ISSUED TO: _____________________________

DATE: _____________________________

CHECKED BY: _____________________________

DATE: _____________________________

Relays 1

TRANSMISSION
&DISTRIBUTION
Substation And Switchyard Maintenance
 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS

Relays - Unit 1 is composed of a one-hour videotape presentation and an accompanying text. The
videotape program is divided into seven segments, and the text corresponds to the tape in both
organization and basic content. The recommended sequence of instruction is as follows:

1. After the instructor's introductory remarks, read the segment objectives found in the block
at the beginning of the first segment.
2. Briefly discuss the segment objectives with the instructor and other class members.
3. View the first segment of videotape.
4. Read the text segment that corresponds to the first segment of videotape.
5. Answer the questions at the end of the text segment. Check your answers against the answers
given at the end of the unit.
6. Participate in a class discussion of the material in the segment. Ask any questions you
might have concerning the material in the videotape and the text, and note any additional
information given by the instructor.
7. Perform the student exercises provided in the Instructor's Guide, as directed by the instructor.
8. Before going on to the next segment, be sure that you understand the major concepts presented
and the answers to the text questions.
9. WORK THROUGH ALL SEGMENTS 1N THIS MANNER.
10. A quiz covering the material in the entire unit (all seven segments) will be administered by
the instructor after the unit has been completed.
11. Additional instruction and testing may be given at the discretion of the instructor in accordance
with company requirements.

This recommended sequence may be modified slightly by your instructor due to scheduling or
other special considerations.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Page

1.1 Introduction to Relays ....................................................... 1.1-1

1.1.1 Purpose and Use of Relays ................................................... 1.1-1
1.1.2 Relay Elements .................................................................... 1.1-3
1.1.2.1 Plunger Element .................................................................. 1.1-3
1.1.2.2 Clapper Element ................................................................... 1.1-4
1.12.3 Induction DISC Element ....................................................... 1.1-5
1.1.2.4 Induction Cup Element ......................................................... 1.1-9
1.1.2.5 Solid-State Circuitry ............................................................ 1.1-11

1.2 Overcurrent Relays ............................................................ 1.2-1

1.2.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays ........................................ 1.2-2
1.2.2 Time Delay Overcurrent Relays ............................................ 1.2-8

1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays ........................................ 1.3-1

1.3.1 Directional Overcurrent Relay Usage ................................... 1.3-1
1.3.2 Operation of a Directional Overcurrent Relay ...................... 1.3-4
1.3.3 Three-Phase Directional Relays ............................................ 1.3-9

1.4 Reclosing Relays ................................................................. 1.4-1

1.4.1 Function of Reclosing Relays ............................................... 1.4-1
1.4.2 Reclosing Relay Components ............................................... 1.4-2
1.4.3 Reclosing Relay Operation .................................................. 1.4-5

1.5 Voltage Relays .................................................................... 1.5-1

1.5.1 Overvoltage and Undervoltage Relays with Plunger
Elements ............................................................................. 1.5-2
1.5.2 Overvoltage Relay with an Induction Disc Element ............. 1.5-4
1.5.3 Over Overvoltage/Undervoltage Relay.................................. 1.5-5
Section Title Page

1.6 Auxiliary Relays .................................................................. 1.6-1

1.6.1 Function of Auxiliary Relays................................................. 1.6-1
1.6.2 Auxiliary Relay Used to Trip Multiple Breakers.................... 1.6-2
1.6.3 Auxiliary Relay Used to Trip Multiple Overcurrent Relays ... 1.6-4

1.7 Solid-State Relays................................................................ 1.7-1

1.7.1 Operating Principles of Solid-State Relays ............................ 1.7-1
1.7.2 Logic Gates .......................................................................... 1.7-4
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Title Page

1.1-1. Relay to a T&D System ........................................................................... 1.1-2

1.1-2. Relay with a Plunger Element .............................................. 1.1-3
1.1-3. Relay with a Clapper Element ................................................................. 1.1-4
1.1-4. Relay with an Induction Disc Element .................................................... 1.1-5
1.1-5. Electromagnet............................................................................................ 1.1-6
1.1-6. Illustration of Electromagnet ................................................................... 1.1-7
1.1-7. Damping Magnet and Contacts................................................................ 1.1-8
1.1-8. Relay with an Induction Cup Element .................................................... 1.1-9
1.1-9. Parts of an Induction Cup ......................................................................... 1.1-10
1.1-10. Solid-State Relay ...................................................................................... 1.1-11
1.1-11. Solid -State Circuitry ................................................................................ 1.1-12

1.2-1. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay with a Plunger.................................... 1.2-2

1.2-2. Relay with Plunger Inside Coil................................................................. 1.2-3
1.2-3. Relay with Plunger Out of Coil ............................................................... 1.2-4
1.2-4. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay with a Magnetic Shunt ...................... 1.2-5
1.2-5. Shunt Lowered Out of Coil ...................................................................... 1.2-6
1.2-6. Instantaneous Overcurrent Clapper Element .......................................... 1.2-7
1.2-7. Time Delay Overcurrent Relay with an induction Disc ......................... 1.2-8
1.2-8. Electromagnet of Induction Disc Element .............................................. 1.2-9
1.2-9. Restraining Spring and Tap Block ........................................................... 1.2-10
1.2-10. Spring Tension Adjustment Wheel ......................................................... 1.2-11
1.2-11. Time Delay Adjustment Dial.................................................................... 1.2-12

1.3-1. Directional Overcurrent Relay ................................................................. 1.3-1

1.3-2. Normal Current Flow Path ....................................................................... 1.3-2
1.3-3. Fault on a Source Circuit .......................................................................... 1.3-3
1.3-4. Directional Overcurrent Relay with Induction Discs.............................. 1.3-4
1.3-5. Contacts for a Directional Overcurrent Relay ......................................... 1.3-5
1.3-6. Directional Overcurrent Relay Electromagnets....................................... 1.3-6
Figure Title Page

