Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Developing geopolymer concrete by using cold-bonded fly ash

aggregate, nano-silica, and steel fiber
Jumah Musdif Their ⇑, Mustafa Özakça
Department of Civil Engineering, Gaziantep University, 27310 Gaziantep, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s

GPCs have been synthesized using cold-bonded fly ash aggregate (CFA).

No elevated temperatures have been used in this study.

The dosage of superplasticizer to achieve the target slump value is reduced by the use of CFA.

The pore structure of GPC incorporated permeable aggregate is significantly improved by the utilization of nano-silica (NS).

Better performance of GPC is achieved by the use of 1% steel fiber and 2% NS.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This experimental study presents the effect of nano-silica and steel fiber on the transport properties and
Received 30 January 2018 compressive strength of alkali-activated slag/fly ash concrete incorporated cold-bonded fly ash aggregate.
Received in revised form 11 May 2018 In order to reduce energy consumption and provide environmental impact, the cold-bonded process was
Accepted 30 May 2018
used to manufacture cold-bonded fly ash aggregate. Twenty four geopolymer concrete mixtures incorpo-
Available online 2 June 2018
rated cold-bonded fly ash aggregate, nano-silica, and steel fiber were produced with sodium hydroxide
concentration of 12 M and cured at ambient temperature. Transport properties of geopolymers were
Keywords:
examined through water penetration, water sorptivity, and gas permeability at 28 and 90 days. Results
Cold-bonded process
Compressive strength
indicate that geopolymer concrete incorporated cold-bonded fly ash aggregate can be produced with
Geopolymer compressive strength as high as 28.23 and 36.62 at 28 and 90 days, respectively. However, 2% nano-
Permeability properties silica and 1% steel fiber volume fraction were the most significant parameters that caused remarkable
Nano-silica improvement of investigated properties. Moreover, the incorporation of waste materials in aggregate
Steel fiber and geopolymer concrete production can alleviate environmental problems.
Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction advantages of producing artificial aggregate from waste materials

As in most of the industrialized countries, Turkey generates
large amounts of waste materials. The annual production of Fly
Ash (FA) and blast furnace slag in Turkey reach about 15 million
tons and 600,000 tons, respectively. The disposal process of waste
materials has been one of the most challenging matters in our
country and worldwide [1]. Employing of solid waste materials
in the construction industry are commonly used nowadays as it
introduces usable construction materials.
Concrete technology can introduce suggestions for recycling
industrial wastes like FA and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
(GGBFS). The scientific investigators reengineered some types of
solid wastes in the production of artificial aggregate [2–4]. Several
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mt45151@mail2.gantep.edu.tr (J.M. Their).
such as a promising an alternative to recycle waste materials,
reducing the consumption of non-renewable natural resources,
and producing lighter weight aggregate compared to the natural
ones [5,6]. Three common different procedures used for manufac-
turing artificial aggregate; cold bonding, autoclaving, and sintering.
Using of these methods form spherical shape aggregates with a rel-
atively smooth surface which are preferred because they more
readily flow past each other as the low specific surface area needs
less binder and water in the design of concrete [7,8]. In addition,
comparing to autoclaving or sintering method, the cold-bonding
process method is the lowest energy consumption and has the
least detrimental environmental impact [9,10].
Studies conducted recently by several authors with the use of
Cold-bonded FA aggregate (CFA) in conventional concrete have
revealed the performance of them to be satisfactory comparing
to natural aggregate [9–13]. The studies reported the CFA to have

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.274
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22 13

