Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete: A review

Shaker M.A. Qaidi a, Dawood Sulaiman Atrushi a, Ahmed S. Mohammed b, Hemn Unis Ahmed b,
Rabar H. Faraj c, Wael Emad d, Bassam A. Tayeh e, *, Hadee Mohammed Najm f
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Duhok, Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
b
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimaniyah, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
c
Civil Engineering Department, University of Halabja, Halabja, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Komar University of Science and Technology, Kurdistan-Region, Iraq
e
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Gaza, P.O. Box 108, Gaza Strip, Palestine
f
Department of Civil Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Geopolymer (GP) concrete refers to a set of aluminum silicate-containing materials activated by a highly alkaline
Ultra high performance geopolymer concrete solution and have significant advantages compared to normal concrete, such as the ability to develop excellent
Mix design thermomechanical properties and durability with lower impact on the environment. Ultra-high-performance
Mechanical properties
geopolymer concrete (UHP-GPC) is a new type of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) developed to meet
Durability properties
the demand for ultra-high strength, eco-friendly, and cost-effective building materials. This paper provides a
Dynamic performance
Environmental parameters state-of-the-art review of the technical and production properties of the recent advances and perspectives of
UHP-GPC, including environmental parameters, mix design, fresh properties, mechanical properties, dynamic
behavior, strain hardening, durability properties, microstructural properties, and the relationship between
compressive strength and each of the splitting tensile strength and modules of elasticity (MoE).

1. Introduction
UHPC is a generic term referring to a composite made of Portland
cement (PC) with an ultra-high compressive strength, excellent dura­
bility, and high toughness [1-3]. It is especially well suited for the
construction of blast-resistant structural elements [4,5], long-span
bridges [6-8], and structures exposed to severely aggressive environ­
ments [9-11]. Although the high mechanical properties and durability of
UHPC, concerns have also been highlighted about the developments of
UHPC due to its heavy use of PC, which might result in increased CO2.
Since the mass of PC in UHPC is typically 750–1200 kg/m3, which is 2 to
3 times the amount in conventional concrete, the production of PC re­
quires significant amounts of natural resources and energy and creates
significant amounts of CO2. Producing one ton of clinker is predicted to
require 6.65 MJ of energy and emit approximately 0.83 tons of CO2
[12]. The researchers attempted to lower the binder volume and sub­
stitute extra cement-based materials for PC. Thus, the scientific com­
munity has been encouraged to produce low or clinker-free cementitious
concrete in latest years. As a potential substitute for PC, geopolymer
(GP) is a low-carbon binder and clinker-free [13-15]. It is made by
activating solid alumino-silicate resources like fly ash (FA) [16-18],
granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) [19], and metakaolin [20-22] with
alkaline sols like silicate, carbonate, alkali hydroxide, and/or sulfate. It
can be used to create GP concrete with mechanical characteristics equal
to PC-concrete [17,23,24]. The most recent advancement in sustain­
ability has resulted in the endeavor to make UHP-GPC by employing GP
as a binder.
The stages of development of UHPC and GP are shown in Fig. 1.
According to this figure, the next generation of study in this field would
be to conduct more comparative optimization and cost-effectiveness
studies on geopolymer binders. Over the last few years, significant
research has been conducted to enhance the mechanical characteristics
of GP concrete. Only a few studies have been carried out to date on the
development of UHP-GPC [17,24-39]. It is critical to developing UHP-
GPC to meet the demand for high-performance, cost-effective, and
environmentally friendly materials in contemporary construction [40-
43]. Because of this, this study progresses a state of the art review of the
technical and production properties of the recent advances and per­
spectives of UHP-GPC.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: btayeh@iugaza.edu.ps (B.A. Tayeh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128495
Received 8 March 2022; Received in revised form 8 July 2022; Accepted 13 July 2022
Available online 20 July 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
2. Manufacture approaches
UHP-GPC has garnered increased attention from the scientific com­
munity as an emerging greener UHPC material [44-46]. The main ap­
proaches for manufacturing normal UHP-GPC are as follows: (a) adopt
pressurized environment curing or heating curing, as shown in Fig. 2
[47-49]; (b) using both GGBS and silica fume to obtain good flowability
and high reactivation possibility of alkalis at low precursor/water ratios
[45,50,51]; (c) increasing the specific surface area and reducing the size
of the precursor particles [46,52,53]; and (d) using alkaline solution-
based potassium as the activator [54,55]. With the effective develop­
ment of the strength of UHP-GPC through alkali activation, it may
become a viable alternative to UHPC for civil engineering applications
based on its enhanced durability and sustainability.
3. Applications
Although years of research, the uses of GPs and alkali-activated
materials remain fairly limited, owing to the difficulty of handling,
transporting, and using liquid alkaline activators. For using such
extremely corrosive ingredients properly (for example, sodium hy­
droxide, sodium silicate, potassium hydroxide, etc.), specific pre­
cautions are required, resulting in the increased utilization of solid
activators, including sodium metasilicate anhydrate. On the other hand,
sodium metasilicate can be utilized as a ready-to-mix mixture that looks
remarkably similar to PC-concrete. By ambient temperature curing, the
Illikainen research team has proven its ability to produce compressive
strength of up to 107 MPa (28-d) utilizing one-part GP [56,57]. How­
ever, geopolymeric binders and alkali-activated materials have the
promise to be utilized as sustainable and high performance concrete
materials in important infrastructure segments in either form, due to its
extremely high-thermal resistance of up to 1350 ◦ C [58-60], approxi­
mately 75% reduction in acids resistance [61,62]. It can be said at a
lower cost when compared to plain UHPC. Thus, it has been identified as
a promising material for producing geopolymer-based UHPC in recent
times. Regardless of the activator utilized, GP concrete can be used in
high-temperature ceramics, precast applications, eco-friendly concrete
binders, fire-resistant coatings, and radioactive and toxic encapsulation
[17,24,63].
4. Environmental parameters
Although the high mechanical properties and durability of UHPC,
concerns have also been highlighted about the developments of UHPC
due to its heavy use of PC, which might result in increased carbon di­
oxide. Since the mass of PC in UHPC is typically 750–1200 kg/m3, which
is 2 to 3 times the amount in conventional concrete, PC production re­
quires significant amounts of natural resources and energy and creates
significant amounts of carbon dioxide. Producing one ton of clinker is
predicted to require 6.65 MJ of energy and emit approximately 0.83 tons
Fig. 1. Historical development of ultra-high-performance geopolymer [44].
2
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
of carbon dioxide [12,64-66]. The researchers attempted to lower the
binder volume and substitute extra cement-based materials for PC. Thus,
the scientific community has been encouraged to produce low or clinker-
free cementitious concrete in recent years. As a potential substitute for
PC, GP is a low-Carbon binder and clinker-free [13,67,68]. Table 1
presents data for calculating both the embodied carbon dioxide and
embodied energy emissions of the materials utilized in the development
of the UHP-GPC.
Because GBFS is a waste product of steel fabrication, its embodied
carbon dioxide emission and embodied, energy levels can be assumed to
be zero. Owing to its granular form during production, it must be ground
fine enough to match the particular surface of PC or even finer, which
consumes energy and results in carbon dioxide emissions. The average
values for embodied carbon dioxide and embodied energy were 0.083
kgCO2/kg, and 1.6 MJ/kg, respectively, which were much fewer than
for PC. Because the sand was extracted straight from the river bed, zero
energy was required; however, a nominal value of 0.15 MJ/kg was used,
and the related embodied carbon dioxide emission was set to 0.005
kgCO2/kg.
Kathirvel and Sreekumaran [36] evaluated the possibility of incor­
porating the reaction powder concrete concept into GP concrete tech­
nology to produce UHPC. Researchers investigated blends including
differing quantities of GBFS replaced with silica fume, river sand
replaced with quartz powder, and SFs included. The ecological charac­
teristics were evaluated and compared using embodied energy and
carbon dioxide emissions. According to the authors, the overall
embodied energy required to produce the raw ingredients utilized for
the production of UHP-GPC was shown to be between 2725 and 8528
MJ/m3, which is less than the typical reactive powder concrete, which
uses cement at a rate of 1000 kg/m3. Likewise, the embodied carbon
dioxide emissions of all UHP-GPC mixtures were evaluated and shown to
be between 105 and 385 kgCO2/m3. Compressive strength findings were
slightly lower than those obtained with normal reaction powder con­
crete mixtures, typically exceeding 200 MPa. The findings demonstrated
that producing UHP-GPC mixtures consumes significantly less embodied
energy than producing reaction powder concrete mixtures of similar
strength. Similar results were obtained for the embodied carbon dioxide
emission, implying that UHP-GPC mixtures are more environmentally
friendly than typical reaction powder concrete mixtures[69-71].
5. Mix design methods
The characteristics of GP concrete are intricately related to the mix.
The key factors influencing GP concrete’s fresh and hardened charac­
teristics are the alkaline liquid/binder ratio, the sodium silicate
modulus, the type and dosage of alkalis, and curing conditions [75,76].
The specific contributions of many factors to the strength of GP concrete
are currently unknown. Because of the numerous aspects involved,
producing a comprehensive mix design is a very challenging task.
However, an academic perspective should indeed be developed for the
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 2. Schematic method of geopolymerisation under hot pressing [48].