1.3-7. Directional Overcurrent Relay with an Induction Cup

Element ................................................................................................ 1.3-8
1.3-8. Three-Phase Directional Relay............................................................. 1.3-9
1.3-9. Movable Loops on a Three-Phase Directional Relay ............ 1.3-10 & 1.3-11

1.4-1. Reclosing Relay ................................................................................... 1.4-2

1.4-2. Reclosing Relay Components ............................................................. 1.4-3
1.4-3. Reclosing Relay Contacts..................................................................... 1.4-4

1.5-1. Overvoltage Relay with a Plunger Element ........................................ 1.5-2

1.5-2. Undervoltage Relay with a Plunger Element ...................................... 1.5-3
1.5-3. Overvoltage Relay with an Induction Disc ......................................... 1.5-4
15-4. Overvoltage/Undervoltage Relay ......................................................... 1.5-5

1.6-1. Auxiliary Relay Used to Trip Multiple Breakers ................................ 1.6-2

1.6-2. Auxiliary Relay Components ............................................................... 1.6-3
1.6-3. Auxiliary Relay Used to Trip Multiple Overcurrent
1.6-4. Relays.................................................................................................... 1.6-4

1.7-1. Solid-State Overcurrent Relay ............................................................. 1.7-1

1.7-2. Circuits in a -state Relay ..................................................................... 1.7-2
1.7-3. Sine Wave ............................................................................................. 1.7-3
1.7-4. Pulse Wave............................................................................................ 1.7-4
1.7-5. AND Gate Symbol................................................................................ 1.7-5
1.7-6. OR Gate Symbol .................................................................................. 1.7-6
 RELAYS
UNIT I

When a fault occur in a transmission and distribution T&D system, current increases and voltage
decreases. The increased current causes excessive heating, which, depending on where the fault
occurs, can result in a fire or an explosion. If the fault is not quickly isolated, it can cause damage
that may result in loss of service.

T&D systems use various types of control systems to detect and isolate faults with minimum
disturbance. A key component of all of these control systems is the protective relay. This training
program examines the functions and operation of some types of protective relays that are commonly
found in substations and switchyards.

1.1 Introduction to Relays

1.1.1 Purpose and Use of Relays

The overall function of a protective relay is to detect a fault quickly as possible and isolate it.
Although relays detect and isolate faults in many different ways, the principles behind their
operation are similar. In general, a relay receives signals that represent a system condition.
When the condition changes beyond a desired value, the relay operates. When a relay operates,
it provides a signal that causes a switch, such as a circuit breaker, to operate. The operation of
the switch isolates part of the system.
 RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

Figure 1.1-1 is a simplified illustration that shows a protective relay in a T&D system. The
illustration represents one phase of a three-phase T&D system, which includes a bus, a feeder, a
circuit breaker, a protective relay, and a current transformer.

In this example, current in the feeder is stepped down by the current transformer to a
proportionally lower current, which is fed to a coil in the relay. When a fault occurs on the feeder,
the feeder current increases, and the current going to the relay increases proportionally. If the
current going to the relay measures beyond a predetermined value, the relay coil causes contacts in
the relay to close. When the contacts close, a signal is provided to the circuit breaker, which causes
the breaker to open. Opening the breaker de-energizes the feeder and isolates the fault from the
rest of the system.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

1.1.2 Relay Elements

The way that a relay operates depends on the main element or elements that it contains. In
general, there are five kinds of elements that a relay can use: a plunger, a clapper, induction
disc, induction cup, and solid-state circuitry.

1.1.2.1 Plunger Element

Figure 1.1-2 shows a relay that has a plunger element. The main parts of the relay are a
solenoid coil, a movable plunger that extends up into the coil, fixed contacts, and moving
contacts. When the relay is in service, current or voltage in the coil creates a magnetic
field. When current or voltage increases beyond a predetermined value, the magnetic field
becomes strong enough to attract the plunger into the coil, closing the contacts.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

1.1.2.2 Clapper Element

Figure 1.1-3 shows a relay that contains a clapper element. This type of element may also be
called a hinged armature element. It consists of an electromagnet; a hinged plate, or lever
assembly; moving contacts; and fixed contacts. When the relay is in service, current or voltage in
the electromagnet creates a magnetic field at the pole face of the electromagnet. When current or
voltage increases beyond a desired value, the magnetic field becomes strong enough to attract the
hinged plate to the pole face of the electromagnet, closing the contacts.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction Relays (continued)

1.1.2.3 Induction Disc Element

Figure 1.1-4 shows a relay that has an induction disc element. The main parts of this element
include an electromagnet (not visible), a metallic disc, a permanent magnet called a damping
magnet, a moving contact, and a fixed contact.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

In the induction disc element, a portion of the electromagnet (Figure 1.1-5) is short-circuited by
metal rings or coils. This is called shading, and the rings or coils are called shading rings or
shading coils.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

The positions of the shading rings in relation to the electromagnet are shown more clearly in
the simplified illustration in Figure 1.1.6. When the relay is in service, current or voltage in the
coil of the electromagnet creates a magnetic field in the frame of the electromagnet. The
magnetic field cuts through the disc. In simplified terms, it cam be said that the magnetic field
in the shaded part of the electromagnet lags the magnetic field in the unshaded part. This
relationship produces a torque on the disc. When current or voltage increases beyond a
predetermined value, the torque becomes great enough to cause the disc to rotate.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

When the disc rotates, the damping magnet (Figure 1.1-7) produces a fixed drag on the
disc. As a result, the disc turns at a constant speed. As the disc rotates, it turns a shaft that
holds the moving contact. Turning the shaft brings the moving contact around until it
touches the fixed contact.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

1.1.2.4 Induction Cup Element

Figure 1.1-8 shows a relay that has an induction cup element. This type of element is sometimes
referred to as an induction cylinder.
 RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

The main parts of an induction cup element are illustrated in Figure 1.1-9. The illustration
shows a metallic cup or cylinder, electromagnets spaced around the cup, a moving contact, and a
fixed contact.