improved the fresh properties on account of its spherical shape, geopolymer, incorporated with SF and NS. FA is used as a sustain-
and smooth texture [11,14]. Also, the studies reported that the able precursor for manufacturing artificial aggregate through the
incorporation of CFA in conventional concrete led to reduce cold-bonded process. It has long been established that concrete
strength and increase susceptibility to suffer drying shrinkage as durability is significantly influenced by pore structure. Thus, the
compared to natural aggregates [9,11,14]. For example, the present investigation focuses on the compressive strength, water
replacement of natural aggregate by CFA reduced compressive permeability, sorptivity, and gas permeability.
strength and increased drying shrinkage of ordinary Portland
Cement (PC) concrete by about 25% and 50%, respectively [14].
2. Experimental details and methodology
However, water to binder (w/b) ratio, binder content, and Nano-
Silica (NS) were used as effective factors by Güneyisi et al. [11]
2.1. Materials
to avoid the negative side effect of CFA on concrete properties.
Considering the production of PC, the environmental impact
In this investigation, the mineral oxides used as an aluminosil-
associated with its activities includes: discharging of a consider-
icate source to produce GPC were low calcium FA, GGBFS, and NS.
able amount of greenhouse gases, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2) emis-
Class-F FA was utilized with a specific gravity of 2.25 and specific
sions, depleting of fossil fuels as nearly 40% of the cost of
surface area of 379 m2/kg conforming to ASTM C 618. Locally avail-
production of PC is energy-related, and exploiting of natural
able high calcium precursor GGBFS was provided by a cement pro-
resource [15,16]. Also, the recognition of long-term problems in
duction factory with the specific gravity of 2.88 and specific surface
PC structures has acted as an impetus to develop a novel genera-
area of 575 m2/kg. NS has a specific surface area of 170–230 m2/g.
tion of cement with durability and environmental sustainability
Tests of the particle size distribution and microstructure properties
[15,17].
of dry powdered precursors (FA, GGBFS, NS) were conducted with a
The high performance of GeoPolymer Concrete (GPC) in terms
dry-dispersion laser diffraction (Sympatec RODOS T4.1 Particle
of its high durability, high sustainability, and adequate strength
Size Analyzer) and image analysis using Scanning Electron Micro-
can be considered the key motivation for lessening the use of PC
scopy (SEM). The chemical and physical properties of the raw pow-
in construction projects. In addition, geopolymerization reaction
der materials are presented in Table 1. Fig. 1 depicts the
is an environmentally-friendly process and can significantly
microstructure images of FA, GGBFS, and NS. Fig. 2 shows the par-
account for reducing global CO2 emissions [18–20]. In this reaction,
ticle size distribution curves of FA and GGBFS.
the use of alkali silicate solution to reactivate raw aluminosilicate
The alkaline activator used for the geopolymerization process
materials such as FA, GGBFS, red mud, mine waste, etc., at ambient
was a combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sili-
or slightly high temperatures, allows the creation of cementitious
cate (Na2SiO3) solutions. In this study, potable water was used to
gel [21]. Xu and Deventer [22] reported that the most reasonable
dissolve pure NaOH pellets to prepare an aqueous compound with
aluminosilicate source is FA due to its low cost, availability, and
the desired concentration. The chemical composition of water
greater potential for producing geopolymers. It was found that cal-
glass as provided by the supplier refers to the presence of 14.7%
cium oxide (CaO) in FA forms calcium silicate hydrate which was
Na2O, 29.4% SiO2, and the rest is water. superplasticizer based
believed to have a significant influence on the hardened properties
on polycarboxylic-ether formulation with a specific gravity of
of FA based GPC [23].
1.08 ± 0.02 and PH-value of 7 ± 1 was used in all mixes to attain
Reports in literature recommended using heat or steam cured
the required slump value for fresh GPC.
geopolymer in an aggressive environment because of their low
In this research, hooked-end SF with a yield strength
effective porosity [24–28]. However, a lesser strength is obtained
1500 N/mm, young modulus E = 200 GPa, density q = 7850 kg/m3,
when FA GPC is cured at an ambient temperature of 25 °C
length L = 30 mm, and aspect ratio l/d = 54.55 was utilized. Fig. 3
[27,28]. In this context, some researchers recently sought to
shows the SF used in the production of GPC.
improve the quality of geopolymer-based FA cured at ambient
Two types of coarse aggregate were used to manufacture GPC,
temperature. Phoo-ngernkham et al. [29] developed high calcium
viz., natural river and CFA. The maximum size, fineness modulus,
FA geopolymer incorporated with 1%, 2%, and 3% NS and nano-
and specific gravity of natural coarse aggregate were calculated
aluminum. Nath et al. [30] partially replaced FA with GGBFS, PC,
as 16 mm, 5.7%, and 2.7, respectively. Regarding the production
and calcium hydroxide. The results of the study revealed that
of CFA, This research based on previous studies concentrating on
workability was optimal with a binder for the FA geopolymer
the use of CFA in conventional concrete [32,33]. For this, the same
blended with these additives.
type of FA as used in geopolymer production was utilized in the
Steel Fiber (SF) reinforced concrete sections are of interest in
pelletizing process. CFA was produced in the construction labora-
some construction applications. For this, some studies are used
tory through the agglomeration of 90% FA and 10% cement by
SF for reinforcing geopolymers. Bernal et al. [15] observed that
the water absorption and porosity in alkali-activated slag concrete
reinforced with SF were reduced by about 20% in comparison to the Table 1
mixes without fibers. Aydın and Baradan [31] reported the worka- Chemical composition and physical properties of fly ash, slag, and nano-silica.
bility and drying shrinkage of alkali-activated slag/silica fume mor- Item, % Fly ash Slag Nano-silica
tars decreased with the inclusion of SF. However, as there are few
CaO 4.24 34.19 –
references concerning the influence of fibers on the transport prop- SiO2 57.2 40.42 >99.8
erties of GGBFS/FA based geopolymer, it is of importance to dis- Al2O3 24.4 10.6 –
cover capabilities of geopolymers, when they are reinforced by Fe2O3 7.1 1.28 –
fibers. Furthermore and to the knowledge of the authors, no inves- MgO 2.4 7.63 –
SO3 0.29 0.68 –
tigation had been made up to date to study the performance of CFA
K2O 3.37 – –
in alkali-activated binder concrete cured at ambient or oven tem- Na2O 0.38 – –
perature. Therefore there is a necessity for further researches to Cl – 0.0128 –
be performed in this regard. Loss of ignition (1000 °C) 1.58 2.74 <1.5
Specific gravity 2.25 2.88 2.2
The main motivation of the paper is to produce and evaluate the
Blaine fineness, m2/kg 379 575 –
transport properties of highly sustainable green concrete through Surface-volume ratio, m2/g – – 170–230
the use of CFA to synthesize low calcium FA-blended GGBFS
14 J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22

Fig. 1. SEM of (a) FA, (b) GGBFS, and (c) NS.