addition of excess water has no direct impact on the porous connectiv­

Table 1 ity/structure of alkali-activated slag concrete; thus, alkali-activated slag
Carbon dioxide and energy emissions of materials utilized in the development of
concrete can be designed using the water/binder ratio required to ach­
UHP-GPC.
ieve a specified mechanical property. The authors concluded by sug­
Items Embodied energy Embodied carbon dioxide Refers gesting that a performance-based approach be adopted to define such
emission(MJ/kg) emission(kgCO2/kg)
concrete (alkali slag activated or GP concrete), as traditional wisdom
SF 36.0 1.79 [35] regarding w/b and mix design factors may not apply effectively [82]. A
Quartz 0.85 0.024 [72]
performance-based strategy is more likely to inspire trust in providers
Fine 0.15 0.005 [73]
aggregate and to persuade customers of the advantages of alkali-activated slag or
Sodium 3.0 0.016 GP concrete. The statistical modeling approach employs sensitive
silicate analysis to determine the influence of critical factors on the character­
Sodium 3.0 0.016 istics of GP concrete, such as the precursor’s composition, water/binder
hydroxide
GBFS 1.60 0.083
ratio, and alkaline content. Following that, the mix ratios can be
Silica fume 0.036 0.014 [29] calculated using the suitable values of the critical factors.
Super- 9.0 0.944 [74] Researchers Xu, Yuan, Liu, Pan, Liu, Su, Li and Wu [27] made pro­
plasticizer posals for designing an effective initial mixture for UHP-GPC for civil
engineers. They reported an initial mix design of the UHP-GPC devel­
oped utilizing the alkaline activated aluminosilicate source materials. A
design and standardization of GP concrete mix design in order to
mixture of the sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solution was used
encourage its use [77-80].
as the alkaline activator, and the aluminosilicate source materials
Li, Shi, Zhang, Wang and Liu [79] classified the present approaches
included the GBFS, FA, and silica fume. Their study employed the target
for GP concrete mix design into three approaches: desired strength
strength method to develop the initial mix design for UHP-GPC. In
approach, performance-based approach, and statistical factorial
addition, Fig. 3 shows more details from their study regarding the
approach. The approach for designing a mix depending on the target
compressive strength of GP concrete as a function of water/bond ratio
strength is as follows: (i) Identify the water/binder ratio or the alkaline
and Na2O/binder ratio, compared to that proposed by Li, Shi, Zhang,
liquid/binder ratio based on the compressive strength; (i) identify the
Zhu, Hwang, Zhu and Sun [85]. The authors state that the products of
binder or water content based on strength or workability; (iii) identify
the reaction formed by the dissolving and recombination of Si-O, Ca-O,
the fine aggregate volume on the basis of the cement aggregate ratio; (iv)
and Al-O, for example, the oxide (SiO2, CaO, Al2O3) molar content of
identify the coarse aggregate volume on the basis of the sand ratio to
the solid precursors, had a significant influence on the mechanical
ensure flowability, and (v) modify the mixture proportion to further
performance of GP concrete. Thus, after setting the Na2O/binder ratio
fulfill design objectives. Instead of sticking to the traditional point of
and water/binder ratio, the oxide molar content of the solid precursors
view of the mix design and the water/binder ratio, the performance-
should be calculated. This can be performed by referring to Eqs. (1) and
based approach contributes substantial subtlety to the construction of
(2), where fc denotes the compressive strength, R2 denotes the varia­
GP concrete by comprehensively taking strength and durability into
tion, and × denotes the Ca/(Si Al) ratio. Following that, the ratio of
consideration. For example, Bondar, Ma, Soutsos, Basheer, Provis and
every ingredient in the precursor, such as GBFS, FA, and silica fume, can
Nanukuttan [83] study summarized the results of an investigation into
be calculated using the oxide molar composition, as shown in Fig. 4.
alkali-activated slag concrete in order to offer a clear overview of the
influence of mix design factors on the slump, strength, binding, and Si
fC = − 27957.0 x3 + 265948.0 x2 − 83476 x + 8706.30R2 = 0.98460
chloride transport. It was discovered that alkali-activated slag concrete Al
could be designed to have a variety of concrete grades and workability = 2.40
characteristics. The diffusivity findings show that, unlike PC, the (1)

3
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 3. The compressive strength scope of alkali-activated concrete as a function of the water/binder and Na2O/binder ratios [26].

Fig. 4. The molar composition of the oxide was designed for the solid precursor [84].

Si Moreover, the previous authors stated that the fixed binder content
fC = 582.720x3 − 2437.50x2 + 2064.20 x + 341.010 R2 = 0.99510
Al
= 3.80 must be identified empirically or experimentally. For example, UHPC
(2) typically comprises 750–1100 kg/m3 PC, which can serve as a bench­
mark for the constant binder concentration in UHP-GPC. Following that,