When an induction cup relay is in service, current or voltage in the electromagnets creates
magnetic fields at the pole face of each electromagnet. In simplified terms, it can be said that
the magnetic fields at some of the electromagnets lag the magnetic fields at the other
electromagnets. This relationship produces a torque on the cup. When current or voltage
increases beyond a predetermined value, the torque becomes great enough to cause the cup to
rotate. When the cup rotates, it brings the moving contact over until it touches the fixed contact.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

1.1.2.5 Solid-State Circuitry

The relay shown in Figure 1.1-10 is a solid-state relay. The main operating "element" of the
relay is solid-state circuitry.
 RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

In general, there are no moving parts in solid-state circuits. Instead, as shown in Figure 1.1-11, the
relay is made up of transistors, diodes, resistors, and other electronic components, which are arranged
into circuits. When the relay is in service, current or voltage going into the relay is electronically
processed through the circuits. If the value of current or voltage going into the relay is different from
the desired value, the circuitry provides an output signal.

Questions

1.1-1. The basic function of a protective relay is to (a) ____________________ a fault and then (b)
____________________ the fault.
RELAYS
1.1 Introduction to Relays (continued)

1.1-2. Circle the correct answer.

A relay receives a signal that represents a
a. Circuit breaker
b. Relay element
c. System condition
d. All of the above

1.1-3. Circle the correct answer.

In a relay that has a(n) ____________________ element, the relay contacts close when a magnetic
field attracts a component of the relay.
a. Plunger
b. Clapper
c. Induction disc
d. Induction cup
e. Both a and b
f. Both c and d
g. All of the above

1.1-4. Circle the correct answer.

In a relay that uses a (an) ____________________ element, the relay contacts close when
magnetic fields create a torque that rotates a component of the relay.
a. Plunger
b. Clapper
c. Induction disc
d. Induction cup
e Both a and b
f. Both c and d
g. All of the above

1.1-5. True or False. Is general, a solid-state relay has no moving parts.

 RELAYS (continued)
1.2 Overcurrent Relays

One of the most common types of protective relays is the overcurrent relay. Overcurrent relays
are generally used to protect distribution feeders. They are designed to operate when current
becomes higher than desirable. For example, when a fault occurs an a distribution feeder, current
immediately increases. Usually, an overcurrent relay will detect the increase and operate. When
the contacts of an overcurrent relay close, the relay provides a signal that typically causes a
circuit breaker to open, disconnecting the faulted feeder from the system. An overcurrent relay
can be designed to operate either instantaneously or with an intentional time delay.
RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

1.2.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

Figure 1.2-1 shows an instantaneous overcurrent relay that has a plunger element. In this relay,
current in a coil (not visible) creates a magnetic field. When current increase above a certain value,
the magnetic field becomes strong enough to attract the plunger into the coil and close the contacts.
With this type of element, the contacts close instantaneously.
RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

The amount of current needed to lift the plunger is called "pick-up" current. The value of
the pick-up current can be varied by adjusting the position of the plunger. Turning the
plunger in one direction moves it up and into the coil (Figure 1.2-2). With the plunger
inside the coil, the magnetic field around the coil has more plunger surface to act upon.
As a result, less current is needed to lift the plunger and close the contacts.
RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

Turning the plunger in the other direction moves it down and out of the coil (Figure 1.2-3).
With the plunger in this position, the magnetic field around the coil has less plunger surface
to act upon. Consequently, more current is needed to lift the plunger and close the contacts.
RELAYS
1.2 Relays (continued)

The plunger element in the relay shown in Figure 1.2-4 is slightly different from the element
in the previous example. In this case, the plunger (not visible) is always up inside the coil,
and it is not adjustable. The pick-up current setting is varied by changing the position of a
magnetic shunt.
RELAYS
l.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

The magnetic shunt serves as a shield between the coil and the plunger inside the coil. The
shunt also controls how much of the plunger is exposed to the magnetic field. Turning the
shunt in one direction moves up into the coil, as shown in Figure 1.2-4, so that it is
positioned between the coil and the plunger. The more the shunt is moved into the coil, the
more it shields the plunger from the magnetic field, and the more current is needed to lift
the plunger and close the contacts.

When the shunt is turned in the other direction, it moves downward and out of the coil
(Figure 1.2-5). The more the shunt is moved out of the coil, the less it shields the plunger
from the magnetic field, and the less current is needed to lift the plunger and close the
contacts.
RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

The instantaneous part of another overcurrent relay is shown in Figure 1.2-6. This is a clapper
element instead of a plunger. With a clapper element, current in the electromagnet creates a
magnetic field at the pole face of the electromagnet. When current increases above a certain
value, the magnetic field becomes strong enough to attract the hinged plate to the pole face of
the electromagnet and close the contacts. As with the plunger elements, the contacts close
instantaneously.

The pick-up current for the clapper element can be varied by adjusting the position of a screw.
Turing the screw into the coil gives the coil a solid metal core that strengthens the magnetic field.
With a stronger magnetic field, less current is needed to lift the hinged plate and close the
contacts. When the screw is turned out of the coil, the coil is left with an air core, which weakens
the magnetic field. More current is needed to lift the hinged plate and close the contacts.
RELAYS
1.2 Relays (continued)

1.2.2 Time Delay Overcurrent Relays

Many overcurrent relays have a time delay feature. An overcurrent relay with time-delayed
operation is typically coordinated with other protective equipment, such as line fuses or
sectionalizers. When an overcurrent condition causes the relay to operate, the relay's
contacts will close only after a predetermined period of time. This intentional delay allows
other protective equipment to begin operation first. For example, during the delay, a line
fuse could open to disconnect the section of line where the fault occurred. When a line fuse
operates, it generally disconnects a smaller portion of the system than the overcurrent relay
would.