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of (a) FA and (b) GGBFS.

weight, with an available pelletizer disc. After 20 min, the aggre-
gate fresh pellets formed. They were then cured in sealed plastic
bags at ambient temperature (without heat) for 28 days in order
to be ready for use in geopolymer production. Worth mentioning,
after completion of the curing stage, sieving of the CFA was imple-
mented to separate coarse particles 4–16 mm. Fig. 4 depicts the
general steps of the CFA production.
Fine aggregate is a mixture of river sand and crushed limestone
sand used in all geopolymer mixes. Table 2 and Fig. 5 illustrate
the physical properties and gradation curves of aggregates,
respectively.
2.2. Production of geopolymer
The mix proportions of GPC are shown in Table 3. It demon-
strates three different series that were prepared based on a
constant binder content of 600 kg/m3 and alkaline activator solu-
tion of about 217 kg/m3 having a Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio of 2.5. In
order to verify the mix design procedure, the design of GPC was
considered with Activators/Precursors ratio of 0.45, and percentage
of solids in NaOH and Na2SiO3 are 12.9 and 32.1% by weight of pre-
cursors, respectively. Accordingly, the total binder content of each
mixture is equal to the weight of FA, GGBFS, NaOH, and WG. The
natural coarse aggregate was partially replaced with CFA at
replacement ratios of 0, 50, and 100% by weight in the first, second,
and third series, respectively.
NaOH flake was dissolved in water to prepare a liquid having a
concentration of 12 M. NaOH was selected in order to avoid the
hindrance of polycondensation reaction [34]. The alkali activator
solution was produced by blending NaOH solution (after cooling
the NaOH solution down to an ambient temperature of
(27–30 °C) with water glass. After that, the mixed solution was
 J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22 15

Table 2
Physical properties of different types of aggregate.

Item Fineness Specific Water

modulus gravity absorption, %
Crushed sand 2.42 2.43 0.95
River sand 2.86 2.68 0.58
Natural coarse aggregate 5.66 2.72 0.43
Coarse CFA 5.54 1.75 21.5

100
Crushed sand

80 River sand

Passing (%)
Natural coarse
60
Artificial
40
Fig. 3. Steel fiber with hook-ended. B1

20 B2

stored in plastic containers for about 1 day (24 h) at room temper- B3

ature prior to usage. FA and GGBFS were sourced locally. They were
incorporated at the same weight ratio, a mix of 50% FA and 50%
GGBFS. Table 3 shows that a total of four geopolymer series (0.0,
0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% SF) were produced. In addition, each series con-
sisted of two groups with and without the incorporation of 2%
NS. As a result, in the current research, the experimental program
involved the design and preparation of a total 24 GPC mixtures.
The suggested designation of geopolymer mixtures was based on
the investigated parameters (i.e. CFA replacement level, NS con-
tent, and SF volume fraction). For example, CFA50-NS2-F100 indi-
cates the replacement level of coarse CFA is 50%, 2% NS, and 1%
volume fraction of SF.
The mixing process of geopolymer for casting began with the
preparation of CFA by immersing it in water for about 25–30 min
as about 93% of the 24 h water absorption occurred within first
30 min [5]. Thereafter, dry towels were used to achieve a saturated
surface dry condition. This procedure was adopted in order to pre-
vent or to lessen the water absorption property of CFA which if
occurs, reduces the early values of the slump test. Such an occur-
rence would also negatively influence the polycondensation/crys-
tallization reaction. Next, a concrete mixer was used for about
1 min to mix the coarse and fine aggregate together. Thereafter,
the blended powder raw materials and alkali activator solution,
including superplasticizer, were gradually added to the concrete
mixer one-by-one. They were mixed for approximately 6 min, with
a 2-minute rest between 3-minute intervals of mixing. The GPC
was designed to achieve a slump value in the range of 9 ± 2 cm
and hence, the superplasticizer dosage was modified for each mix-
ture to attain the specified workability (slump specified value).
Once the mixing process was completed, the resulting fresh mix-
ture was poured into pre-oiled molds in three layers. It was well-
0
0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16
Sieve size (mm)
Fig. 5. Gradation curves of aggregate. (B1, B2, and B3 aggregate mixture contained
0%, 50%, 100% coarse CFA).
compacted with a vibrator table. In terms of mold dimensions,
two different types of cylinders were utilized, (Ø 150  300) mm
and (Ø 100  200) mm; and, two cubes were used, (100  100 
100) mm and (150  150  150) mm.
The surfaces of cast samples were covered with a polyethylene
film to minimize the carbonation effect and prevent water evapo-
ration. They were then allowed to harden at room temperature for
24 h. Subsequently, the specimens were demolded and stored
before testing in an ambient temperature curing room with a con-
trolled temperature of 27–30 °C.
2.3. Test procedures
At 28 and 90 days of curing, a compressive strength test was
applied on the cubes, all of which had dimensions of 100  100
 100 mm, in accordance with BS EN 12390-3 [35], using a
3000 KN universal testing machine. The test was replicated three
times and the average value of these tests was calculated and
reported for each type of GPC mixture.
Tests on water depth penetration under pressure of geopolymer
samples were performed in accordance with code provisions (DIN
1048) [36]. Cubes of 150 mm edge were oven-dried at 65–70 °C
immediately after attaining the ages of 28 and 90 days. Next, the
dried cubes were subjected to 0.5 N/mm2 of pressurized tap water

Fig. 4. production of CFA. (a) Dry Powder, (b) Fresh pellets, and (c) Pellets in bag for curing.
16 J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22

Table 3
Details of geopolymer mix proportions in kg/m3.