4
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
the volume of fine aggregates can be calculated using the PC-concrete
approach, as the impact of aggregate gradation on the workability of
GP concrete is identical. Fine aggregate amounts can be determined
using the absolute mass or volume approach proposed in various spec­
ifications. However, the volume of fine aggregates should be modified
further depending on the flowability. Finally, based on the compressive
strength, the type and volumetric ratio of the SF can be calculated
Moreover, Fig. 5 describes the entire flow diagram of the initial mix
design method that provides UHP-GPC, which comprises the following
stages: (i) identify the water/binder and Na2O/binder ratios depending
on the demanded compressive strength; (ii) identify the binder compo­
sitions on the basis of the oxide molar composition of the solid pre­
cursors and calculate the constant binders volume using an experimental
or empirical technique; (iii) identify the composition and aggregate
content using the PC-concrete guidelines; (iv) modify the mixes to fulfill
the required performance.
On the other hand, along with flowability, setting time is a signifi­
cant factor in determining the workability of GP concrete. Particularly,
the final setting time increased when the Al2O3 dose and sodium silicate
modulus were raised but dropped while the CaO dosage was increased.
Therefore, the setting time for UHP-GPC can be controlled to meet the
Fig. 5. Target strength mix design approach for UHP-GPC development [26].
5
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
specifications.
6. Fresh properties
Compared to conventional concrete, because the polymerization
process of GP concrete is distinct from that of PC hydration, typical
admixtures, including viscosity modifying agents, high range water
lowering agents, etc., be ineffective in the majority of cases. This results
in a more determining influence of the activators and precursors used in
the mix. It is well documented that by increasing the activator content
and hence the GP binders’ pH decreases their setting time [45]. This
improves the influence of supplementary cement-based materials
(mainly silica fume) on the rheological characteristics of UHP-GPC
[54,85-88]. According to Wetzel and Middendorf [46], the yield stress
and viscosity of UHP-GPC samples containing 12.5% silica fume are the
lowest, as shown in Fig. 6. This tendency, nevertheless, accelerates when
the silica fume amount exceeds 15% or declines below 5%. Similarly,
Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi [31] demonstrated that increasing the silica
fume amount from 10 to 20% alters the rheological pattern, with a
greater amount leading to decreased flowability. This may also be seen
in Fig. 7. Yet, the flowability of a mixture optimized for UHP-GPC with a
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
Fig. 6. Results of rheometric measurements (rotation rheometer) for different silica fume contents [45].
Fig. 7. Influences of SF and silica fume content on the flowability of UHP-
GPC [30].
fiber concentration varying from 0 to 3%. While fiber length and form
also significantly influence this tendency, as noted by Liu, Zhang, Shi,
Zhu, Li and Deng [30], fiber content tends to lower the workability of
materials in general. As per Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi [31], this is
because a skeleton formed, impeding the flowability of the fresh mix.
Moreover, the length and form of fibers affect this skeleton. According to
the producer, hooked end fibers offer a higher flowability than straight
or corrugated fiber forms. This characteristic is mentioned to be pri­
marily impacted by the w/b ratio, which, when increased, results in a
thick paste layer and reduces the clustering and friction of fibers [29,89-
91].
Another significant aspect that is more specific to UHP-GPC, as stated
in detail by Kathirvel and Sreekumaran [36], is the inclusion of quartz
sand, which is frequently a fundamental component of mixtures
6
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
designed to have excellent mechanical characteristics. Within this re­
gard, it has been noted that the inclusion of quartz sand reduces the
flowability of the composites, particularly when utilized in finer parti­
cles sizes owing to enhanced particle surface area and friction. As shown
in Fig. 8, adding quartz at a 20 to 40% concentration reduces the
flowability to 22, 28, and 22.5% for silica fume concentrations of 0, 15,
and 30%, respectively. Although this impact is not similar to the direct
influence of main GP factors, including the molarity and activator con­
tent, it can be a critical factor in influencing the overall fresh charac­
teristics of UHP-GPC because of the high aggregate content employed in
its development.
7. Mechanical properties
The various effects on the mechanical properties of UHP-GPC are
discussed in the following paragraphs. In addition, Tables 4 and 5
summarize the mixture’s details and observed results of previous
studies.
7.1. Effect of steel fiber (SF)
As a key component of UHPC, SFs are frequently employed to
improve mechanical characteristics and prevent brittle failure, particu­
larly in GP binder systems with low ductility [92]. According to Zhou,
Huang, Yang, Dong, Feng and Liu [95], adding only 1.5% SF to UHP-
GPC can improve the flexural fracture energy by 31 times. Yet, such
small amounts are claimed to have little effect on the brittleness of UHP-
GPC [94].
As is the case with other binding systems, the orientation, form, size,
and dose of fibres can all significantly influence performance [95].
Moreover, unlike in plain UHPC, where corrugated and bent fiber forms
are known to improve mechanical characteristics [95,96], corrugated
and bent fibers are reported to provide inferior strength augmentation in
UHP-GPC [29]. This is due to the brittleness of GP binders, which can
lead to high stress rather than equally distributed stress on the micro­
structure of corrugated fiber. This is further illustrated in Fig. 9, which
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
Fig. 8. Flowability properties (effect of quartz sand) [35].
Fig. 9. The load–deflection curves of UHP-GPC versus that of plain UHPC at 2% SF [29].
compares the load-deflection tendency of UHP-GPC to that of plain
UHPC. Consequently, rather than the amount or shape of fibers
employed, it is indicated that the length of SF has a greater influence on
the flexural strength of UHP-GPC [97]. This variant may enable the
incorporation of several types of fiber without further preparation to
make this type of composite material. In recent times, UHP-GPC was
developed using a hybrid of SF and polymeric fiber. For example, Wan,
Shen, Wang, Zhao and Lu [28] and Khan, Hao, Hao and Shaikh [100]
utilized polyvinyl alcohol and polyethylene as the key fiber materials
and observed a considerable increase in load-bearing, fracture energy,
and energy absorption by up to seventy-seven times in samples con­
taining fibers.
The impacts of SF on the mechanical and fracture characteristics of
UHP-GPC were investigated in the research of Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi
[31]. Three different volume factions of SF of 0, 1, 2, and 3% and four
silica fume volumes by the total mass of the binder of 5, 10, 20, and 30%
were utilized. According to the authors, the introduction of SF in UHP-
GPC improves mechanical and fracture characteristics, such as
compressive and STSs, MoE, flexural, and fracture behavior. Increased
SF content significantly improves the mechanical behavior of UHP-GPC,
in line with previous studies on PC-based UHPC [92]. This is because
introducing more SF reduces the mean space between the SFs and in­
creases the pressure between the matrix and the SFs, which reduces the
inception and propagation of cracks.
Liu, Wu, Li, Liu, Xu, Liu, Su, Fang and Chen [32] investigated the
mechanical characteristics of UHP-GPC targets using uniaxial
compressive and four-point bending experiments and projectile impact
testing at two striking velocities of 550 and 800 m/s. According to the
7
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
authors: (i) fibers can improve the mechanical characteristics of UHP-
GPC. Both the reduction in SF length from 15 to 10 mm and the in­
crease in long SF percentage from 2 to 2.5% enhanced compressive and
flexural strengths. When compared to 2% long SFs, the hybrid fiber
reinforcement of 1% long SFs and 1% basalt fibres increased the
compressive strength, flexural strength, and material ductility of UHP-
GPC; (ii) plain UHP-GPC had superior impact resistance compared to
PC-concrete in terms of the crater and crack propagation, but poor
performance in terms of depth of penetration reduction. For fibre-
reinforced UHP-GPC, a moderate decrease in depth of penetration and
significantly smaller areas of crater damage were found. SFs with a
length of 10 mm were shown to be more efficient in resisting projectile
impact than those with a length of 15 mm. The hybrid composite of 1%
SF and 1% basalt fibres demonstrated slightly improved projectile
impact resistance than the composite of 2% SFs.
The aspect ratio of fiber is critical. Owing to high reinforcing effec­
tiveness, inclusions of SF with larger aspect ratios can improve me­
chanical behavior [97,99]. However, the aspect ratio of fibre is
proportional to its length and diameter. Moreover, Liu, Zhang, Shi, Zhu,
Li and Deng [30] reported on the development of UHP-GPC and the
overcoming of the GP matrix’s brittleness property through the use of
various SFs. As presented in Fig. 10, four straight SFs with varying aspect
ratios and two deformed SFs with deformities were studied. According
to the authors, increasing the SF content and decreasing the fibre
diameter improved the mechanical properties of UHP-GPC. Flexural
properties of UHP-GPC improved with increasing SF content and length,
although compressive strength and first crack strength were also
impacted by curing conditions and fibre doses. Compared to PC-based
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 10. Influence of SF (i) content, (ii) diameter, (iii) length, and (iv) deformation ratio on the (a) compressive strength and (b) ultimate flexural strength. Besides,
(v) influence of SF contents on flexural load deflection curve [29].

8
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 10. (continued).

composite, corrugated fibres with a greater deformation ratio added to (3); where y is the value of the load after standardizing, x is the value of
UHP-GPC had a lower strength and toughening efficiency. In contrast, the deflection after standardizing, A is the unknown factor gotten by
straight fibres were better since those were longer and smaller in fitting least squares (A more than zero).
diameter. Moreover, based on the past study, a new model with ad­ x
justments and simplifications was proposed by authors for the newly y= 0≤x (3)
A*(x − 1)2.0 + x
designed flexural load-deflection of UHP-GPC, and the fitted findings
showed higher correlation coefficients. The model is described in Eq. In the previous study of Liu, Zhang, Shi, Zhu, Li and Deng [30], the

Table 2
Properties of SFs used [29].
Type Shape Geometry Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Aspect ratio Ratio of deformation Density (kg/m3) Tensile
strength (GPa)

SS Straight 6.0 0.12 50 0.0 7850 2.50

SM Straight 8.0 0.12 67 0.0 7850 2.50
SL Straight 13.0 0.12 108 0.0 7850 2.50
SW Straight 13.0 0.20 65 0.0 7850 2.85
H Hooked end 13.0 0.20 65 0.670 7850 2.85
C Corrugated 13.0 0.20 65 1.330 7850 2.85

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S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Table 3
Mechanical characteristics of UHP-GPC with SL, SM, and SW fibres at 28 days [29].
Type. Comp. str.(MPa) Ultimate flex. str.(MPa) First-crack str.(MPa) First-crack deflec.(mm) Peak deflec.(mm) I20 Toughness (N⋅mm)

SM-1 142.10 16.60 14.30 0.320 0.540 12.660 12,766

SM-2 158.90 25.80 23.0 0.470 0.890 13.650 21,462
SM-3 168.50 31.90 28.60 0.5400 0.90 14.210 28,858
SL-1 145.90 17.90 13.0 0.33 0.560 18.290 18,284
SL-2 161.60 31.40 22.30 0.470 0.930 20.940 28,712
SL-3 170.40 33.30 24.60 0.530 1.040 23.860 35,265
SW-1 131.50 14.20 10.40 0.280 0.670 10.160 16,540
SW-2 141.60 20.70 19.50 0.60 0.80 15.120 22,278
SW-3 150.80 30.50 23.70 0.660 0.940 19.20 30,213

Table 4
key mix ingredients.
Refs. Agg. Agg. Maximum size Precursors Activator Maximum SF Molarity W/B Curing Maximum Com. Maximum Flex.
types (mm) (%) Str. Str.

