Concepts of Graphics and Illustration

Concepts of Graphics and
Illustration
Concepts of Graphics and Illustration
© 2013 Aptech Limited
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means – graphic, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or storing in information retrieval system or sent
or transferred without the prior written permission of copyright owner Aptech Limited.
All trademarks acknowledged.
APTECH LIMITED
Contact E-mail: ov-support@onlinevarsity.com
Edition 1 – 2013
Edition 1 – February 2008
Disclaimer: Arena Multimedia is registered Brand of Aptech Ltd.
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Preface
Preface
Ever since the evolution of Multimedia technologies, graphics and illustrations have been playing a major role in
technical as well as creative world. No wonder if we say that all the elements in multimedia start with at least a
connotation to graphics. With the inventions and advancement of the graphic-based computer applications, new
dimensions are added to graphic creation and enhancements. It is imperative for anyone who is studying graphics to
know the ground rules and concepts of graphics and illustrations. Today graphic applications are used in diversified
industries, such as entertainment, education, business, print, and the web. Since all these areas are growing at the
fast pace, usage of graphics is facing new challenges.
In this book, we will explore the basic concepts of graphics and illustrations along with their applications. The primary
objective of this book is to make students understand what actually graphics and illustration means. The first few
sessions of the book deal with drawing elements, types of drawings, drawing compositions, etc. Knowledge of these
basic concepts will help students to learn drawing right from scratch and master the art. The book covers topics like
color therapy, typography, laws of design, resolution, and the file formats to be used. Additionally, students will also
get an idea about the graphics to be used on the web and the tools and applications used. Last few sessions give
a brief about illustration, its purpose, and types of illustrations. The book also discuss different tools and softwares
that are widely used for creating illustrations.
The ARENA Design team has designed this courseware by keeping in mind that motivation coupled with relevant
training and methodology can bring out the best. The team will be glad to receive your feedback, suggestions, and
recommendations for improvement of the book.
ARENA Design Team
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Session 1: Drawing. .................................................................................................................. 01

Elements of Drawing...........................................................................................................................................02
Creating Drawings...............................................................................................................................................22
Types of Drawings ..............................................................................................................................................25
Drawing Composition.......................................................................................................................................... 28
Perspective and Multiview Drawing.................................................................................................................... 32
Summary............................................................................................................................................................. 34
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................35
Session 2: Color Theory ............................................................................................................ 37

Introduction to Color Wheel.................................................................................................................................38
The Color Concepts............................................................................................................................................39
Hue, Saturation, Value........................................................................................................................................43
Transparent and Opaque Colors.........................................................................................................................45
Color Models.......................................................................................................................................................45
Indexed Color...................................................................................................................................................... 47
True Color........................................................................................................................................................... 47
Summary.............................................................................................................................................................49
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................50
Session 3: Typography. ............................................................................................................. 51

Typeface and Fonts.............................................................................................................................................54
Font Family......................................................................................................................................................... 56
Font Styles and Formatting.................................................................................................................................59
Typographical Oriented Design.......................................................................................................................... 62
Summary............................................................................................................................................................ 64
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................65
Session 4: Laws of Design. ........................................................................................................ 67

The Law of Balance............................................................................................................................................. 67
The Law of Rhythm............................................................................................................................................. 71
The Law of Emphasis......................................................................................................................................... 72
The Law of Unity.................................................................................................................................................. 73
The Law of Proportion........................................................................................................................................ 74

The law of Simplicity........................................................................................................................................... 75
Summary.............................................................................................................................................................77
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................78

Session 5: Resolution and File Formats ...................................................................................... 79
Image Resolution................................................................................................................................................ 79
Device Resolution...............................................................................................................................................80
Printer Resolution................................................................................................................................................80
Interpolated Resolution.......................................................................................................................................82
Digital Image.......................................................................................................................................................84
File Size and Bit Depth....................................................................................................................................... 84
Scanning Images.................................................................................................................................................85
Graphics File Format.......................................................................................................................................... 86
Understanding Graphic Images...........................................................................................................................90
Summary............................................................................................................................................................. 96
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................97
Session 6: Understanding and Working with Graphics and Web Images . ........................................ 99
Types of Graphic Program...................................................................................................................................99
Features of Graphics Programs.......................................................................................................................... 105
File Formats for the Web.................................................................................................................................... 108
Colors and Text for the Web............................................................................................................................... 109
Summary............................................................................................................................................................. 111
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................112
Session 7: Illustration and Softwares .......................................................................................... 113

History..................................................................................................................................................................114
Illustration Today..................................................................................................................................................116
Function...............................................................................................................................................................116
Illustrator..............................................................................................................................................................116
Types of Illustration..............................................................................................................................................118
Illustration Programs...........................................................................................................................................124
Summary.............................................................................................................................................................126
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................127
Session 8: Illustration Tools and Techniques ............................................................................... 129