Code of mixture Precursors Activators Aggregate Steel Reducing

fiber admixture
Fly ash Slag Nano-silica Sodium Sodium Natural Cold-bonded River Crushed
hydroxide silicate (coarse) (coarse) (sand) (sand)
CFA0-NS0-F0 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 945.5 0.0 465.8 422.3 0.0 13.4
CFA50-NS0-F0 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 472.7 304.1 465.8 422.3 0.0 10.5
CFA100-NS0-F0 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 0.0 608.3 465.8 422.3 0.0 8.7
CFA0-NS2-F0 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 944.9 0.0 465.5 422.1 0.0 15.2
CFA50-NS2-F0 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 472.4 304.0 465.5 422.1 0.0 12.0
CFA100-NS2-F0 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 0.0 607.9 465.5 422.1 0.0 9.6
CFA0-NS0-F50 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 938.7 0.0 462.4 419.3 39.3 15.8
CFA50-NS0-F50 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 469.3 302.0 462.4 419.3 39.3 12.9
CFA100-NS0-F50 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 0.0 603.9 462.4 419.3 39.3 11.3
CFA0-NS2-F50 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 938.1 0.0 462.1 419.0 39.3 17.2
CFA50-NS2-F50 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 469.0 301.8 462.1 419.0 39.3 13.5
CFA100-NS2-F50 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 0.0 603.5 462.1 419.0 39.3 12.2
CFA0-NS0-F100 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 931.9 0.0 459.1 416.3 78.5 17.9
CFA50-NS0-F100 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 465.9 299.8 459.1 416.3 78.5 13.7
CFA100-NS0-F100 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 0.0 599.5 459.1 416.3 78.5 12.5
CFA0-NS2-F100 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 931.3 0.0 458.8 416.0 78.5 18.4
CFA50-NS2-F100 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 465.6 299.6 458.8 416.0 78.5 14.1
CFA100-NS2-F100 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 0.0 599.2 458.8 416.0 78.5 12.7
CFA0-NS0-F150 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 925.1 0.0 455.7 413.2 117.8 20.5
CFA50-NS0-F150 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 462.5 297.6 455.7 413.2 117.8 17.4
CFA100-NS0-F150 206.9 206.9 0.0 53.2 133 0.0 595.2 455.7 413.2 117.8 16.2
CFA0-NS2-F150 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 924.5 0.0 455.4 412.9 117.8 22.2
CFA50-NS2-F150 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 462.2 297.4 455.4 412.9 117.8 19.9
CFA100-NS2-F150 202.8 202.8 8.3 53.2 133 0.0 594.8 455.4 412.9 117.8 17.6

at the base of the cubes for 3 days. Then, after splitting the speci-
mens into two symmetric parts, the maximum depth of penetrated
water was measured. It should be noted that the samples that were
incorporated with SF were split with a jackhammer after removal
from the press machine. The test setup from the current investiga-
tion is presented in Fig. 6.
In order to specify the capillary suction performance of the
geopolymer specimens, a sorptivity test was conducted on three
samples as per to ASTM C1585-13 [37]. Each mixture sample had
dimensions of 100  100  100 mm and testing was done at the
ages of 28 and 90 days of self-curing. The specimens were first
dried by the oven at 65–70 °C to improve the capillary suction.
Then, the specimens were stored in sealed containers to cool to
room temperature. Afterward, the lateral sides and surface face
of each specimen were completely insulated with paraffin wax to
prevent any penetration of water and evaporation that might occur
through the bottom surface during the test procedure. Next, the
weight of each specimen was measured and recorded. Each was
then placed on glass rods on a tray such that the head of water
was 5 mm above the bottom surface of each specimen, so as to
absorb water vertically. During the test, the weight of the samples
was measured at 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, and 64 min, so as to find the
volume of water absorption. The sorptivity coefficient at 28 and 90
days was obtained from the slope of a line drawn between the vol-
ume of absorbed water versus the square root of the selected time
interval. The representation of the sorptivity test is presented in
Fig. 7.
Typically, the gas permeability test for concrete is evaluated
based on Darcy’s Law. In this study, and as reported by RILEM
[38], the CEMBUREAU procedure was applied to study oxygen per-
meability of GPC. Each (Ø 150  300) mm cylinder was cut with a
diamond saw into three-disc specimens with a size of (Ø 150 
50) mm each. It is necessary to have the same moisture condition
for all samples. Therefore, disc specimens were oven-dried using
the same procedure adopted in the water permeability and sorp-
tivity tests, until the weight variation value did not exceed 1%.
The specimens were then wrapped with cling film and stored in
plastic sealed containers, one for every three samples, before test-
ing the samples at 28 and 90 days. The configuration and layout of
the gas permeability test and the current testing apparatus are pre-
sented in Fig. 8.
The apparent oxygen permeability coefficient K beneath steady
state laminar flow conditions is evaluated using a modified Darcy’s
equation as follows:

Fig. 6. Test setup for the penetration depth of water under pressure studies. Fig. 7. Water sorptivity test configuration.
 J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22 17

(a) 60
0% SFA

Compressive strength (MPa)

NS 0% NS 2%
50% SFA
100% SFA
50

40

30

20

10
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Steel fiber volume fraction (%)
(b) 70
0% SFA
NS 0% NS 2%

Compressive strength (MPa)

50% SFA
60 100% SFA

50

40

30

20

Fig. 8. Configuration view of gas permeability apparatus. 10

0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Steel fiber volume fraction (%)
2P2 QLl
K¼   Fig. 9. Variation of compressive strength for SF volume fraction of geopolymer
A P21  P 22 concrete: (a) 28-day, and (b) 90-day.