[29] RS 2.36 FA, GBFS, SFu SH, SS / 0.32 Steam (22˚C) 170 33
[45] QP, QS 0.50 SFu, MK PH, SH / 10 0.175–0.40 Sealing 178 /
[36] QS / FA, GBFS, SFu SH, SS / 0.30 Water 162 29
[54] QS, RS 2.0 FA, GBFS, SFu SH, SS, / / Ambient 175 12
PH
[106] QS 2.36 SFu, GBFS SH, SS 2.0 8–16 / Ambient 150 12
[35] QP, RS 2.36 SFu, GBFS SH, SS / / Ambient (27˚C) 150 /
[31] / 0.80 SFu, FA, GBFS SH, SS 1.5 / 0.13 Thermal (90˚C- 114 15
48hr)
[39] LS 10.0 Wheat-Straw SH, SMS / 9–16 / Ambient 117 34
-ash

Where: SFu: silica fume, QP: quartz powder, QS: quartz sand, RS: river sand, LS: limestone, SLS: slag sand, SMS: sodium metasilicate, SS: Sodium silicate, PH: potassium
hydroxide, SH: sodium hydroxide, PC: potassium carbonate.

toughening and reinforcing efficiency of SM (straight, the aspect ratio of
67) and SW (straight, aspect ratio of 65) fibres are significantly different,
despite their similar aspect ratios (8/0.12 and 13/0.20). Tables 2 and 3
present the properties of the SFs used in their study and the resulting
mechanical properties, respectively. As present in Table 3, the
compressive strength, ultimate flexural strength, and first crack strength
of UHP-GPC at 28-d with SM fibres are greater than those with SW fi­
bres, although the toughness, toughness index (I20), first crack and peak
deflections are higher for UHP-GPC with SW fibres. Fibres reinforcing
effectiveness is not only governed by their aspect ratio, but also by the
absolute amount of filaments and their size. The amount of SM fibres
with an aspect ratio of 8.0/0.12 is more than the amount of SW fibres
with an aspect ratio of 13.0/0.20, reducing the mean space among fi­
bres. This process explains why SM fibres have higher effectiveness of
reinforcing than SW fibres. Moreover, when the aspect ratio of SW and
SM fibres are comparable, the impact of fibre length on post crack
flexural behaviour is more significant for toughening effectiveness. As a
result, using the fibre aspect ratio as an investigation parameter is
restricted, and its length and diameter should be addressed. According
to the preceding study, a fibre with a smaller diameter and a longer
length would have a higher toughening and reinforcing efficiency.
Furthermore, as shown in Table 3, samples with 2% SL (straight, aspect
ratio of 50) fibres have equivalent mechanical characteristics to those
with 3% SS and SW fibres. This shows that SL (straight, aspect ratio of
108) fibres could be used to fabricate UHP-GPC at a reduced cost
without losing mechanical behavior Liu, Zhang, Shi, Zhu, Li and Deng
[30].
7.2. Effect of silica fume
Due to the very high surface area of silica fume, it works as a reactive
fine substance in the core of concrete and as a filler capable of
dramatically altering the pores network via pozzolanic reaction.
Consequently, silica fume can have a number of beneficial effects on the
physical and mechanical characteristics of concrete, including an in­
crease in strength, bond characteristics, and abrasion resistance [35].
For example, Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi [31] showed that adding silica
fume in amounts of about 30% can raise the fracture energy of UHP-GPC
by around 49.7%. In comparison to increasing the SF volume from 1 to
3%, it is found that silica fume is more successful at increasing the
strength of UHP-GPC. The influence of silica fume volume on the
compressive strength development of UHP-GPC with varying SF content
is shown in Fig. 11. As shown in this figure, increasing the silica fume
concentration from 0% to 30% resulted in a 26% increase in compres­
sive strength of samples that have been cured for 28-d at room tem­
perature [35].
The impacts of SF on the mechanical and fracture characteristics of
UHP-GPC were investigated in the study of Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi
[31]. Three different volume factions of SF of 0, 1, 2, and 3% and four
silica fume volumes by the total mass of the binder of 5, 10, 20, and 30%
were utilized. According to the authors, the introduction of silica fume
(more than 10%) in UHP-GPC improves mechanical and fracture char­
acteristics, such as compressive and STS, MoE, flexural, and fracture
behavior [30]. Nevertheless, the mechanical characteristics decrease
when 10% silica fume is added. These findings indicate that silica fume
has a complex effect on the behavior of UHP-GPC, as different from PC-
based UHPC. Silica fume volume has an effect on the matrix charac­
teristic of UHP-GPC, which has a major effect on the mechanical
behavior. Mechanical GP pastes are adhering to the surface of SFs, as
shown in Fig. 12, but they are infrequent in the sample containing 10%
silica fume. As a result of the above, these findings demonstrate that the
mechanical behavior of UHP-GPC is highly dependent on the fiber-
matrix bonding related to the silica fume volume, as previously
described by Gülşan, Alzeebaree, Rasheed, Niş and Kurtoğlu [102].
Thus, when the silica fume volume is less than a certain value (10%),
increasing the silica fume dose has a deleterious impact on the activator
sol’s ability to activate other raw ingredients, thereby affecting the
matrix’s strength growth. In contrast, the increasing trend of the me­
chanical behavior of UHP-GPC as the amount of silica fume increases
from 10 to 30% reveals that the inclusion of silica fume increases the
bond strength among the matrix and SF.
The influence of silica fume and polypropylene fibers on the