An overcurrent relay with a time delay feature typically uses an induction disc element. An
example is shown in Figure 1.2-7.
 RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

The electromagnet that drives the disc is located at the back of the relay. This electromagnet is
slightly different from the one for the induction disc element discussed earlier, but it operates
on the same principles. As shown in Figure 1.2-8, this electromagnet has three legs. Around the
center leg is the main coil, which provides the magnetic field. The magnetic field circulates
through the two outer legs.

One of the outer legs of the electromagnet is wrapped in a thin coil. This leg is the shaded leg.
The magnetic field in the shaded leg lags the magnetic field in the unshaded leg to produce the
torque that causes the disc to rotate.
RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

In order for the disc to rotate, the torque must be great enough to overcome the tension of a restraining
spring (Figure 1.7-9). The amount of current needed to overcome the spring is the pick-up current.

The main coil, around the center leg of the electromagnet, has taps extending from it. The taps are
connected to a tap block (shown in Figure 1.7-9). The location of a tap plug on the front of the tap
block determines how many turns of the main coil current will flow through.
RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

Pick up current is adjusted by moving the tap plug. Moving the tap plug in one direction
increases the number of turns that current flows through, thereby strengthening the magnetic
field. With a strong magnetic field, less current it needed to overcome the tension of the
restraining spring and turn the disc. Moving the tap plug in the opposite direction reduces the
number of turns that current flows through, thereby weakening the magnetic field. With a
weak magnetic field, more current is needed to overcome the spring tension and turn the disc.

Pick-up current can be "fine-tuned" by adjusting the tension of the restraining spring. When a
spring tension adjustment wheel (Figure 1.2-10) is turned in one direction, the spring tension
is increased, so that a slightly higher current is needed to overcome it. When the wheel is
turned in the other direction, the spring tension is reduced, so that a slightly lower current is
needed.
RELAYS
1.2 Relays (continued)

The length of the time delay is adjusted by changing the starting position of the moving contact. For
example, when a time delay adjustment dial (Figure 1.2-11) is turned in one direction, the moving
contact is moved closer to the fixed contact, so that it has only a short distance to travel before it touches
the fixed contact. The result to a short time delay.

When the dial is turned in the other direction, the moving contact is moved farther away from the
fixed contact. From this position, the moving contact has a longer distance to travel before it
touches the fixed contact, so the time delay is longer. Aside from the position of the moving
contact, the time delay is also affected by the magnitude of fault current. In general, the disc turns
faster as the magnitude of fault current increases.
RELAYS
1.2 Overcurrent Relays (continued)

Questions

1.2-1. True or False. An overcurrent relay will operate when a fault causes current in a
distribution feeder to increase above normal limits.

1.2-2. Circle the correct answer.

An overcurrent relay can be designed to operate
a. After a preset time delay
b. Instantaneously
c. Continuously
d. All of the above
e. Only a and b

1.2-3. The amount of current needed to lift the plunger in some overcurrent relays is called
____________________ current.

1.2-4. Circle the correct answer.

The amount of current required to lift the plunger at some overcurrent relays can be
adjusted by repositioning
a. A magnetic shunt
b. The plunger
c. Shading rings
d. An of the above
e. Only a and b

1.2-5. True or False. An overcurrent relay with time-delayed operation is typically coordinated
with other protective equipment.

1.2-6. In an overcurrent relay with an induction disc element, pick-up current is adjusted by moving
a (a)__________ and by turning a (b)__________.

1.2-7. In an overcurrent relay with time delay, the length of the time delay is determined by the
starting position of the __________.
 RELAYS (continued)
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays

1.3.1 Directional Overcurrent Relay Usage

Directional overcurrent relays are generally used to protect substation bus and power transformers
from excessive current flow in an undesirable direction. A typical directional overcurrent relay is
shown in Figure 1.3-1.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

Typically, a directional overcurrent relay is two relays in one case: an overcurrent relay unit and a
directional relay unit. The directional unit responds to current flow in an undesirable direction. If it
detects current flowing in an undesirable direction, its contacts close, completing a circuit to the
overcurrent unit. The overcurrent unit cannot operate until the directional unit closes its contacts.
After the directional unit closes its contacts, the overcurrent unit determines if the current is higher
than desirable. If the current is higher than desirable, the overcurrent unit operates to cause circuit
breakers to trip.

Figure 1.3-2 is a simplified illustration that shows where a directional overcurrent relay might be
used. Included in the illustration are two source circuits, two power transformers, a bus, and two
feeder circuits. Normally, current flows from the source circuits, through the power transformers,
the bus, and then out the feeder circuits.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional overcurrent Relays (continued)

If a fault occurs on one of the source circuits (Figure 1.3-3), current from the other source
could backfeed from the bus to the fault. The backfeed current would be flowing in an
undesirable direction. Backfeed current could severely damage system equipment and create a
safety hazard.

Under the conditions represented in Figure 1.3-3, the directional unit of a directional
overcurrent relay would detect current flowing in an undesirable duration. In response, the
directional unit would close its contacts to complete a circuit to the overcurrent unit. The
overcurrent unit would then detect the overcurrent and trip breakers to isolate the fault and
protect the transformer.
Relays
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

1.3.2 Operation of a Directional Overcurrent Relay

An example of a directional overcurrent relay is shown in Figure 1.3-4. The overcurrent unit
is at the top of this relay, and the directional unit is at the bottom. Each unit in this example
has an induction disc element, but directional units also commonly use induction cup elements.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

In the example shown in Figure 1.3-4, the directional unit is similar in construction to the
overcurrent unit. Each unit has an electromagnet (not visible), a disc, a damping magnet, moving
contact, and a fixed contact. One difference between the overcurrent unit and the directional unit
is that the contacts for the directional unit (Figure 1.3-5A) are much closer together than the
contacts for the overcurrent unit (Figure 1.3-5B). When the directional unit operates, its contacts
close immediately. The contacts on the overcurrent unit are farther apart. When the overcurrent
unit operates, its contacts close after a time delay.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

Other differences between the overcurrent unit and the directional unit are in the ways that their
electromagnets are connected and in the different inputs that they receive. These differences are
illustrated in Figure 1.3-6.. The left part of the illustration represents an overcurrent unit with an
induction disc element, and the right part represents a directional unit with an induction disc element.