where K is the coefficient of gas permeability (m2), L is sample

height (m), l is oxygen viscosity (2.02  105N s/m2), A is sample
cross-sectional area (m2), P1 is inlet gas pressure (N/m2), P2 is outlet
gas pressure (N/m2), and Q is volume flow rate (m3/s).
3. Test results and discussions
3.1. Compressive strength
The variation trend of 28 and 90 days compressive strength for
different GPC mixes are graphically presented in Fig. 9. It can be
seen that the compressive strength varied from 28.2 to 46.7 MPa
and from 36.6 to 56.5 MPa at 28 and 90 days, respectively. These
results are comparable to those of previous studies adopted by
Adak et al. [39], Pacheco-Torgal et al. [40], and Kouamo et al.
[41]. However, it can be clearly detected that a decrease in com-
pressive strength at 28 and 90 days can be clarified with an inferior
performance of aggregate which corresponds to the incorporation
of CFA in geopolymer. For instance, when compared to geopoly-
mer, concrete having an age of 28 days made without the incorpo-
ration of CFA, the compressive strength, irrespective of NS content,
decreased from 8% to 15% when coarse CFA had a replacement
level of 50%. In those with 100% CFA, a higher reduction of 12–
24% can be observed. Kastiukas et al. [42] reported that the porous
nature of aggregate (i.e. lightweight aggregate) weakens the com-
pressive strength of GPC. However, similar trends have also been
observed in normal concrete incorporated with CFA [33,42].
Fig. 9 depicts that the incorporation of SF in GPC slightly
increased compression-resistant capacities. It is estimated that this
improvement reached highest values at a volume fraction of 1% for
all types of concretes produced in this study. Based on the compar-
ison of compressive strength results of geopolymer mortar made
with the different volume fraction of SF, Aydın and Baradan [31]
found that the optimal SF content is 2%. Conversely, as indicated
in Fig. 9, increasing the curing age from 28 to 90 days slightly
decreased the efficiency of SF on the compressive strength of con-
crete. For example, with the incorporation of 1% SF in the mixtures
free of NS, and made with 0, 50, and 100% CFA, at 28 days the com-
pressive strength increased by 11, 14, and 20% related to those free
of SF respectively.
As Fig. 9 presents, the geopolymer mixes incorporating nano-
particles achieved higher compressive strength values. The average
of enhancement ratios resulting from the use of NS was found to be
13.5 and 19.8% for concretes aged 28 and 90 days respectively. In
light of the previous studies, such trends were expected as the
addition of nanoparticles developed harder binder materials
[29,43]. The use of NS seemed to slightly reduce the harmful effect
on compressive strength caused by replacing natural coarse aggre-
gate with CFA. For instance, the compressive strength at 28 days of
CFA100-NS0-F150 and CFA100-NS2-F150 was lower by 19 and
12%, respectively, when compared to that of CFA0-NS0-F150. The
improvement in compressive strength is due to the efficiency of
NS in increasing the geopolymerization reaction products in the
matrix [44].
3.2. Water penetration
Resistance to water penetration can be a reliable tool to assess
concrete durability. Typically, a higher depth value of water pene-
tration refers to lower durability and vice versa. In general, types of
nanoparticles [11,45] were found to diminish concrete permeabil-
ity. However, permeable concrete was produced with the use of
high absorption aggregate, as reported by several researchers
[14,33,46]. Öz [14] reported that the depth of water penetration
of concrete made with natural river aggregate was 15.5 mm
whereas it was increased to 33.5 mm when lightweight aggregate
had been used. Therefore, resistance to water penetration in GPC is
expected to be considerably affected by NS and CFA.
18 J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22

The depths of water penetration in GPC samples are illustrated (a) 40

NS 0% NS 2%
in Table 4. Further, Fig. 10 depicts the relative variation of water

Change of water penetration (%)

30
depth calculated with respect to the CFA0-NS0-F0 mixtures at 28
and 90 days. It is evident from Table 4 and Fig. 10 that the inclusion 20
of CFA plays a remarkable role in increasing water penetration 10
regardless of type and curing age of tested samples. As indicated
in the graphed results, the maximum depth obtained for the 0
CFA100-NS0-F0 mixture was greater than the allowable limit that -10
was reached by TS EN 12390-8 [47] (see Fig. 10).
The water absorption test of CFA and natural aggregate, clearly -20
revealed that CFA is more porous than natural river aggregate. Fur- -30
thermore, porous aggregate leads to a greater pore area at the 0% SFA 50% SFA 100% SFA
interfacial transition zone. That has been recognized to signifi- -40
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
cantly affect a fluid’s permeation [48]. In general, the results of Steel fibre volume fraction (%)
water permeability for geopolymer mixes free of SF and NS appear (b) 40
to trend as those results measured by Kockal and Ozturan [10]. NS 0% NS 2%

Change of water penetration (%)

They observed water penetration at 28 days for normal concrete 30
and CFA concrete as 21 and 36 mm, respectively. 20
As presented in Fig. 10, when increasing the NS content from 0%
to 2%, the depth of water penetration reduces considerably. A 10
higher reduction in water penetration was observed with the 0
CFA0-NS2-F100 mixture of about 34% and 33% at 28 and 90 days,
respectively. All GPC mixtures incorporated with NS showed lower -10

water penetration at 28 days than the control mixture except the -20
CFA100-NS2-F0 (see Fig. 10). A possible explanation for lower pen-
-30
etration is that as the geopolymerization proceeded, the pore
0% SFA 50% SFA 100% SFA
refinement effect of NS caused enhancement of the water penetra- -40
tion resistance. Also, like such trends suggest, the production of 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Steel fibre volume fraction (%)
GPC with NS significantly improves pore structure even with the
incorporation of high permeable aggregate. Adak et al. [39] pro- Fig. 10. Normalized water penetration of geopolymer concrete with respect to
duced low calcium FA based GPC, and more amount of crystalline control mixture: (a) 28-day, and (b) 90-day.
compound in the geopolymer matrix was observed due to the use
of NS. At the same time, the use of NS as an additive to geopolymer
paste increases the rate of calcium silicate hydrate formation [29]. from 28 to 90 days became lower when NS was added. For
Mo et al. [48] reported that a higher hydration rate causes a lower instance, the reduction in water permeability of CFA50-NS0-F100
number of pores in the concrete microstructure. Following that, was 29% whilst it was 22% for the same mix made with 2% NS.
the comparison between the water penetration measurements The results presented in Fig. 10 revealed that in this research,
clearly revealed that the average reduction of water permeability there was an improvement in water penetration resistance

Table 4
Test results for water penetration, water sorptivity, and gas permeability of various geopolymer concrete.