10
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
Table 5
Scope of study and remake results of recent studies in UHP-GPC.
Refs. Scope of study Remake Results
[54] Production of UHP-GPC at room The cost of manufacturing UHP-GPC
temperature is expected to be higher than that of
plain UHPC.
Compared to UHPC mixtures, the
mixtures made for UHP-GPC have a
comparatively long setting time (for
example, 40–60 min).
The utilization of SFs is critical in the
development of UHP-GPC.
[29] The influence of the type and The inclusion of SFs lowers a
concentration of SF on the material’s flowability.
brittleness of UHP-GPC was Increased SF concentration in
investigated smaller diameters improves
mechanical characteristics.
Compared to straight SFs, SFs with a
higher deformation ratio had a low
impact.
[35] Production of sustainable UHP- By substituting Silica fume with
GPC GBFS, the consistency and setting
time of the mix are increased.
The inclusion of quartz sand
decreases the flowability of the
mixture.
Compressive strength testing is
highly reliant on silica fume, SF, and
quartz.
[36] Effect of PPF and silica fume on The injection of silica fume at a
mechanical characteristics of UHP- concentration of up to 10% lowers
GPC fracture characteristics, which tend
to rise at concentrations more than
10%.
When 10% silica fume is employed,
the optimal amount of PPF is around
3% vol.
[39] Reinforcing UHP-GPC with GFRP The utilization of glass fibre
reinforced enhanced the defection of
the concrete, the number of cracks,
and the crack patterns.
[106] Durability of UHP-GPC By substituting PPF for SF,
mechanical characteristics are
reduced.
The introduction of SF increases the
electrical resistivity of the passing
flow, whereas PPF has the opposite
effect.
[27] Fracture toughness of UHP-GPC When fiber is added, the fracture
energy is increased by up to seventy-
seven times.
An ultra-high toughness GP can be
created by incorporating PVA fibers
into the GP.
When the curing temperature is
increased, the modulus of elasticity
increases and the fracture energy
decreases.
[31] Ceramic ball aggregated In comparison to regular UHP-GPC,
ceramic ball aggregated UHP-GPC
demonstrated increased impact
resistance.
mechanical behavior and fracture characteristics of UHP-GPC were
investigated in the work of Karimipour and de Brito [37], as shown in
Fig. 13. To produce the mixtures, polypropylene fibers were utilized at
four different volume fractions: 0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%. Moreover, five
silica fume levels were employed in terms of the total mass of the binder:
0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30%. According to the authors: (i) modulus of
elasticity, compressive strength, and splitting tensile strength of UHP-
GPC were reduced to a minimal value when 10% silica fume was used
and then significantly increased when more than 10% silica fume was
used. The addition of polypropylene fibers greatly enhanced these me­
chanical characteristics, with the highest values obtained when 3%
polypropylene fibers were combined with 30% silica fume. Thus,
11
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
including 30% silica fume with 0, 1, 2, and 3% polypropylene fibers
enhanced the compressive strength by about 16, 22.5, 28, and 32%,
respectively, when compared to the reference mix without silica fume
and polypropylene fibre (PF). Moreover, including 30% silica fume with
0, 1, 2, and 3% polypropylene fibers increased the splitting tensile
strength by 33.1, 61.2, 90, and 119%, respectively, as compared to the
reference mixture; (ii) By introducing polypropylene fibers, the ultimate
flexural strength of UHP-GPC with silica fume was increased. The flex­
ural strength improved little when up to 10% silica fume was used but
significantly improved when more than 10% silica fume was used. The
maximum flexural strength value was obtained by combining 30% silica
fume and 3% PF. Thus, introducing 0, 1, 2, and 3% polypropylene fibers
increased the flexural strength of 5% silica fume UHP-GPC by 14, 36, 84,
and 104%, respectively, when compared to the reference mix without
polypropylene fibers and silica fume; (iii) The maximum loadbearing
capacity reduced with the addition of up to 10% silica fume and sub­
sequently increased with the addition of more than 10% silica fume, and
the addition of 30% silica fume and 3% polypropylene fibers led in the
maximum loadbearing capacity of UHP-GPC; (iv) The addition of 10%
silica fume led to the reduction in the stress intensity factor and the
fracture resistance. Nevertheless, when the silica fume volume was
raised from 10 to 30%, the fracture behavior of UHP-GPC improved.
7.3. Effect of activator’s concentration and volume
The rate of dissolution and the creation of new components in GP
binders are directly related to the medium’s overall alkalinity (pH),
which is strongly attributable to the activator’s concentration and vol­
ume. Past research, like Drdlová, Sviták and Prachař [103], has indi­
cated that this impact can increase the rate of overall substantial
increase by up to fifty times. However, it has been shown that extremely
high concentrations produce efflorescence [102,103] and a rise in
shrinkage tendency [104,105]. To get the highest performance, a
mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate with molarities
ranging from 8.0 [106], 10.0 [45], 12.0 [107], and a maximum of 16.0
[39] is most frequently utilized.
In the study of Mousavinejad and Sammak [29], the UHP-GPC was
investigated using silica fume and GGBS, besides, comprising PF and SF.
Nine mixes were investigated in the first group for evaluating various
sodium silicate/NaOH ratios and the volume of NaOH sol. According to
the authors, because the GP interaction is dependent on the dissolve rate
of aluminum and silicon ions in an alkaline sol, the re-interaction of
these two ions results in the production of a new gel throughout all
mixes. With rising NaOH dosage, the value of compressive strength
improvements attributed to the rise in geopolymerisation reaction with
growing three-dimensional networks, which increases the alumino-
silicate dissolve rate [54,108]. Comparing the mixes with Na2SiO3/
NaOH ratios of 1, 2, and 3, it was found that increasing the NaOH ratio
from 8 to 16 molarity reduced the water/binder ratio by 16.41, 11.57,
and 8.69%, respectively, leading to an increase in compressive strength
of 36.46, 31.32, and 29.28%. This alteration in the water/binder ratio
and the compressive strength in the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio of one is more
substantial than the changes in the other ratio. The rise in the Na2SiO3/
NaOH ratio has caused a decrease in the water/binder ratio, which helps
to improve the performance of compressive strength’s upward tendency.
For instance, when the ratio of Na2SiO3/NaOH is raised from 1 to 3, the
ratio of water/binder decreases by 5.46 and 8.46%, respectively, and
compressive strength increases by 6.45 and 11.45%, respectively,
compared with a Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio of one. These alterations are more
noticeable with a Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio of 3 vs 2. According to Fig. 14,
molarity and the sodium silicate/NaOH ratio have a direct relationship
with compressive strength.
7.4. Strength/density ratio
While developing UHP-GPC concrete demands a higher grade of
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 11. Compressive strength findings of the UHP-GPC mixtures [35].

Fig. 12. Observation of crack zone of UHP-GPC with optical microscopy [30].

compaction and consequently a higher density. Comparing the results of
Mohammed, Ortoneda-Pedrola, Nakouti and Bras [111], Tziviloglou,
Wiktor, Jonkers and Schlangen [112], and Wu, Zhu, Zhang and Kou
[113] versus that of Kathirvel and Sreekumaran [36] indicate that the
average strength/density ratio of UHP-GPC is at least three times that of
ordinary concrete. This characteristic is one of why this composite
material is preferred over regular concrete. According to Kathirvel and
Sreekumaran [36], the key mixture factors that can enhance the
strength/density ratio are an increase in quartz sand, silica fume, and
fiber content. The influence of fiber content appears to be more pro­
nounced on samples containing a larger concentration of quartz powder
and silica fume. In other terms, the highest increase in compressive
strength/density ratio occurs when a mix of quartz powder, silica fume,
and SF is utilized. For example, increasing the silica fume concentration
from 0 to 30% at a 0% SF dose resulted in a 5 and 20% increase in
compressive strength/density ratio, respectively. This trend demon­
strates the substantially significant influence of compaction and
decreased porosity on the strength/density ratio of UHP-GPC due to
using a more uniform particle size distribution.
7.5. Effect of aggregates
7.5.1. Maximum size aggregate
It is well documented that the utilization of fine aggregates like

12
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
Fig. 13. Effect of polypropylene fibers and silica fume on the (a) compressive strength; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) splitting tensile strength; (d) flexural strength;
(e) fracture energy; and (d) fracture resistance of UHP-GPC [36].
quartz sand is critical in the production of UHPC. Moreover, typical
fillers include silica fume [35], metakaolin [45], glass microfibers
[112,47], fine ceramic[31], ultra-fine FA [113], and quartz powder
[114] have been effectively included and employed to make UHP-GPC.
Table 4 summarizes the aggregate, precursor, activator, relative
molarities, and other physical parameters of the mixed components and
their maximum compressive strength and flexural strength as docu­
mented in each research. According to this table, most research that has
achieved high compressive and flexural strength values has used quartz
sand or powder and silica fume and SF. An additional parameter that is
consistent across studies is the maximum aggregate size employed. As
illustrated in Fig. 15, the finer the aggregate materials employed, the
greater the strength obtained. As noted previously, this demonstrates the
impact of increased compaction when finer aggregates are employed,
which results in less porosity and increased strength.
13
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
7.5.2. Quartz sand
Quartz sand, commonly known as silica sand, is a chemically inert
substance whose primary function is to fill internal pores and withstand
internal stress gradients caused by various factors such as shrinkage and
freeze-thawing. Quartz sand contains a large amount of SiO2 that is
connected together in a continuous framework of Si-O tetrahedra [115].
Because of its extremely low inertness and weathering potential,
particularly for structures subjected to degrading conditions, its inert­
ness and high compaction caused by its accumulation over time make it
a suitable aggregate material for the production of UHP-GPC.
According to prior research and Table 4, quartz is most frequently
employed at sizes less than 1.18 mm in the form of quartz powder or fine
quartz aggregate, which minimizes micro-pores. Despite its good
availability and concrete medium, quartz sand has a significant expan­
sion tendency at elevated temperatures. Fig. 16, adapted from a previous
study of Kathirvel and Sreekumaran [36], illustrates the influence of
quartz sand concentration in the UHP-GPC mix and the compressive
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
Fig. 13. (continued).
Fig. 14. Compressive strength vs. molarity and the Na2SiO3/NaOH (SS/SH) ratio [28].
strength obtained with various fiber amount increases. According to this
figure, regardless of the fiber percentage of the mix, a higher quartz sand
component tends to enhance the overall compressive strength. This in­
crease tends to be greater in samples that have been cured for a longer
period (for example, 28-d), possibly because of the continuous poly­
merization of the GP paste and the resulting improved transition zone
among the paste and the aggregate materials.
8. Mechanical performance correlation
8.1. Relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile
strength of UHP-GPC
As listed in Table 6, previous investigations have proposed re­
lationships between the compressive strength and splitting tensile
strength of PC-concrete, such as UHPC. Fig. 17 illustrates the relation­
ship between the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of
14
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
UHP-GPC and its comparability to the predictions made for PC-concrete.
Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi [31] studied the correlations between
compressive strength and tensile strength of UHP-GPC. In their study,
three-volume fractions of SF were utilized (0 %, 1%, 2%, and 3%), as
well as four silica fume amounts by mass of total binders (5%, 10%,
20%, and 30%). According to the authors, it is discovered that the
empirical formulas presented by Xu and Shi [118] and Li, Shi and Zhang
[119] predict the splitting tensile strength of UHP-GPC to be greater, but
other formulas underestimate it. For example, the splitting tensile
strength of UHP-GPC with 3% SF is 14.1 MPa, which is only 3.4% and
2.2% higher than that suggested by Bae, Choi and Choi [120] and Li, Shi
and Zhang [119], respectively. In contrast, Day [121] proposes a split­
ting tensile strength that is 33.8% lower than the empirical one. This
demonstrates that the splitting tensile strength predictions for PC-
concretes can be used to UHP-GPC. Moreover, the fitting curve is
defined in Eq. (4) based on the experimental results of Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li
and Shi [31].(4).
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 15. The relationship between compressive strength of UHP-GPC and Maximum size aggregate [27,29,31,34-36,39,45,54,106].

