥􏷥
􏷥􏷥 = 240
== 240 ∗ 􏷥􏷥
􏷥􏷥􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠 240 ∗ 􏷠􏷠 􏷠􏷠 = 120𝑉𝑉 (6)
= 240 (6) behavior of the electrical system leading up to the fire.
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 240 ∗
􏷥􏷥+􏷥􏷥
􏷥􏷥
􏷥􏷥+􏷥􏷥
􏷥􏷥+􏷥􏷥
240∗∗ 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
􏷥􏷥
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
== 240∗∗ 􏷡􏷡􏷠􏷠􏷡􏷡􏷡􏷡 == 120𝑉𝑉
120𝑉𝑉 (6) “Were the lights burning with different intensities within
the home?” and “Were any appliances or lights acting
This makes sense, because both legs or phases strangely before the incident?” are important interview
have the same equivalent resistance, and therefore questions that may give you an idea of where to steer
split the voltage evenly. Now if we were to turn one
your investigation. The situation can be complicated
light off on only one phase, the voltage drop on that
phase would be: when compact fluorescent lights (CFLs) or light
emitting diode (LED) bulbs are used. Because of the
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 == 240
𝑉𝑉 240∗∗ 􏷨􏷨
􏷨􏷨 = 240
== 240 ∗ 􏷨􏷨
􏷨􏷨 240 ∗ 􏷢􏷢 􏷢􏷢 = 144𝑉𝑉 (7)
= 240 (7)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 240 ∗
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 􏷨􏷨+􏷥􏷥
􏷨􏷨
􏷨􏷨+􏷥􏷥
􏷨􏷨+􏷥􏷥
240∗∗ 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷨􏷨
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
== 240∗∗ 􏷤􏷤􏷢􏷢􏷤􏷤􏷤􏷤 == 144𝑉𝑉
144𝑉𝑉 (7) electrical components used to regulate the voltage
and current on these devices, they won’t exhibit the
same characteristics as regular incandescent bulbs.
Finally, if on that same phase, we leave only one Preliminary tests with CFLs show that the bulbs with
light on, the voltage drop on that phase would be: either flicker or go out completely as the number of
lights turned on changes (i.e. with changing voltages)
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 == 240
𝑉𝑉 240∗∗ 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠 == 240
240∗∗ 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠 240∗∗ 􏷢􏷢 􏷢􏷢􏷣􏷣 == 180𝑉𝑉
== 240 (8)
180𝑉𝑉 (8) after the neutral has been removed. Be careful,
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 240 ∗ 􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠+􏷥􏷥
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠+􏷥􏷥
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠+􏷥􏷥
= 240 ∗ 􏷡􏷡􏷡􏷡
􏷠􏷠􏷠􏷠
􏷡􏷡􏷡􏷡
􏷡􏷡􏷡􏷡
= 240 ∗ 􏷣􏷣􏷢􏷢􏷣􏷣 = 180𝑉𝑉 (8) however, as occupants can sometimes confuse the
flickering/changing intensities of incandescent lights
The remaining voltage available (240 – Vdrop)
with normal fluctuations caused when large appliances
would be the voltage drop across the other phase of
turn on (i.e. the lights in the kitchen momentarily dim
the system. So, the remaining voltage across the other
when the refrigerator compressor kicks on).
phase would be 120, 96, and 60V for equations 5, 6,
If an open neutral condition is suspected, the first
and 7, respectively. So, it’s easy to see that a higher
issue is to determine if the problem is on the customer
voltage drop leads to the bulb (or bulbs) burning more
or utility side of the meter. By first determining whether
brightly, which is illustrated by both the calculations
the open neutral is upstream or downstream (utility
and the pictures.
side or consumer side) of the meter the investigator
One reason an open neutral is such a dangerous
can save time by not looking in the wrong area (i.e.
situation is that it can cause extreme voltage
examining the house wiring when the actual problem is
fluctuations in the home’s wiring. These voltage
out at the power pole). Some utility companies have a
fluctuations can damage sensitive electronics or
device that plugs into the meter socket of the structure

www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator Oct2013 19

 } . . . Open Neturals . . . .
and can tell if the problem is on their side of
the meter. The authors had the opportunity
to investigate an incident caused by an open
neutral when the branches from a tree rubbed
and wore through the neutral conductor at
the pole on the outside of the building. This
caused extensive problems with the electrical
appliances, computers, and Internet equipment
inside the building. Much to his amazement,
an Internet service provider’s repair technician
discovered that the entire building’s electrical
current can return through the ground wire for
the Internet connection. When the technician
disconnected an Internet cable a parting arc
approximately one to two inches long was
created, illustrating the magnitude of the
problem.
If no open neutrals are found on the utility
side of the meter, a detailed examination of
the structure’s wiring is necessary in order to
locate the problem. Some of the more likely
locations to look for an open neutral are in the
main distribution panel and at connections. It
may only be necessary to examine the circuit
in question supplying power to the appliances
or cords in the area of origin. If you have
a larger area of origin, it will be necessary
to expand your area of interest accordingly.
Other symptoms to look for may include the
discoloration of the neutral bus in the electrical
panel, neutral conductors, or any metal object
suspected of being the offending current path.
You may be asking yourself, “What
happens if there’s an open neutral on only one
phase?” The answer is “It depends.” In order
for this to happen, it would likely be affecting
a single branch circuit within a structure, and
20 www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator Oct2013
would be downstream of the MDP. It will also
depend on how each outlet is connected and
whether the devices plugged or wired in are
grounded or not. In the case of an ungrounded
appliance, no current would flow because there
is no alternate path back into the electrical
system. In a grounded appliance, there would
have to be a current path between the neutral
and ground (an abnormal condition). The
location of the open neutral is also going to
affect what is observed. If the break is between
the first outlet and the MDP, then the whole
circuit will be affected. If the break is in the
middle or towards the end of the run, then only
those items that are downstream (electrically
speaking) from that break will be affected.
The most likely scenario is that nothing on the
affected circuit will operate due to the lack of
a complete electrical circuit, unless there is an
abnormal line-to-ground or neutral-to-ground
fault in the appliance or outlet wiring.
As presented here, an open neutral
provides a dangerous situation within a
structure that can potentially be difficult
to diagnose. The symptoms of an open
neutral can be relatively easy to observe
by the occupants of a structure, making a
thorough interview critical to the success
of the investigation. The math calculations,
equivalent circuits, and pictures presented here
illustrate the dynamics behind an open neutral,
hopefully providing greater insight into how the
electrical system is affected. In the end, with
a little hard work the investigator can find the
circumstances that created the open neutral in
order to successfully determine the origin and
cause of a fire. ■