Code of mixture Water penetration Water sorptivity Gas permeability

(mm) (mm/min1/2) (106  m2)
28 days 90 days 28 days 90 days 28 days 90 days
CFA0-NS0-F0 23.5 18 0.088 0.071 2.650 2.176
CFA50-NS0-F0 27.0 20.5 0.095 0.074 3.020 2.546
CFA100-NS0-F0 30.5 22.5 0.102 0.077 3.329 2.797
CFA0-NS2-F0 18.5 15.0 0.076 0.066 2.104 1.791
CFA50-NS2-F0 22.5 17.5 0.081 0.068 2.325 1.955
CFA100-NS2-F0 25.0 19.5 0.082 0.070 2.748 2.308
CFA0-NS0-F50 21.5 16.5 0.081 0.066 2.500 2.05
CFA50-NS0-F50 25.5 19.5 0.093 0.073 2.939 2.351
CFA100-NS0-F50 29.0 22.0 0.101 0.077 3.199 2.625
CFA0-NS2-F50 18.0 14.0 0.073 0.063 2.030 1.724
CFA50-NS2-F50 20.5 16.0 0.076 0.065 2.291 1.961
CFA100-NS2-F50 22.5 18.0 0.081 0.066 2.387 2.013
CFA0-NS0-F100 20.0 14.5 0.077 0.065 2.353 1.937
CFA50-NS0-F100 24.0 17.0 0.090 0.071 2.802 2.215
CFA100-NS0-F100 27.5 20.0 0.096 0.072 3.051 2.548
CFA0-NS2-F100 15.5 12.0 0.067 0.059 1.774 1.566
CFA50-NS2-F100 17.5 13.5 0.074 0.063 2.063 1.857
CFA100-NS2-F100 20.0 15.5 0.075 0.063 2.163 1.918
CFA0-NS0-F150 19.5 16.0 0.084 0.066 2.415 2.251
CFA50-NS0-F150 23.5 18.5 0.093 0.072 2.957 2.557
CFA100-NS0-F150 26.5 21.0 0.099 0.076 3.170 2.772
CFA0-NS2-F150 16.5 14.0 0.070 0.061 2.036 1.736
CFA50-NS2-F150 17.5 15.0 0.077 0.065 2.404 2.006
CFA100-NS2-F150 20.0 16.5 0.079 0.066 2.457 2.105