Fig. 16. The strength development of UHP-GPC based on the content of the addition of quartz sand [35].

Table 6
fst = 0.0060(fC )1.55 (4)
Empirical formulas of splitting tensile strength of PC-concrete, HSC, UHPC, and Eq. (4), as proposed by Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi [31], has a larger
UHP-GPC [30]. coefficient than those provided by Day [121] and Xu and Shi [118],
Refs. Equations* Type of concrete Applications range (MPa) maybe because GP has a stronger bond than PC [120]. In contrast to the
( )1.55
UHP-GPC fC ≤ 100 prior study, the prediction provided by Xu and Shi [118] for UHP-GPC is
[30] fst = 0.0060 fC
( )0.7
applicable owing to the material’s increased brittleness related to its
UHPC 80 ≤ fC ≥ 220
[118] fst = 0.40 fC high strength. There would be a limit to the development in splitting
fst = 0.830fc 0.47 UHPC 80 ≤ fC ≥ 220 tensile strength as compressive strength increases, as the first derivation
[118]
( )0.63 of those equations also indicates.
fst = 0.390 fC HSC 97 ≤ fC ≥ 179
[119]
( )0.83
fst = 0.210 fC HSC fC ≤ 117
[116]
8.2. Relationship between compressive strength and MoE of UHP-GPC
1 PC-concrete 21 ≤ fC ≥ 83
[121] ( )
fst = 0.560 fC 2
( )0.56
N.M N.M
It is well documented that the compressive strength and MoE of
[122] fst = 0.485 fC
concretes are correlated, irrespective of the curing processes, grade of
*
fc is in MPa. strength, or other factors. Numerous empirical equations relating to PC-
concrete with a broad scope of compressive strengths have been devel­
oped as a result of substantial research [123-125]. Although the appli­
cation and validity of those equations are dependent on the curing
processes and raw materials [126], those equations were deemed useful
for comparing the compressive strength and MoE relationships. Tables 7

15
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 17. Relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of UHP-GPC [30].

substantially less. This means that the compressive strength and MoE of
Table 7
UHP-GPC are not related in the same way as they are in PC-concrete,
Empirical equations of MoE of PC-concrete, HSC, UHPC, and UHP-GPC [30].
such as UHPC. This is also similar to the results of prior studies on
Refs. Equations* Type of concrete Applications range (MPa) various GP concretes [23,127,128].
1 UHP-GPC 105 ≤ fC ≥ 150 Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi [31] studied the mechanical and fracture
[30] ( )
E = 2.60 fC 2 characteristics of UHP-GPC in the presence of SF and silica fume. Three
1 UHPC 126 ≤ fC ≥ 193 volume fractions of SF were utilized (0 %, 1%, 2%, and 3%), as well as
[124] ( )
E = 3.84 fC 2
four silica fume amounts by mass of total binders (5%, 10%, 20%, and
1 UHPC 97 ≤ fC ≥ 179
[125] ( )
E = 4.0690 fC 2
30%). Compressive strengths of UHP-GPC were similar to those of PC-
1 HSC fC ≤ 83 based UHPC, although UHP-GPC had a lower MoE at the same
[123]
compressive strength grade [129,130]. While UHP-GPC samples with
( )
E = 3.32 fC 2 + 6.90
E = 8.1fc0.360 PC-concrete 0 ≤ fC ≥ 250 compressive strengths greater than 150 MPa have an MoE of more than
[126]
PC-concrete 25 ≤ fC ≥ 85
30GPa, UHPC samples with compressive strengths greater than 100 MPa
E = 9.50fc0.30
[131] have an MoE greater than 35 GPa [129]. Due to the intrinsic properties
*
fc is in Mpa; and E is in GPa. of FA/slag-based GP and PC, UHP-GPC samples had a lower MoE than
UHPC samples [127]. In contrast, the employing of river sand as an
aggregate in this investigation results in a reduction in the samples’ MoE
Table 8 compared to samples of high purity quartz sand [126]. [30].
Specimens’ dimensions in the tests of uniaxial compressive strength and MoE
(5)
1
[132]. E = 2.60(fC )2
Refs. Type of Uniaxial MoE
concrete compressive 9. Dynamic behavior
strength

[30] UHP-GPC 100 mm3 (cube) 100×300 mm (cylinder) 9.1. High-velocity projectile impact (HVPI)
[36] UHP-GPC 100 mm3 (cube) 100×300 mm (cylinder)
[32] UHP-GPC 100 mm3 (cube) Obtained from the uniaxial UHPC, recognized for its high mechanical strength and ductility, is
compressive stress–strain curve
emerging as a significant material for civil and military structures that
[125] PC-based 76.2×152.4 mm 76.2×152.4 mm (cylinder)
UHPC (cylinder) must withstand hazardous loads, including HVPI—owing to the mate­
rial’s unique characteristics, structures produced with UHPC function
differently than those constructed with standard concrete when sub­
and 8 summarize the empirical equation and geometry of specimens for jected to HVPI. HVPI distinguishes itself from the Low-Velocity Ballistics
PC-concretes, respectively. All empirical formulas for normal concrete Impact System in several ways, including the structural reactions and
based on PC or UHPC overestimate the MoE of UHP-GPC. As a result, induction of highly localized damage in the absence of evident global
Liu, Shi, Zhang, Li and Shi [31] provided a new equation by fitting by, as cracks [132]. This means concrete targets must rely more on their
indicated in Eq. (5). In comparison to empirical formulations for similar- external strengthening measures and materials characteristics to with­
form PC-concrete [123-125], the factor of proportionality in Eq. (5) is stand HVPI. UHPC with high strength coarse aggregates, varied fiber

