-

CURING REGIMES NECESSARY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF

TOP QUALITY CONCRETE PAVING BLOCKS AT MINIMUM COST

RICHARD G. FENWICK

FENWICK ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

Stanton Lees, Matlock, Derbyshire, UK.

SUMMARY
The manufacture of concrete block paving is very competitive and highly
automated. The demands on the product, structurally, visually, and in terms
of durability, are high.

The semi-dry concrete used in the manufacture of concrete paving blocks is

dangerously near the 'too dry' side of the water/cement ratio curve. It is
therefore necessary to prevent evaporation of the water in the products.
Pulverised-fuel ash and Ground Granulated Granulated Blastfurnace Slag are used
by manufacturers to reduce costs and improve product performance. Both of
these materials have low early strength and require elevated temperatures (up
to 40 a C) to provide the process benefits. .

Control of temperature and humidity - a controlled curing regime - is the key

to the manufacture of consistent high quality concrete block paving at minimum
cost. This paper describes the key process parameters and practical solutions
used in the industry.

1• INTRODUCTION Costs are also reduced by bettE

process control i.e. control (
The manufacture of concrete paving batching, mixing, water content, moul
blocks, particularly in the UK and filling, compaction and curin~
Western Europe, is very competitive. Tighter process control means the
This leads manufacturers·to seek ways margins can be reduced.
to reduce costs and improve product
quality. This means:

Quality in terms of Concrete Paving Using less of the most expensive

Blocks is defined as: materials primarily cement and
pigment.
Meeting the National Standard in
all respects consistently. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC in
the text) can be substituted by
Achieving a good surface finish other, cheaper binders.
not too open textured.
2. OPC SUBSTITUTION BY CHEAPER BINDEB
Making products with bright
attractive colours. 2.1 UK Practice

Making products with consistent In the UK all products conform to E

colour and low levels of 6717 Precast Concrete Pavin
efflorescence - ideally none. Blocks. <1' This British Standard wa
issued in 1987 as a development of th
Costs are reduced by reducing previous standard produced by th
production and raw material cost by: industry and users.·

Using high volume automated plant. BS 6717 specifies that:

Running these plants'for as many 'The binder content of the

hours as possible - typically 18 compacted concrete shall not be
hours/day. less than 380 kg/m 3 . '
Using shortest cycle times. Permitted binders include:
Using more economical raw Ordinary Portland Cement to BS
materials. 12. <"'" (OPC in the text).

332
 Portl~nd Pulverised-fuel ash cement 40 r-------------------------------
to BS 6588. ( 3 '

Portland-blastfurnace cement to BS
146 Part 2. (•.,

Pulverised Fuel-ash to BS 4892: J:

1-,
(PFA in the text). ~ 20
w
a: ... '
Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag I-
... , ' 70% ggbs
<fl,
6699. <<>, (GGBS in the text).
/ ' '"
W
ID

1 ,/'"
:::l
The benefits of using PFA and U
GGBS as binders: ,,"
0 ' - - - - 1 . - - . 1 . - - - - - - - - -___
GGBS are generally added 3 7
to the mix at the time of AGE - days
Figure 1.
ause there is a need to use high The relationship between Strength
of binder (380kg/m"') and because Age for a GGBS composite concrete
a relatively expensive material equal binder content and workability
major cost reduction 20DC. <7'
ties by using a significant
of PFA and GGBS as 40r---------------
for OPC. Although GGBS
If is not that much cheaper than
, because of its light colour it is
sible to

r colours.
reduce the pigment
,rnnn,rrion and/or to make bright~r,
E
.§
Z
J:
l-
e)
40% ggbs" ". " , "

"" " "

/ ' ............. 70%99bS
- " ,"
.;"" " .
.-. '

Z
both PFA and GGBS reduce W
a: / ......
florescence because they combine with tii / /'
lime as hydration proceeds. w / ,/
ID
:::l //
because of its spherical shape, U 1/
/
the workability of the mix
0'----1._ _.1.-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-'-_
easier (and quicker) mould
and improves the compactibility 3 7
cohesion of the concrete. Surface AGE- days
:;':finish is also improved Figure 2
i:,For these reasons high volume producers The relationship between Strength
'use significant volumes of PFA and/or Age for a GGBS composite concrete
GGBS in concrete paving blocks. equal 28 day strength and workabil
.~ ,-
at 20 D C. <7'
t~.2 European Practice 40r-------------~~-------------

'~"IBlended cements are not as common in

-- ...... -------_
'",\\,the UKas in mainland Europe. Most E ...
/"~:European manufacturers use blended .§ 30 ,-
t",;" cements which react in the same way as z , .............. 30% pfa
;~PFA or GGBS added separately.
~ ,,,,.,,,,,