induced by the utilization of SF. As can be seen from Table 4, the
addition of SF slightly decreased the depth of penetrated water
in mixes made with CFA and 0% NS. Whereas, when NS and SF
are used together in geopolymer mixes, the measured values of
water penetration depths are significantly reduced even for those
made with CFA. For instance, at 90 days, the water penetration
depth values of CFA50-NS0-F50 and CFA50-NS2-F50 were found
to be lower than that of CFA50-NS0-F0 by about 5% and 21%,
respectively. Furthermore, such trends suggest that the use of NS
in SF reinforced GPC incorporated with CFA will remarkably raise
the resistance of water penetration under pressure [49]. Moreover,
the SF volume fraction of 1% could be considered optimum in terms
of improving water permeability (see Fig. 10). This also appears to
be in agreement with the discussion on compressive strength as
presented earlier.
3.3. Water sorptivity
Sorptivity introduces a reliable indicator for concrete durability
as it relates to the mechanism of moisture transport into unsatu-
rated concrete specimens. In general, during the sorptivity test,
the driving force that allows water to ingress into concrete is cap-
illary suction. Table 4 illustrates the water sorptivity calculated
values of different GPC. The normalized sorptivity of GPC of the
control mixture at 28 and 90 days are presented in Fig. 11, respec-
tively. By means of their 28-day sorptivity indexes of 0.102 and
0.067 mm/min1/2, CFA100-NS0-F150 was considered as the most
permeable concrete and CFA0-NS2-F100 as the least, respectively.
The water sorptivity results of concrete containing CFA were
higher than those of mixtures made without CFA. In addition, it
was observed that the higher the CFA volume, the higher water
sorptivity. For example, the 28-day water sorptivity of CFA0-NS0-
F0 increased by 8% and 15% due to the use of 50% and 100% CFA,
respectively. This trend revealed that the use of aggregates having
(a) 30
Change of water sorptivity (%)
NS 0%
20
10
0 by the enhancement in concrete capillarity due to the addition of
-10
-20 0% SFA
50% SFA
100% SFA
-30
0 0.5 1 1.5
Steel fibre volume fraction (%)
(b) 30
NS 0%
Change of water sorptivity (%)
20
10
0
-10
-20 0% SFA
50% SFA
100% SFA
-30
0 0.5 1 1.5
Steel fibre volume fraction (%)
Fig. 11. Normalized water sorptivity of geopolymer concrete with respect to
control mixture: (a) 28-day, and (b) 90-day.
J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22 19
high porosity caused an increase in the concrete capillarity. Türk-
men and Kantarcı [46] partially substituted natural aggregate with
four volume fractions of expanded perlite aggregate. They found
that apparent porosity depends on the replacement ratio of aggre-
gate. Moreover, they reported that capillarity decreased with the
longest curing time. The same behavior can be clearly seen in
Table 4 as the 28-day sorptivity diminished after 90 days. More-
over, moderate water sorptivity values were achieved in this study
with respect to those reported in previous studies. Liu et al. [50]
utilized lightweight coarse aggregate to develop lightweight-
foamed concrete with geopolymer technology. They reported
water sorptivity indexes between 0.775 and 2.711 mm/min1/2. In
another study carried out by Shaikh [51], the water sorptivity
index varied from 0.023 to 0.033 mm/min1/2 for GPC containing
recycled coarse aggregates.
Water sorptivity of concrete is significantly influenced by the
use of nanoparticles, as shown in Fig. 11 A decrease in water
sorptivity was observed with 2% NS, regardless of SF volume frac-
tion, CFA replacement level, and curing age. For example, with NS,
the 0.091 mm/min1/2 and 0.071 mm/min1/2 water sorptivity
indexes of CFA50-NS0-F100 reduced to 0.074 mm/min1/2 and
0.059 mm/min1/2 at 28 and 90 days, respectively. However, simi-
lar to the behavior seen during water penetration, NS seemed to be
more effective at 28 days compared to 90 days as lower improve-
ment in sorptivity coefficients were observed in the latter. On
the other hand, the comparison between the water sorptivity of
mixtures incorporating natural and/or CFA and NS indicates that
the use of NS reduces the negative side effect on water sorptivity
as seen with the use of a CFA. This is especially true between con-
crete made with 50% CFA and those produced with 100% CFA. For
instance, at 28 days, the water sorptivity of CFA50-NS0-F0 and
CFA100-NS0-F0 were found to be 0.095 and 0.102, respectively,
whilst they were 0.081 and 0.082 for those made with NS (see
Table 4). This behavior may be related to the surface texture of nat-
ural aggregate because CFA has porous and rough outer layers
making it more effective to build a harder interfacial zone with
hydrated products, as in the case of using NS [52,53].
In the current investigation, various effects of the addition of SF
NS 2%
were observed in the water sorptivity of GPC by applying four dif-
ferent dosages of fiber (0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% by volume). The
addition of SF when NS was absent varied the water sorptivity
coefficients into two routes (Fig. 11). The first route is represented
SF in mixtures made with natural coarse aggregate only. The sec-
ond route showed the use of SF and CFA in GPC production slightly
enhanced water sorptivity. These keep into account that the water
sorptivity of these concretes were lower than the control mixture.
However, in the case of using both NS and SF, all concretes attained
0 0.5 1 1.5 water sorptivity coefficients higher than the control mixture as
presented in Fig. 11. The slight reduction in concrete capillarity
induced by the addition of SF may be related to the ability of SF
NS 2% to block possible water pathways inside concrete structures [54].
According to the water sorptivity variation presented in Fig. 11,
it can be asserted that a 1% volume fraction of SF provided the opti-
mum concrete capillarity regardless of the age of curing.
3.4. Gas permeability
Concrete permeability involves the liquid and/or gas movement
through a hardened concrete mass under a definite pressure gradi-
ent. It is an inherent property of concrete that essentially relates to
the characteristics and geometric arrangement of the ingredients
0 0.5 1 1.5
of concrete [55]. At initial pressure value, capillary pores dominate
the ingress of gas while the gel pores prevent ingress. But at higher
pressures, such small pores work to resist gas penetration to a cer-
tain extent. In this context, the introduction of nano-particles and
20
varying replacement levels of CFA are expected to take a role in the
gas transport property of GPC. Jalal et al. [56] believed that con-
crete permeability is principally controlled by the porosity and
solidity of hydrated paste present in the bulk paste matrix and
interfacial transition zone of concrete.
The gas permeability coefficients of GPC are shown in Table 4. In
addition, similar to previous representations, Fig. 12 depict the rel-
ative coefficient of gas permeability variations at 28 and 90 days,
respectively. Table 4 shows that the permeability coefficient of
GPC at 28 and 90 days varied from (1.774–3.329)  1016 to
(1.57–2.8)  1016 m2, respectively. This results appear to be sim-
ilar to the gas permeability of K = (1.6–5.3)  1016 m2 for an
alkali-activated slag concretes, reported by Balcikanli and Ozbay
[57]. Mangat and Lambert [58] reported that the aggregate-
matrix interfacial zone in conventional matrices tends to be more
permeable than the bulk matrix remote from aggregate surfaces.
However, that case study does not invalidate GPC because the
alkali activator in geopolymer may interact chemically with the
particles of aggregate in addition to the binder. In relation to our
study, the aforementioned statement of Mangat and Lambert
seems to be valid with NS-incorporated mixtures while the appli-
cation of CFA only in GPC caused an increase in the coefficient of
gas permeability (see Fig. 12).
As presented in Fig. 12, the improvement resulting from the use
of CFA were observed in CFA100-NS0-F150 and CFA50-NS2-F100.
The reduction in gas permeability coefficients appear to be related
to the relationship between CFA employed as the CFA and the
interfacial transition zone quality. Therefore, it can be concluded
that the presence of NS with CFA triggered an improved and stron-
ger pozzolanic reaction, and hence, an improved interfacial transi-
tion zone quality was created.
Fig. 12 shows that the gas permeability coefficients of varying
GPC mixtures were reduced by employing NS. The lower coeffi-
cient was found to be 1.57  1016 m2 at 90 days for the CFA0-
(a) 40
NS 0%
Change of gas permeability (%)
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
0% SFA 50% SFA
-40
0 0.5 1 1.5
Steel fibre volume fraction (%)
40
(b) NS 0%
30
Change of gas permeability (%)
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
0% SFA 50% SFA
-40
0 0.5 1 1.5
Steel fibre volume fraction (%)
Fig. 12. Normalized gas permeability of geopolymer concrete with respect to
control mixture: (a) 28-day, and (b) 90-day.
J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22
NS2-F0 mixture. This improvement can be attributed to the poz-
zolanic reaction which increased with the utilization of NS. In addi-
tion, the improvement in the pozzolanic reaction led to the
improvement in the quality of the bulk matrix and aggregate-
matrix interfacial zone. The employment of NS in concrete produc-
tion to enhance the transport properties of concrete was also
reported by Supit and Shaikh [45]. They found that the durability
of mixtures incorporating 2% NS performed better than the control
concrete.
The same behavior as observed in this study in two previous
tests, namely, water sorptivity and water penetration, was
detected again as shown in Fig. 12 regarding the influence of SF
on the gas permeability coefficient of the CFA concrete produced.
It was observed that the use of SF without CFA directly contributed
to the achievement of lower permeability coefficients. On the other
hand, the use of SF had no appreciable effect when CFA was
replaced. For example, in the first situation, the coefficients of
GPC free of NS tested at 28 days with volume fractions of SF at
0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% were found to be (2.650, 2.500, 2.353
and 2.415)  1016 m2. In the second instance and at the same vol-
ume fractions, those incorporated with 100% CFA were (3.329,
3.199, 3.015 and 3.170)  1016 m2. This insignificant effect of SF
on the improvement of geopolymer permeability possibly corre-
lates to the presence of cracks that were located in the interfacial
zone between the fibers and hardened matrix [15,59].
However, the use of NS corrected that negative behavior as was
detected in mixtures that integrated NS with SF and CFA, regard-
less of SF volume fraction and replacement level of CFA (see
Fig. 12).
4. Correlation between transport properties and compressive
strength
Always researchers widely use the experimental results correla-
tion for assessment of the findings reported. In this study, the
transport properties were evaluated as they correlate with the
NS 2% compressive strength of GPC. The correlation between compressive
strength and other transport characteristics were studied at 28 and
90 days are graphically illustrated in Fig. 13, there was a strong
correlation between water penetration and compressive strength.
This confirms the general relationship between porosity and
strength. Therefore, it can be deduced that water depth decreases
with incremental compressive strength. Fig. 14 shows two correla-
tions between water sorptivity index and the compressive strength
of produced GPC at curing ages of 28 and 90 days. Evidently, the
adopted tests provided a definitive correlation making the test suf-
100% SFA
ficient to utilize in predicting compressive strength.
0 0.5 1 1.5
Regarding the correlation between gas permeability and com-
pressive strength, the same trend as those discussed above
NS 2%
60
y = 91.331e-0.04x 28 days 90 days
Compressive strength (MPa)
55 R² = 0.90
50
45
40
35
30
y = 71.813e-0.03x
100% SFA 25 R² = 0.9501
0 0.5 1 1.5 20
10 15 20 25 30 35
Water penetration (mm)
Fig. 13. Correlation between compressive strength and water penetration.
 J.M. Their, M. Özakça / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 12–22 21