16
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
reinforcing, and binder systems (PC and GP) has been developed and
implemented in protective structures versus HVPI in the latest years.
Recently, an initial investigation on the dynamic behavior of UHP-
GPC in the presence of HVPI was performed. Liu, Wu, Li, Liu, Xu, Liu,
Su, Fang and Chen [33] and Liu, Wu, Liu, Li, Xu, Liu, Su and Chen [32]
performed physical testing on UHP-GPC targets reinforced with thick
SFs and ceramic pellets aggregate impacted by 25.3×152 mm steel
ogive-nosed projectiles velocities ranged between a 550–800 m/s,
respectively. Fig. 18 presents the positional damages of UHP-GPC tar­
gets after projectile impacts. Besides, the test findings are depicted in
Fig. 19, which normalizes the depth of penetration, crater depth, crater
diameter, and total volume loss of UHP-GPC target with plain UHP-GPC.
According to these findings, varied fiber reinforcements, such as length,
materials, and volume fraction, resulting in a range of compressive
strengths between 100 and 150 MPa, and other materials attributes for
UHP-GPC, resulting in a range of impact resistance. While comparable
uniaxial compressive strengths can be gained, the anti-penetration
behavior of UHP-GPC, for example, 141 MPa 2% SF reinforced UHP-
GPC [32], is inferior to that of PC-based UHPC, for example, 140 MPa
3% SF reinforced UHPC [31]. This is due to the 1% lower SF volume
content used in UHP-GPC, which results in more brittle properties. Ac­
cording to the authors, another reason could be, the lower modulus of
elasticity of UHP-GPC than that of PC-based UHPC. Therefore, to
enhance the anti-penetration behavior of UHP-GPC, plain and SF rein­
forced UHP-GPC were mixed with ceramic balls with a 10 mm diameter
[31]. The study findings reveal that compared to plain UHP-GPC,
ceramic ball aggregated UHP-GPC greatly lowers crack development,
depth of penetration, and crater damage. The inclusion of ceramic balls
can also help enhance anti-penetration behavior of fiber-reinforced
UHP-GPC.
10. Strain hardening
Two significant improvements in the mechanical behavior of con­
crete materials in the last few decades are UHPC [34,133-135] and
strain hardening cementitious composites, also known as engineered
cementitious composites [136-140], which demonstrate compressive
strength and tensile ductility, respectively. However, similarly to UHPC,
ordinary UHP-GPC may demonstrate a significant increase in brittleness
with increasing strength. As a result, fibers are required to increase the
ductility of UHP-GPC [26,29,54]. Although these UHP-GPCs have a
relatively high compressive strength, their deformability, particularly
their ductility under direct tension, has been documented rarely.
Therefore, Lao, Xu, Huang, Dai and Shah [35] aimed to investigate the
feasibility of developing strain hardening of UHP-GPC by the use of SFs
besides investigating the effects of various FA/GBFS ratios and SF vol­
umes on the mechanical characteristics of UHP-GPC.
In the study of Lao, Xu, Huang, Dai and Shah [35], strain hardening
Fig. 18. Positional damages of UHP-GPC targets after projectile impacts [32].
17
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
of UHP-GPC was designed-and-developed for the first time, which
attained a compressive strength of 222 MPa. Straight SFs were utilized
as reinforcement, and substantial tensile strain hardening was found in
all of the UHP-GPC mixes created in this investigation. Moreover, it was
discovered that the compressive and tensile strengths of UHP-GPC
increased with the FA/slag ratio and the SF amount. The tensile
ductility was changed between 0.35 and 0.55% by varying the FA/slag
ratios and SF doses, and the residual crack width after the tensile test
was roughly 10–20 µm only. As demonstrated in Fig. 20, SEM obser­
vation of the pull-out fiber surface verified a good bonding between the
UHP-GPC matrix and SF. These findings provide a valuable foundation
for designed-and-developed UHP-GPC materials with tensile strain-
hardening characteristics.
11. Durability characteristics
11.1. Porosity
Because one of the primary projected advantages of UHPC is a longer
serviceability cycle of life, which reduces the need for repair and
maintenance operations, ultra-high-performance substances are devel­
oped with reduced porosity, cracking propensity, and durability prob­
lems. However, because GP binders have a larger overall porosity than
PC-concrete, the overall pore network connectivity and porosity of
these composite materials serve a massive part in durability character­
istics, including thermal performance, freeze freeze-thaw, and
weathering.
When ordinary concrete is compared to GP concrete, the latter is
typically recognized to have a larger porosity, making the development
of UHP-GPC more complex [141]. Nevertheless, concrete materials can
generally be divided according to their porosity into gel pores, capillary
pores, and entrapped pores. Fig. 21 illustrates the influence of activators
on the polymerisation and pore network formation in GP mortar. As
demonstrated in this figure, the sample comprising a mixture of sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate generated larger gel pores than the
sample activated only with sodium hydroxide.
According to previous studies, such as that conducted by Wetzel and
Middendorf [46], the porosity of UHP-GPC is characterized by air void
pores, which are a direct consequence of polymerisation occurring
through the hardening process. To minimize porosity values, a tiny
amount of metakaolin is recommended because of its high aluminum
content, which promotes polymerisation and may help prevent the
creation of gel pores. For example, Ranjbar, Kashefi, Ye and Mehrali
[50] studied the effect of hot-pressed GP on the performance of GP
concrete in a series of various trials. According to these investigations,
the materials is substantially more efficient than other possible ap­
proaches, including thermal curing, or the type of activators utilized to
minimize overall porosity. Other components of UHP-GPC, including the
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
Fig. 19. HVPI test data for UHP-GPC (a) at around 550 m/s (b) at around 800 m/s [31,132].
SF content, have been demonstrated to help modify porosity ratios
[142].
11.2. Chloride ion penetration resistance
11.2.1. Rapid chloride penetration (RCP) test
The RCP test assumes that the flow is carried through the specimen
by the concrete’s pore sol, which functions as an electrolyte. Because the
number and consistency of pores in concrete specimens influence the
passing of ions and hence the current rate, it is predicted that porous
specimens with continuous pores would have a high passing flow,
18
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
whereas specimens with limited porosity will have a small passing flow.
Due to the low water/binder ratio in UHPC, an extremely thick micro­
structure forms in the hardened paste, significantly reducing perme­
ability [144]. Ramezanianpour, Esmaeili, Ghahari and Najafi [145]
determined that coating the fibres with calcium silicate hydrate gel and
building a link among them lowers the conductance of pores and voids,
hence improving the concrete resistance to Cl− penetration [146].
Abbas, Soliman and Nehdi [146] demonstrated that SF’s introduction
decreased porosity and enhanced durability using mercury intrusion
porosimetry. Furthermore, SEM inspection revealed a thick border re­
gion between the matrix–aggregate and fibre–matrix as shown in
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 20. BSE images of matrices (a) F6S4, (b) F4S6, and (c) F2S8; (d) Cracking behavior of F2S8-3% under a microscope; and SEM and EDS results of (e) virgin and (f)
pull-out SFs; where: F refer to FA, S to GBFS, and -% to SF volume [34].

Fig. 21. Porosity determined by Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry, where SF done to silica fume, MK to metakaolin, and (PC:UHPC-K18 28d) obtained from [143,45].

Fig. 22, implying limited permeability because of decreased porosity. The authors investigated the resistance of chloride ion (Cl− ) to pene­
The UHP-GPC was studied in the research of Mousavinejad and tration and it was determined using many specialized tests, such as rapid
Sammak [149] by using silica fume (SLF) and GGBS, besides, PF and SF. chloride penetration (RCP) rapid test. Based on their findings, the

19
S.M.A. Qaidi et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495

Fig. 22. SEM images of UHPC specimen [146].

inclusion of fibres decreased the current rate and enhanced the concrete
durability by reducing drying and plastic shrinkage cracks, leading to
decreased permeability [146,148]. The largest and lowest passing-flows
are associated with control and 1.75-SF-0.25-PF, respectively, and the
current is lowered by about 45.95% in comparison to the control mix.
Conversely, substituting PF for SF in the 1.75-SF-0.25-PF mixes results in
a 5.8% drop in current-flow compared with the 2-SF mix, owing to the
PF’s extremely low conductivity compared to SF [149,150]. As PF is
added to the 1.75-SF-0.25-PF mix, the passing flow is reduced by
11.33% to the 1.75-SF mix. Raising the volume fraction of fibres usually
results in a drop-in flow rate in all mixes, whereas PF has a beneficial
impact on hybrid mixes owing to its high low conductivity.