Tools................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Techniques......................................................................................................................................................... 136
Summary.............................................................................................................................................................145
Exercise...............................................................................................................................................................146
Glossary. ................................................................................................................................. 147

Colored Section........................................................................................................................ 157
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Table of Contents
Iconography
: Answers to Quick Tests
: Note
: Important / Tip
: Answers of Exercise
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Drawing
Session 1: Drawing
Learning Outcomes
In this session, you will learn to -
● Define the concept of drawing
● Define and discuss the basic elements of drawing
● Discuss the various perspectives that come into play when creating drawings
● Discuss the different types of drawings
● Define and discuss how artistic compositions are created
● Define and discuss perspective and multi-view drawing
Figure 1.1: Pencil drawing
Infants start drawing much before writing. No one needs to teach them. Similarly, all human beings, at some point
in their lives, get an urge to draw something. It is the simplest form of expression. Drawing is a mark. It can also be
likened to leaving a trail on a surface.
To define the term ‘drawing’ in simple terms is not an easy task. It includes everything ranging from making strokes
and marks on any suitable surface, to communicating and suggesting ideas and information. Refer figure 1.1.
“Drawing can be defined as an art and design activity that is concerned with visual recording of observations.”
It expresses concepts and feelings in visual terms and explains complex ideas to other people. It is a method of
contact between the artist and the observer.

Drawing can be a wonderful tool for creativity. Drawing requires some basic skills that can be acquired. Some of
the skills or abilities are as follows:
● Identifying the edges
● Recognizing the spaces
● Calculating proportions and angles
● Judging light from shadow
● The unconscious skill of putting it all together
Now, you shall go through various elements and terms related to drawing that are very important for the foundation
of any drawing.
1.1 Elements of Drawing

Elements are actually the basics of drawing that are very essential to know. The various elements of drawing are
as follows:
● Point
● Line
● Shapes
● Tones and Shadow
● Plane
● Texture
● Color
● Mass
● Space
Now, examine these elements in detail to get a better understanding of these concepts.
1.1.1 Points
Figure 1.2: A point
The first and most important element of a drawing is a point. A point is an exact location in a plane. It is nothing but
a dot, and is the simplest of all the elements. A point is where a drawing and writing start. Refer figure 1.2.
“Every drawing begins with a point. It is the most preliminary aspect of any pictorial and graphic
representation. Points can be employed in several ways, for instance, they can project expressions.”

Drawing
Figure 1.3: Using points to convey an expression
A point always conveys a sense of assurance through its fixed position. It is a primary mark in contact of the artist’s
tool. Refer figure 1.3, where a point is appropriately used to project expressions.
■ Points in Combination
“A repetitive sequence of points can be constructed. This gives the impression of continuity and
eye movement is induced in the direction of the sequence. This reflects how points in combination can
be applied”.
Figure 1.4: Depicting points in combination
If the point is repeated in an orderly manner it creates tension and affects the movement. Refer to figure 1.4
and move your eyes from the left to the right. You actually transform the point of focus into a point of departure
and induce your eyes to jump along with it in a succession of repetitions from one side to another, up and down,
and at an angle.
Figure 1.5: Points in various forms
The ideal shape of a point is a circle. It can also be in the form of a square or a triangle. It can be sharp, large,
or small. Some of the different forms of points are shown in figure 1.5.
■ Points in Works of Art
“Points have aesthetic value. They can be used very effectively in creative art by way of applying
shades and tones. Points have a great deal of creative utility.”

Figure 1.6: Points used to give shading and toning
Points are also used in drawings to give shadow and shading effects. This method of using points is known
as, Stippling.
In figure 1.6 you will notice how points have been used to fine-tune some areas by slowly darkening and
balancing them with one another. A delicate balance had been found between these areas because, if the
background were too dark, it would overpower the shadow.
“Proper placement of points is very essential. They can be prominent and command attention
when located at ideal spots. Location plays an important role.”
Figure 1.7: Indicating point as a center of focus
Points give a center of focus to pictures. As you look at figure 1.7, the attention immediately goes to the center of
the illustration.
1.1.2 Line
“Lines are elementary in all sorts of geometric constructions. They have vast applicability and are
easy to implement.”
Figure 1.8: A line
Although a point is the simplest element to understand, the line is the easiest to follow. Lines are elementary for
all visual arts. Drawing is more or less based on the usage of line. The usual meaning of a line is that it represents
edge.
“Line is a thread-like marking”, refer figure 1.8. The Swiss artist Paul Klee defined line “as a dot out for a walk”. Lines
can be loose, free, straight or sharp as shown in figure 1.9.