60 close to that of the same concrete mixture made with 50%

CFA. The increase in the SF volume fraction of 1.5% led to an
Compressive strength (MPa)

55 28 days 90 days
increase in the volume of absorbed water.
50
4. Similar to water penetration and sorptivity, the gas permeabil-
45 ity of GPC was influenced by CFA and NS. There was no signifi-
40 cant effect of SF on this property. The refining of pore structure
and discontinuity of pores resulting from NS activity caused a
35 y = 208.78e-22.12x
R² = 0.9105
considerable decrease in the gas permeability coefficient. The
30 y = 2.9667x-1.012 reduction in the gas permeability coefficient of concrete incor-
R² = 0.9105
25 porated with 100% CFA from (0.102 to 0.063)  106 m2 at 90
days can be attributed to the effect of 2% NS. The SF volume
20
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 fraction of 1% in terms of reduction in the gas permeability
Water sorptivity index (mm) for GPC is recommended as optimum.
5. The differences in transport properties become lighter when
Fig. 14. Correlation between compressive strength and water sorptivity index. compressive strength is higher. In addition, the correlations
between compressive strength and transport properties of
GPC revealed that concrete has regression coefficient values
60
higher than 0.90 regardless of aggregate type, the presence of
Compressive strength (MPa)

55 28 days
y = 76.361e-0.287x NS, the SF volume fraction, and the age of concrete.
R² = 0.9417 90 days
50

45
6. Recommendations for future work

40 y = 79.28x-0.712
R² = 0.9212
In general, future work needs to be done to understand the
35 microstructures of GPC made with CFA, NS, and SF. For this several
30 tests can be suggested such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) to determine
the amorphous phases of geopolymer paste, Electronic Microscopy
25
SEM to show the surface morphology of GPC, Mercury Intrusion
20 Porosimetry (MIP) to assess the porosity and the pore size distribu-
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
tion of aged GPC, etc.
Gas permeability coefficient, K×10-16 (m2)

Fig. 15. Correlation between compressive strength and gas permeability Conflict of interest
coefficient.
None.

between compressive strength and water penetration was

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