11.2.2. Electrical-resistivity(ER)
The ER of concrete is an alternative approach for determining the
material’s rapid resistance to Cl− penetration. The ER of high-
permeability concrete is lower, and hence the penetration of Cl− is
greater. Unlike the RCP test, this one does not need to heat the material,
Fig. 23. Relationship between chloride penetration and electrical-
and it also requires only a few seconds to a few minutes to complete, resistivity [147].
making it significantly quicker.
According to the findings of the previous study of Mousavinejad and
large ion concentration, which increases its permeability. Adam [155]
Sammak [149], a drop in specific ER indicated a decline in proportional
cautioned the availability of free ions in GPs due to the high amount of
performance in this test. So, to apply the same procedure compared to
alkaline sol and mentioned that by lowering the volume of NaOH, which
the findings of several trials conducted in durability, consideration was
results in a reduction in the content of ions of the pore sol, the volume of
given to compare the performance of mixture design on the basis of the
conductivity declines and thus the volume of flow declines. According to
specific electrical conductivity index, which is the inverse of the specific
the findings of investigations was done by previous researchers
electrical resistance. ER, comparable to the RCP test technique, de­
[147,151-153], GPC exhibits a higher flow rate than cementitious con­
creases the specific electrical conductivity (raising the specific ER) and
crete, and this is not because of their low resistance to Cl− , but rather to
enhances durability. According to the authors, the findings implied that
the ion concentration in the pore sol and the micro-structure of this
the change rate of electric current in the reference specimens is greater
concrete.
than that in the fibre specimens and that the change rate of current in the
fibre specimens is greater than that in the RCP test. Their adjustments
11.2.3. Rapid chloride migration(RCM) test
must theoretically be concurrent. This is due to the RCP test’s vulnera­
The previous study of Ahmed utilized the RCM test method to
bility due to the rise in temperature caused in the concrete because of the
measure the permeability of Cl− with the least impact of other ions and
passage of electric flux at a comparatively elevated voltage of 60 V. This
other conductive components like SF. According to the authors, because
implies that heat is created in the concrete when an electric current is
the RCM test investigation is not dependent on any ions other than Cl− ,
passed through the specimens, which boosts the flow rate. Fig. 23 de­
the resistance of all mixtures is extraordinarily high [154]. Besides, their
picts the relation between the permeability of the ER and UHP-GPC with
findings showed that fiber insertion significantly reduces Cl− penetra­
Cl− with an R2 of 0.9702. According to the findings, when Cl− perme­
tion. Moreover, according to Vincler, Sanchez, Turgeon, Conciatori and
ability decreases, ER increases, resulting in a drop in current flow and
Sorelli [157], introducing polyvinyl alcohol fibres and SF to UHPC
improved concrete durability.
decreased Cl− penetration, and the diffusivity of all specimens was in the
Ambily [151] shows that the permeability of Cl− for UHPC is
range of 10–14 to 10–15 m2/s. According to Behfarnia and Behravan
significantly lower than that of GGBFS-based UHP-GPC. Thomas and
[158], the production of iron rust surrounding SFs and establishing a dis-
Peethamparan [154] observed that increasing the thickness of concrete
continuity between fibres and cement allows Cl− to enter the concrete,
specimens from 50 to 153 mm resulted in a considerably greater
which may explain why PPFs is more efficient than SFs, also to the
decrease in Cl− permeability in GPCs than in cementitious concrete. The
conductivity in SFs. However, according to Mousavinejad and Sammak
explanation for the higher value achieved at 50 mm thickness
[149], the findings of three tests, RCP, ER, and RCM, the RCM test
throughout the RCP test for GPC is that this type of concrete contains a

20
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
investigation which is well connected to long-term techniques [157],
demonstrated more adequate results because of factors like free ions and
SF conductivity for UHP-GPC.
12. Microstructural properties
There is a noticeable lack of studies regarding the microstructural
properties of UHP-GPC. So far, there is only one in depth study con­
ducted by Xu, Yuan, Liu, Pan, Liu, Su, Li and Wu [27]. In their investi­
gation, the effect of the GGBFS, FA, sodium silicate modulus, Ca/(Al +
Si) ratio, Si/Al ratio, and SF on the mechanical behaviour of UHP-GPC
was carefully evaluated. According to the micromorphology and reac­
tion products, the SEM and XRD analyses were undertaken to recognize
the strength development process. According to the authors, the key
reactions products such as dolomite, zeolite, N-(C)-A-S-H gel, and C-(N)-
A- S-H gel, depending on the SEM and XRD analyses. A relatively
acceptable densified micromorphology and polymerization reactions
were attained at a FA quantity of 0.311, as shown in Fig. 24. A coarse
micromorphology and inadequate polymerisation were noticed on
raising the Si/Al ratio at a CaO quantity of 0.30. Moreover, the flawless
ITZ between UHP-GPC and SF was noticed through the SEM analysis.
13. Conclusions
Based on this review, the following conclusions can be made:
1. According to the estimated environmental criteria, geopolymer
technologies can be best suited for developing UHPC mixtures
that consume less energy and release less CO2 during raw mate­
rial production.
2. Due to the lower impact of admixtures on UHP-GPC rheological
characteristics, the production of UHP-GPC is more reliant on
Fig. 24. The influence of FA on the (a) reaction products (XRD pattern); (b) microstructure of UHP-GPC [26].
21
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
mixed components. Consequently, the three primary ingredients
of UHP-GPC are SF, silica fume, and quartz sand, which are re­
ported to have the most influence on the overall setting time and
viscosity of mixes.
3. By adding SF, the flowability of UHP-GPC was decreased. The
flowability declined as the SF amount was increased. Under the
same SF volume fraction, it was observed that the SF aspect ratio
was not the only parameter affecting followability; the actual
fibre numbers also had a role. In comparison to traditional UHPC,
the form of the fibre had a less substantial influence on flow­
ability. Moreover, it was reported that the fresh characteristics
decreased as the mass replacement of river sand with quartz sand
and GGBFS with silica fume increased. Furthermore, the GGBFS,
modulus of sodium silicate, and Si/Al ratio had an unfavorable
influence on flowability. However, FA, silica fume (10%), and
water glass improved flowability.
4. At the present phase, the single use of straight SFs with a length of
13 to 15 mm and a diameter of 0.16–0.2 mm remains the most
extensively utilized fiber reinforcing technique for designing
UHPC protective structures that resist HVPI. The optimal volu­
metric concentration of SFs varies depending on the composition
of the mixture and the casting and curing techniques used in
UHPC. On the other hand, UHP-GPC exhibits poorer HVPI resis­
tance than PC-based UHPC, probably owing to its lower elastic
modulus and increasing brittleness. Thus, further scientific
research is intended to promote the resistance of G-UHPC mate­
rials to HVPI.
5. Increased SF dosage can enhance the compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength, flexural behavior, fracture energy,
modules of elasticity, and stress intensity factor of UHP-GPC. The
UHP-GPC with 2 vol% of SFs showed the highest mechanical
strength.
S.M.A. Qaidi et al.
6. Compressive strength increases by raising the sodium hydroxide
solution concentration from 8 M to 16 M and the SS/SH ratio
from 1 to 3. Moreover, the maximum compressive strength was
obtained using a 16 M sodium hydroxide solution with an SS/SH
ratio of 3.
7. Although the ultimate flexural strength increased as the SF length
increased, the effect of the SF length on compressive strength was
influenced by the curing conditions owing to the increasing ma­
trix brittleness. Reducing fibre diameter can result in increased
compressive strength and ultimate flexural strength. Raising the
deformation ratio has no influence on compressive strength or
ultimate flexural strength.
8. By substituting polypropylene fiber for SF, the mechanical char­
acteristics of UHP-GPC are degraded. This could be because
polypropylene fiber has a lower tensile strength than SF. More­
over, introducing polypropylene fiber to UHP-GPC specimens
reinforced only with SFs results in a slight increase in mechanical
characteristics.
9. UHP-GPC is reported to have a lower porosity than standard
concrete.
10. According to the SEM and XRD analyses, the main reaction
products were dolomite, zeolite, N-(C)-A-S-H gel, and C-(N)-A-S-
H gel. A relatively satisfactory polymerisation reaction and a
densified micro-morphology were obtained at a FA amount of
0.311. A coarse micromorphology and insufficient polymerisa­
tion were noted on increasing the Si/Al ratio at a CaO concen­
tration of 0.3. Meanwhile, the flawless ITZ between UHP-GPC
and SF was noted.
14. Recommendations
The demand for good physical, mechanical, and durability charac­
teristics with high-grade materials and high strength/weight ratio is a
new pattern in the construction materials industry to optimize resource
utilization. Although this tendency began more recently, it has the
ability to produce future constructions that outlast today’s built and
designed structures. UHPC materials are well recognized to have enor­
mous financial consequences and environmental impact than their
conventional counterparts. As a consequence of their promising out­
comes in sustainability criteria, additional types of optimised materials,
including ultra-high performance GP materials, are attracting growing
attention. Despite the advancements mentioned in this review,
comparative studies on the environmental consequences, cost efficiency,
thermal and durability, and applications of UHP-GPC must be performed
with other main composites systems or concrete types, including poly­
mer concrete, strain-hardening cement-based composites, and ordinary
UHPC, before using it in large-scale infrastructure applications. How­
ever, the advantage of reduced reliance on processed quartz sand and SF
and the addition of PC have greatly raised research interest in the pro­
duction of UHP-GPC, which can help accelerate the development of this
composite binder.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
22
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128495
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