Both units illustrated Figure 1.3-6 have two upper coils and one lower coil. On the overcurrent unit,
the upper windings are connected with the lower pole. On the directional unit, the upper windings are
physically separate from the lower pole. The overcurrent unit has two terminal connections, which
are typically connected with a current transformer circuit. During operation, current flows through
these terminals and the lower part of the lower winding. Current is induced from the lower part of the
lower winding into the upper part of the lower winding and flows through the two upper windings.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

The directional unit has four terminal connections. Two inputs are needed, because the units
upper and lower windings are not connected. The terminals for the lower winding usually
connected with a voltage transformer circuit, and the terminals for the upper windings are
connected with a current transformer circuit. When the relay is in service, voltage in the
lower winding and current in the upper windings interact to produce a torque on the
induction disc.

When current flows to the desired direction, the torque on the induction disc is in a direction
that keeps the rise from turning. However, when current flows in on undesirable direction,
the interaction of the voltage and current causes the torque to change direction. As a result,
the disc turns, and closes the contacts.

When the contacts of the directional unit close, they complete a circuit for the overcurrent
unit. Then, if the current is higher than desirable, the overcurrent unit operates and closes its
contacts.

As stated earlier, the directional unit of a directional overcurrent relay requires two inputs.
The example just described uses a voltage input and a current input. Sometimes, however,
the two inputs may be current from separate sources.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

Figure 1.3-7 shows another example of a directional overcurrent relay. The overcurrent unit is a
disc element; however, for this relay, it is the lower unit rather than the upper unit. The
directional unit for this relay uses an induction cup element rather than an induction disc, but the
operating principles for the cup directional unit are the same as for the disc directional unit. The
cup directional unit still receives two inputs, usually one voltage input and one current input.

The two inputs to the directional unit provide a torque on a cup rather than on a disc. As
long as current flow is in the desired direction, the torque is in a direction that keeps the
cup from turning. However, when current flows in an undesirable direction, the torque
changes direction to turn the cup and close the contacts. Then, if the current is higher than
desirable, the overcurrent (disc) unit operates and closes its contacts.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

1.3.3 Three-Phase Directional Relays

The directional overcurrent relays discussed so far are single-phase relays. Each can monitor current
direction and magnitude for only one phase of a three-phase circuit. The directional relay shown in Figure
1.3-8 can monitor current direction for three phases simultaneously, but it is strictly a directional relay.
This type of relay is generally used in connection with three single-phase overcurrent relays.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

The main element of the three-phase directional relay is different from the elements in the
single-phase units. However, it is comparable in many respects to an induction cup
element. Instead of a cup, this relay has three movable loops on a common shaft (Figure 13-
9A). Each loop encircles one end of the three-legged frame of an electromagnet (Figure 1.3-
9B). A coil wound around each leg. The coils around the two outer legs are voltage coils.
They receive voltage from a voltage transformer. The middle coil is a current coil. It
receives current from a current transformer.
 RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

The principles of operation of the three-phase relay element are the same as those of the
single-phase directional relay elements. Voltage in the voltage windings and current in the
current winding interact to produce a torque on the loop. When current flows in the
desired direction, the torque keeps the loop from rotating. When current flows in an
undesirable direction, the interaction of the voltage and current causes the torque to
change direction. As a result, the loop rotates, end closes the contacts.

Each electromagnet in the three-phase relay element is connected to one phase of a three-
phase circuit. If enough current flows in an undesirable direction in any one of the three
phases, the relay will operate. When the contacts of a three-phase directional relay close,
they complete circuits to the appropriate single-phase overcurrent relays. The overcurrent
relays then determine if the current is higher than a desired value. If the current is higher
than desirable, the combined operations of the three phase directional relay and
appropriate single-phase overcurrent relays cause breakers to open and isolate the fault.
RELAYS
1.3 Directional Overcurrent Relays (continued)

Questions

1.3-1. True or False. Directional overcurrent relays are generally used to protect
substation bus and power transformers from excessive current flow in an
undesirable direction.

1.3-2. The directional unit of a directional overcurrent relay operates in response to current
flow in a(n)______________ direction.

1.3-3. True or False. The overcurrent unit of a directional overcurrent relay operates
before the directional unit.

1.3-4. Circle the correct answer.

The overcurrent unit of a single-phase directional overcurrent relay
generally uses _____________________ element.
a. A plunger
b. An induction disc
c. An induction cup
d. A clapper

1.3-5. A directional unit needs ______________ input(s) in order to operate.

(one, two, four)

1.3-6. True or False. A three-phase directional relay operates in response to current

that is flowing in an undesirable direction or to current that is higher than
desired.

1.3-7. The contacts for the (a) ____________________ unit of a

(directional, overcurrent)
single-phase directional overcurrent relay are closer together than the
contacts for the (b) ____________________ unit.
(directional, overcurrent)
 RELAYS (continued)
1.4 Reclosing Relays

1.4.1 Function of Reclosing Relays

Reclosing relays are commonly used in combination with overcurrent relays to protect distribution
circuits, but they may also be used with other relays to protect transmission circuits. The function
of a reclosing relay is to recluse a circuit breaker after it has been tripped open. For example, if a
fault occurs on a distribution circuit, an overcurrent relay generally trips a breaker to de-energize
the circuit and isolate the fault. A reclosing relay will then close the breaker, sometimes
immediately, to re-energize the circuit.

In many cases, faults on overhead circuits, and especially on distribution circuits, are temporary.
When the line is de-energized, the fault may immediately clear itself. If a reclosing relay is
available to quickly reclose the circuit, service is re-established with virtually no outage.
RELAYS
1.4 Reclining Relays (continued)

1.4-2 Reclosing Relay Components

An example of a typical reclosing relay is shown in Figure 1.4-1.
 RELAYS
1.4 Reclosing Relays (continued)

The relay's main components are shown in Figure 1.4-2. They include a motor, a camshaft with
several adjustable lobes, and a variety of contacts.