\?s"3. EARLY STRENGTH GAIN (UP TO 28 DAYS) ~20 /

/
w
OF CONCRETE CONTAINING PFA AND GGBS a: I
I

AS BINDERS tii I
I
w I
ID 10 I
It is well known that the early :::l
U
strength development of concrete
containing significant proportions of OL---l_ _--'-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
PFA and GGBS as binder is slower than
that of a mix containing only ope. 3 7
AGE - days
This is a major disadvantage in using Figure 3.
high proportions of these materials in
concrete block paving manufacture. The The relationship between Strength
~igures below illustrate the typical Age for a PFA composite concrete
early strength gain relationship _ an equal binder content and workabilit]
ambient temperatures. 20DC. <7'

333
 40r---------------------------------, Too little water - and not all
binder will react to form
cementitious paste. Too much water
E the crystal formation within
~ 30 -- concrete will be less than ideal.
:r
f--
,,
, -
, ...
... _--30% pta
the excess water will be left wi
the concrete as capillaries and p
making the concrete porous and
Cl 20
zw I durable.
I
a: I

,,
f-- I
CIl

:ll1O I
::>
u

O~~----~----------

3 7
____________ ~

AGE - days 28
Figure 4.
The relationship between strength and
Age for a PFA composite concrete of
equal 28 day strength and workability
at 20 D C. C?>
':1, '3 '4 '5 .{, '1 .~ '9
In order to improve the early strength
gain of PFA and GGBS concretes it is WI-lmRICEMENr RAno,
necessary to increase the temperature Norb. lillB (l.RAAj ~ 1REDR£l1Cf1L Flc.t)!;
of the concrete. This is achieved by IN I>RfClic.E., BECf\1)$ OF EV~oN F.
warm curing - illustrated in Figure 5. me. ~Acl;: 1l'%. &A=BCIl\1;wjc Rltilo
R!:D.JCEl) ~ ~ o.t.

-
50
-------- Figure 5: The relationship between
OPC - 28 days
~
.... ....
.... .... ""PBFC - 28 days
-- ---- .... - water/cement ratio and strength. ca>
5. SEMI~DRY CONCRETE USED IN BLOCK
PAVING MANUFACTURE
Theoretically the concrete is still
the 'too wet' side of the curve.
practice, because of the evaporatj
from the block surface it is necessa
to use as much water in the mix

-- ---- possible to fully hydrate the bind

and generate as much strength

--- -- __ - - -PeFC -1 day possible.

The maximum water content is limited
the process - vibratory compaction
CURING TEMPERATURE _·C
special purpose biock machines.
Figure 5. The limiting factors are:
The relationship between strength and Concrete sticking to the tamper
Age for PFA and GGBS composite heads.
concretes of equal binder content and
workability at varying The filler' box becoming heavily
temperatures. C?> encrusted with concrete.
IT CAN THUS BE SEEN THAT IN ORDER TO Difficulty in filling the mould
USE SIGNIFICANT PROPORTIONS OF PFA AND cavities.
GGBS AS, COST REDUCING, CEMENT
SUBSTITUTES IT IS NECESSARY TO CURE Product slump (or collapse) after
CONCRETE AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES. demould.
4. WATER/CEMENT RATIO AND CONCRETE Products falling out of the bottom
BLOCK PAVING MANUFACTURE of the mould (multilayers only).
Concrete sets because of hydration - a IT IS THEREFORE NECESSARY, IN PRACTICE
chemical reaction between the binder TO PUT AS MUCH WATER IN THE CONCRETE A:
and water. This chemical reaction PERMITTED BY THE CONSTRAINTS OF TID
needs a precisely defined water/cement PROCESS.
ratio,
334
 MUCH WATER MUST BE 6.4 Stratification - laterally and
FROM EVAPORATING) vertically
As concrete cures the heat liberated
- PROCESS PARAMETERS the hydration reaction will natural
increase the temperature of t
temperature and humidity concrete and its surroundj
the initial period after environment. Hot air rises, and if
is called curing. steps are taken the top of the chambE
will become much hotter than t
been shown above, that to bottom.
cture m~n~mum cost quality
i-dry products requires elevated Additionally, because most systems he
:ernp.eratures and low evaporation. This doors at one end or both ends of rac}
achieved by a controlled curing hea t and humidity can escape at ec
This is a key area of the end of the racks.
cturing process where
501~u~oticated companies have the edge. Ideally some form of forced
circulation is necessary to ensure tl
it is only possible to temperature amd humidity stays const,
concrete paving blocks in a at all points in the curing chambers
curing regime for 24 to 72
However, if the curing 6.6 Insulation
for this initial period are
~L~lll~~'CU, blocks .can be produced at The racks should be well insulated
cost and high quality. the outside. Each rack, or group
racks, should be insulated from
neighbours. Insulation performa:
should be specified so that
5 shows that the higher the condensation can occur at the hotte
temparature, up to say 40°C, most humid conditions with the cold
better. Above thi$ temperature ambient temperature.
inkage and other deleterious effects
occur. In practice, if the Insulation of curing chambers must
~t:ernlpe,rature in the curing regime can be executed carefully. No cold brid
in the region of 35 0 C to must occur. Ingress of colder ambi
the trade off of manufacturing air must also be minimised.
reductions against capital and
appears to be about right. 6.7 Curing capacity
6~2 Humidity It is, advantageous to keep produ
inside the curing regime for as long
The humidity needs to be maintained as possible. The longer the products
high as possible without saturation at elevated temperatures and n
at least 95% R.H. humidity the more potential for cern
replacement, control of colour
At no time must the humidity be allowed efflorescence and the low.er
to rise to 100% R .H. This would result production margin.
in condensation in the curing chamber
with a risk of drips landing on the There are significant savings
products. This would cause heating costs if the products ren
unacceptable surface damage. in the curing regime as long
practicable. After the products t
6.3 Time started to hydrate and the exotheI
temperature rise has become establif
The products need to stay in the curing it is possible to switch off exteI
regime for as long as practicable. At heat so that the products can 'cook
least 24 hours and if possible 72 their own juice'.
hours. The longer the products remain
in the warm humid environment the more 7. PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS
PFA and GGBS can be used. Additionally,
because after 3 days in the curing 7.1 Manufacturers without racks or
regime the products will have attained chambers
60% to 80% of their 28 day strength the
local outside ambient temperatures will At least, manufacturers should c(
then have less influence on 28 day products with polythene sheets
strength. minimise evaporation and pre'
surface drying although this
It is important that the products do cause efflorescence and other vi:
not freeze during this period. defects. If the factory building