The number of contacts in a reclosing relay depends partly on whether the relay provides
single-shot or multi-shot reclosing. Single shot reclosing means that the relay recloses a
breaker only, usually instantaneously. With multi-shot reclosing, the relay can close a
breaker several times. The first reclose, which is usually instantaneous, can be followed by
up to two or three delayed recloses.
RELAYS
1.4 Reclosing Relays (continued)

The relay has a set of reclose contacts (Figure 1.4-3). When the "zero second" on the drum face is lined up
with the "start" mark on the position indicator, the reclose contacts are normally closed and the relay is
ready to operate. In addition, the relay has two delayed reclose lobes (only one is visible in Figure 1.4-3),
which provide additional recloses after preset time delays. The relay also has a set of reset contacts. When
the reset contacts operate, they turn the motor off with the relay in the "start" position, so that the relay is
ready to operate when needed. Finally, the reclosing relay has lockout contacts. When the lockout contacts
operate, they turn the motor off with the relay in the "lockout" position. When the relay is in the "lockout"
position, it cannot provide a signal to close the breaker.
RELAYS
1.4 Reclosing Relays (continued)

1.4.3 Reclosing Relay Operation

Typically, when a fault occurs on a circuit, an overcurrent relay operates, causing a breaker to trip.
Since the reclosing relay's reclose contacts are closed, the reclosing relay immediately recloses the
breaker. The reclosing relay's motor then operates to drive the camshaft and the reclose contacts
open. If the overcurrent relay trips the breaker again, a lobe is brought around until it closes the
reclose contacts to reclose the breaker a second time.

It the fault does not clear, the motor continues to drive the camshaft, and the delayed reclose
sequence is repeated one to two more times, depending on how the reclosing relay is set. If the
fault is still not cleared when the camshaft comes around to the "lockout" position, the lockout
contacts open. When the lockout contacts open, the motor turns off with the relay in the "lockout"
position. In this position, the relay can no longer reclose the breaker. Generally, reclosing relay
that has stopped in the "lockout" position must be reset manually before it can function again.

If, during the sequence of trips and recloses, the fault clears, the reclosing relay will successfully
reclose the breaker. In other words, the breaker will not be tripped open again. When this happens,
the motor continues to drive the camshaft as before. However, instead of stopping at the "lockout'
position, the camshaft continues past it. When the camshaft reaches the "start" position, the reset
contacts open, and the motor turns off. Since the relay is in the "start" position, it is ready to begin
the whole sequence again when another fault occurs.

The amount of time delay between recloses can be adjusted. Typically, adjustments are made by
moving the lobes on the camshaft to positions that provide the desired delays between recloses. For
the relay used as an example in this section, the lobes are moved by loosening screws, moving the
lobes to the desired positions, and then retightening the screws.

When a reclosing relay is used, its operation is usually coordinated with the instantaneous and
delayed trips of an overcurrent relay. The overall goal is to allow temporary faults to clear
themselves and to restore normal service as quickly as possible after a fault occurs.
RELAYS
1.4 Reclosing Relays (continued)

Questions

1.4-1. What is the function of a reclosing relay?

1.4-2. True or False. A reclosing relay can only reclose a breaker once.

1.4-3. When the reset contacts of a reclosing relay operate, they turn the motor off with the
relay in the ______________position.
("start", "lockout")

1.4-4. The ____________________on the camshaft in a reclosing relay can be moved to

positions that provide the desired delays between recloses.

1.4-5. True or False. A reclosing relay that has stopped in the "lockout" position normally
must be reset manually before it can function again.
RELAYS (continued)
1.5 Voltage Relays

Equipment in transmission and distribution system, including customer equipment, is

designed to operate at or near specific voltage. If voltage varies excessively, the equipment
can be damaged. For example, voltage that is higher than normal, called overvoltage, can
damage resistors, transistors and other electronic components. Voltage that is lower than
normal, called undervoltage, can cause motors to draw excessive current, overheat, and
burn up.

To protect equipment from abnormal voltage conditions, two types of relays are used:
overvoltage relays and undervoltage relays. These relays typically use a plunger element or
an induction disc element. Their appearance and operation may be similar to the
appearance and operation of an overcurrent relay.
RELAYS
1.5.1 Voltage Relays (continued)

1.5.1 Overvoltage and Undervoltage Relays ands, Plunger Elements

Figure 1.5-1 shows an example of an overvoltage relay that contains a plunger element. Like an
overcurrent relay with a plunger element, this relay has a coil, a movable plunger, fixed contacts,
and moving contacts.

The input for a voltage relay comes from a voltage transformer. When the voltage input to the
relay down in Figure 1.5-1 increases beyond a predetermined value, the magnetic field around
the coil becomes strong enough to attract the plunger into the coil, closing the contacts. The
pick-up voltage is varied by adjusting the position of the plunger.
RELAYS
1-5 Voltage Relays (continued)

An undervoltage relay with a plunger element would look like the overvoltage relay shown in
Figure 1.5-1. However, the plunger in an undervoltage relay is normally raised, as shown in
Figure 1.5-2, and the contacts are arranged so that when the plunger is up, the contacts are
open. When voltage decreases below a predetermined value, the plunger drops, closing the
contacts. The voltage at which the plunger drops out is called the "drop-out" voltage. Drop-out
voltage is adjusted in the same manner as pick-up voltage - by adjusting the position of the
plunger.
 RELAYS
1.5 Voltage Relays (continued)

1.5.2 Overvoltage Relay with an induction Disc Element

Figure 1.5-3 shows an example of an overvoltage relay with an induction disc element. The
main parts of the element include an electromagnet (not visible), a damping magnet, a disc, a
fixed contact, and a moving contact.

When voltage to the relay shown in Figure 1.5-3 exceeds a predetermined value, the disc
turns to close the contacts. The pick-up voltage is adjusted by changing coil taps at a tap
block and by adjusting spring tension. The relay can also be set to trip with various time
delays by adjusting the position of the moving contact.
 RELAYS
1.5 Voltage Relays (continued)

1-5.3 Overvoltage/Undervoltage Relay

The voltage relay shown in Figure 1.5-4 is both an overvoltage relay and an undervoltage
relay. It has two fixed contacts and two moving contacts. When the relay receives final
voltage, the moving contacts are held between the fixed contacts. When an overvoltage
condition exists, the magnetic force of the additional voltage causes the disc to turn in
one direction to close the lower set of contacts.

When an undervoltage condition exists, the force of the restraining spring causes the disc to turn
in the other direction to close the upper set of contacts. Pick-up voltage is adjusted by changing
taps and by adjusting spring tension. There is no time delay adjustment for this relay.
RELAYS
1.5 Voltage Relays (continued)

Questions

1.5-1. Voltage that is higher than normal is called __________________________.

1.5-2. True or False. The function of voltage relays is to protect equipment from abnormal
voltage conditions.

1.5-3. The input for a voltage relay normally comes from a ___________________________.
(magnetic field, voltage transformer)

1.5-4. On an undervoltage relay with a plunger element, the voltage at which the plunger drops
out, closing the contacts, is called the _________________________.

1.5-5. True or False. A voltage relay must be either an overvoltage relay or an undervoltage
relay.
 RELAYS (continued)
1.6 Auxiliary Relay

1.6.1 Function of Auxiliary Relays

Each of the relays discussed so far monitors a condition in a T&D system. When the
condition changes to an undesirable value, the relay operates. In contrast, a auxiliary relay
does not monitor a system computer. Instead, an auxiliary relay operates only when it
receives a signal from a protective relay.

In a sense, the function of an auxiliary relay is to assist a protective relay. For example, the
contacts of many protective relays are not heavy enough to carry the larger currents needed to
trip circuit breakers. So, instead of tripping a circuit breaker, a protective relay may trip an
auxiliary relay that is built to carry and interrupt the tripping currents.

There are many different auxiliary relays that serve many different functions. For example, an
auxiliary relay may have multiple contacts that allow it to receive a signal from one protective
relay and provide signals to several protective relays or circuit breakers. Another type of
auxiliary relay may be used simply as a counter, for example, to count the number of times a
reclosing relay recloses a breaker.
RELAYS
1.6 Auxiliary Relays (continued)

1.6.2 Auxiliary Relay Used to Trip Multiple Breakers

The relay shown in Figure 1.6-1 is an example of an auxiliary relay that is commonly used to trip
many breakers at the same time. For example, when a protective relay needs to isolate a power
transformer, it may send a signal to this auxiliary relay. The auxiliary relay then sends signals to a
number of circuit breakers.
RELAYS
1.6 Auxiliary Relays (continued)

When the relay is cocked to its normal position, several drive springs are compressed. A latch
locks the relay in position with its drive springs compressed and ready to operate. When a
protective relay provides a current signal to the auxiliary relay's coil, the coil produces a magnetic
field that attracts the hinged armature. When the armature pivots, it releases the latch, allowing the
drive springs to operate the relay.

1.6.3 Auxiliary Relay Used to Trip Multiple Overcurrent Relays

The auxiliary relay shown in Figure 1.6-3 is commonly used with a directional relay system. When
a directional relay provides a signal to this auxiliary relay, the auxiliary relay, in turn, provides
signals to three single-phase overcurrent relays.
RELAYS
1.6 Auxiliary Relays (continued)

The relay shown in Figure 1.6-3 has six contacts mounted on a hinged armature. The contacts
can be arranged to be either normally open or annually closed. The contact arrangement that
is used depends on the application of the relay. In Figure 1.6-3, the contacts are arranged so
that three are open and three are closed. When a current is provided to the coil by a protective
relay, the coil produces a magnetic field that attracts the hinged armature. When the armature
pivots, three of the contacts close, and the other three open.

In most cases, auxiliary relays do not have pick-up current or time delay adjustments. The
relay either operates or it does not operate.

Questions
1.6-1. True. or False. An auxiliary relay monitors a system condition.

1.6-2. The general function of on auxiliary relay is to assist a __________________.

1.6-3. An auxiliary relay that is able to receive a signal from one protective relay
and send it to several protective relays or circuit breakers must have multiple
__________________________.

1.6-4. True or False. Auxiliary relays typically do not have pick up current or time
delay adjustments.

1.6-5. True or False. The contacts on some auxiliary relays can be arranged with
some of them normally open and some of them normally closed.
 RELAYS (continued)
1.7 Solid-State Relays

1.7.1 Operating Principles of Solid-State Relays

Solid-state relays are essentially just a different form of electro-mechanical relays, and they perform
any of the same functions. A typical example of a solid-state relay is shown in Figure 1.7-1. This
relay is an overcurrent relay with instantaneous and time delay features.
 RELAYS
1.7 Solid-State Relays (continued)

In general, a solid-state relay has no moving parts. Instead, electronic circuits take the place of moving
electrical and mechanical parts. The design and arrangement of the circuits in a solid-state relay (Figure
1.7-2) determine what function the relay serves, that is, whether it acts as a reclosing relay, an overcurrent
relay, a voltage relay, or any other type of relay.