335
heated to provide satisfactory working blocks are subject to fast moving
conditions this can be reasonably streams of air. Stratification and
successful. dead spots should be minimised by
careful design.
7.2 With racks and chambers - unheated
Alternatively, the whole of the curing
Chambers should be insulated well - as is carried out in one large insulated
specified above. Doors, themselves chamber with zoned heating with
insulated and fitted with good seals, thermostatic control. This then reaches
should be fitted to each chamber - or a steady state. The temperature is
(less preferable) a group of chambers. largely constant without air movement
because the chamber is so well
The floor can be wetted some insulated and the heat is applied at
manufacturers use troughs on the floor floor level. The doors are
containing water to raise the humidity automatically controlled such that air
level. movement is minimised.
This simple type of system can bring The control system can be programmed to
the following problems: boost the temperature initally and then
reduce - often to zero - the heat input
Stratification of humidity and as the exothermic reaction takes over.
temperature in the chamber. Hot The temperature/humidity cycle should
air rises - and stays there. The be developed to give the best results.
uppermost products are hotter and
therefore cure faster thus 8. CONCLUSION
aggravating the problem.
The high volume manfacture of concrete
In cold weather the product may be paving blocks is a highly automated
only just above freezing point. process. The demands on the product,
The reaction at these low structurally, visually and in terms of
temperatures is slow and heat durability, are high.
generation (by hydration)
insuffi.cent to kick the process Controlled curing regimes ensure that
off. Thus some initial heat is quality standards can be maintained
desirable. and improved whilst reducing
manufacturing costs. This makes
This process is not controlled. concrete paving blocks more competitive
This means variability in against competing pavement surfacing
strength, colour and potential systems.
efflorescence.
7.3 With racks and chambers - heated REFERENCES
~any methods of putting heat into the 1. British Standards Institute.
~hambers are suitable. Water or oil Specification for Precast Concrete
Eilled pipes (finned and plain) and Paving Blocks. BS 6717:Part 1 1986
!irect gas firing are all used. The
:adiators or ducting should be below 2. British Standards Institute.
:he lower shel ves in the chambers. Specification for Ordinary and
~his has the benefit that the heat will Rapid Hardening Portland Cement. BS
'ise through the products. Unless care 12 - 1978
.s taken the humidity will fall and the
Iroducts will dry out very 3. British Standards Institute.
eleterious. Specification for pulverised-fuel
ash cement. BS 6588 - 1973
.4 With racks and chambers - heated
and humidified - with forced slow 4. British Standards Institute.
air movement Specification for Portland
Blastfurnace Cement. BS 146:Part 2
his is a fully controlled curing - 1985
egime. Warm (40 o C), very humid air is
istributed throughout the chamber at 5. British Standards Institute.
ow velocity. Specification for Pulverised-fuel
ash for use as a cementitious
~itable heating and humidification component in structural concrete.
~stems, with chamber by chamber BS 3892:Part 1 - 1982
)ntrol are provided. Doors are
~tomatic and close as soon as the
lamber is full. The design of the air
irculation system i,s such that no

336
British Standards Institute.
Specification for Ground Granulated
Blastfurnace Slag for use with
Portland Cement. BS 6699 - 1986

T.A. Harrison and D.C. Spooner.

The properties and use of concretes
made with composite cements. Cement
and Concrete Association - Interim
Technical Note 10 - 1987

A.M Neville. Properties of

Concrete. 1981. ISBN 0 273 01642 3.
pp. 269 - 279

337