The operation of a solid-state relay is very different from the operation of an electro-mechanical
relay. Essentially, a solid-state relay receives analog signals. The relay circuits may then convert the
analog signals to digital signals, or compare the analog signals to a preset value. Finally, the relay
processes the information through circuits called logic gates to determine whether a operating signal
should be sent to a device such as a circuit breaker.
RELAYS
1.7 Solid-State Relays (continued)

The analog signal received by a solid-state relay is simply a continuous signal, similar to the same
wave signal (Figure 1.7-3) typically associated with alternating current. Analog signals are the same
kinds of signals that electro-mechanical relays receive, such as current from a current transformer or
voltage from a voltage transformer.
RELAYS
1.7 Relays (continued)

A solid-state relay may either convert the analog signals it receives to digital signals, or it
may compare the analog signals to preset values. Digital signals are on/off signals. They can
be described as a series of electrical pulses (Figure 1.7-4), called information bits. Finally,
the solid-state relay processes the electrical information through logic gates to determine
whether or not a operating signal should be sent out.

1.7.2 Logic Gates

A logic gate is a circuit that is made up of solid-state components such as transistors,

diodes, capacitors, and resistors. These components are typically arranged to act like a
switch that produces an output when certain input conditions are met.
 RELAYS
1.7 Solid-State Relays (continued)

There are many different kinds of logic gates. Two very basic ones are the AND gate and the
OR gate. An AND gate is a logic circuit that will provide a output signal only when input
signals are provided to all of its inputs. Figure 1.7-5 shows the standard symbol for an AND
gate. The inputs to the AND gate are labeled "A" and "B;" and the output is labeled "C."

If a signal is provided only at input "A" or only at input "B;" the AND gate will not provide
an output signal. The AND gate will provide an output signal only when input signals are
present at both "A" and "B."

An OR gate is a logic. circuit that will provide an output signal when an input signal is
provided to any or all of its inputs. The standard symbol far an OR gate is shown in Figure
1.7-6. The inputs are labeled "A" and "B" and the output is labeled "C."

An OR gate provides an output signal any time that it gets an input signal. The input
signal may be provided to "A" only, to "B" only, or to both "A" and "B." The only turned
an OR gate does not provide an output signal is when it receives no input signals.
RELAYS
1.7 Solid-State Relays (continued)

A solid-state relay uses combinations of AND gates, OR gates, and other logic gates not covered
in this training unit to process analog or digital signals to determine whether or not to provide an
operating signal. Depending on which gates are used and how they are arranged, solid-state relays
can duplicate the functions of most electro-mechanical relays.

Question

1.7-1. In a solid-state relay, ____________________ take the place of moving electrical and
mechanical parts.

1.7-2. True or False. The design and arrangement of the circuits in a solid-state relay
determine the relay's function.

1.7-3. Circle the correct answer.

The operation of e solid-state relay may involve
a. Receiving analog signals
b. Converting analog signals to digital signals
c. Comparing analog signals to a preset value
d. All of the above

1.7-4. A series of electrical pulses, or information bits, can be called

_____________________________.
(a digital signal, an analog signals)

1.7-5. Circle the correct answer.

An AND gate provides an output when it receives ________________________input
signals.
a. All possible
b. No
c. At least one
d. None of the above
RELAYS (continued)
Answers

1.1-1. a. Detect
b. Isolate

1.1-2. c
1.1-3. e
1.1-4. f
1.1-5. True

1.2-1 True
1.2-2 e
1.2-3 Pick-up
1.2-4 e
1.2-5 True
1.2-6 a. Tap plug
b. Spring tension adjustment wheel
1.2-7. Moving contact

1.3-1 True
1.3-2 Undesirable
RELAYS
Answers (continued)

1.3-3. False
1.3-4. b
1.3-5. Two
1.3-6. False
1.3-7. a. Directional
b. Overcurrent

1.4-1. The function of a reclosing relay is to reclose a circuit breaker after it has been tripped
open.
1.4-2. False
1.4-3. “Start”
1.4-4. Lobes
1.4-5. True

1.5-1. Overvoltage
1.5-2. True
1.5-3. Voltage transformer
1.5-4. "Dropout" voltage
1.5-5. False
1.6-1. False

1.6-2. Protective relay

1.6-3. Contacts

1.6-4. True

1.6-5. True

1.7-1. Electronic circuits

1.7-2. True

1.7-3. e

1.7-4 A digital signal

1.7-5. a
RELAYS – 1 (continued)
GLOSSARY

This glossary contains terms pertinent to the study of relays. The meanings of the terms are given in that
context.
RELAYS-1
Glossary (continued)

Analog signal - A continuous signal similar to a sine wave signal. The kind
of signal that electromechanical relays receive, such as
current from a current transformer or voltage from a voltage
transformer.

AND gate - A logic circuit that will provide an output signal only when
input signals are provided to all of its inputs.

Auxiliary relay - A type or relay that only operates when it receives signal
from a protective relay.

Digital signals - On/off signals, which can be considered as a series of

electrical pulses, or information bits.

Directional overcurrent relay - Basically, a overcurrent relay unit and a directional relay
unit in a single case.

Directional unit - Part of a directional overcurrent relay that operates when

current flow is in an undesirable direction.

Lockout contacts - Contacts in a reclosing relay that turn the motor off with the
relay in the "lockout" position.

Logic gate - A circuit made up of solid-state components that are typically

arranged to act like a switch that produces an output when
certain input conditions are met.

OR gate - A logic circuit that will provide a output signal when an

input signal is provided to any or all of its inputs.
RELAYS-l
Glossary (continued)

Overcurrent relay - A relay designed to operate when current

higher than desirable in part of a T&D system.

Overvoltage Higher than normal voltage.

Pick-up current - The amount of current needed to reposition a

relay element.

Protective relay - A relay designed to quickly detect and isolate a

fault.

Reclosing relay A relay designed to reclose a circuit breaker

after it has been tripped.

Reset contacts - Contacts in a reclosing relay that turn the

motor off with the relay in the “start” position.

Shading The short-circuiting of a portion of an

electromagnet by metal rings or coils in a
protective relay.

solid-state relay - A relay that consists of electronic circuits

instead of moving electrical and mechanical
parts.

Undervoltage - Lower than normal voltage.

Voltage relay - A relay designed to operate when voltages

higher (Overvoltage) or lower (Undervoltage)
than desirable in part of a T&D system.