Drawing
“Lines can take several forms.”
Figure 1.9: Different types of lines
A line may have different weights (thickness), sizes (lengths), and characteristics.
■ Styles of Lines
Style is the visual end result of a technique or an application of art medium.
There are different types of lines like:

● Normal Line
● Dot Dash Line
● Irregular Dot Dash Line
● Saw Blade Line
● Horizontal Lines
● Vertical Lines
● Crosshatching
● Hard Edge Graphic
● Mechanical Style
● Silhouette
These types of lines can be used in drawings to create various styles in art. A line can be used in a drawing
depending on the artist’s creativity. You can employ these styles according to your interest and liking.
The various styles of lines are explained as follows:

● Normal Line
A normal line is one that is normally drawn without any break or additional technique as shown in figure
1.10.

Figure 1.10: A normal line
Observe figure 1.11 that shows how a normal line can be used in a drawing.
“The normal line can be used for simple construction. It can be used without bothering to
adhere to any particular rule or technique.”

Figure 1.11: Example of a drawing created by using normal line

● Dot Dash Line
A dot dash line is made up of a series of unconnected dots and dashes. The illustration shown in figure 1.12
makes it clear as to what a dot dash line actually is.

Figure 1.12: Displaying a dot dash line
In dot dash line style, the illustration is composed of a series of random dots and dashes, which are
unconnected lines, rather than a complete or continual line. This style is used in cartoons and is more
effective with a broad or heavy line. Refer figure 1.13.
“The dot dash line is a series of unconnected lines made up of random dots that are effective
in constructing cartoons. This is a variation of the line which is very effective for constructing
sketches.”
Figure 1.13: Drawing made by using dot dash lines

● Irregular Dot Dash Line
This line is a variation of the dot dash line. It is composed of a series of unconnected dots and longer

Drawing
dashes visually tied together to form a recognizable shape.
The illustration given in figure 1.14 portrays a clear idea of an irregular dot dash line.
Figure 1.14: Displaying an irregular dot dash line
This style is also used in cartooning but is best rendered in thin, and lighter-weight lines. Refer figure
1.15.
“An irregular dot dash line is applied in cartooning where thin lines are to be used.”
Figure 1.15: Displaying a drawing using irregular dot dash line

● Saw Blade Line
The saw blade line contains the toothed edge of a saw blade. The illustration given in figure 1.16 is of a
saw blade line.
Figure 1.16: Displaying a saw blade line
The distance of the acute angles are equally spaced through the drawing. This style works best with simple
detailed drawings with a thinner line. Refer figure 1.17.
“A saw blade line has an edge like that of a saw with a toothed edge. It is immensely helpful
in constructing simple detailed drawings.”

Figure 1.17: Example of a drawing created using saw blade lines
Figure 1.18: Practice
Try it out !!!

Employ normal lines, dot dash lines, irregular dot dash lines, and saw blade lines on figure 1.18.
● Horizontal Line
The entire drawing, the shape, form and tone displayed in figure 1.19 is composed of horizontal lines.
Closer the lines, darker will be the tone in the area.
“A fascinating feature of drawing is that entire pictures can be created with lines. Horizontal
lines can create pictures. When the lines are close to each other, the area will appear dark.”

Drawing
Figure 1.19: Drawing made using horizontal lines

● Vertical Line
This style is composed in the same manner as the horizontal line style, but in the opposite direction. Every
line in this style is drawn vertically as shown in figure 1.20.
“Vertical lines too can be used to construct entire pictures. Such drawings have lines in
vertical mode.”
Figure 1.20: Drawing made using vertical lines

Try it out !!!

● Draw the apple given in figure 1.21 using vertical lines and horizontal lines.
● The entire shape, form and tone should be made of vertical lines or horizontal lines
respectively.
● Crosshatching
Crosshatching is the crisscrossing of lines to build shading or add tonal values and texture to a drawing. It
is composed of lateral and diagonal lines, which will render a variety of tone darkness. Refer figure 1.22.
“Lines can be twisted to good effect as in crosshatching. Diagonal and lateral lines can be
applied to give the effect of shading and tones.”
Figure 1.22: Drawing created by using crisscross lines
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Drawing
Try it out !!!

● Observe the left-hand side images in figure 1.23.
● Notice how lines have been used in each image to create crosshatching.
● Now try to fill the images on the right-hand side with crosshatching by referring to the left-hand
side images.
● Hard Edge Graphic
As the name suggests, this simplified, stylized graphic representation has an ultra hard edge.
“Hard edges signify prominence. Such thick lines stand out in a graphic and can be used for
advertisements.”
Figure 1.24: Drawing indicating the use of hard edge graphic
The bold, wider line always maintains the same thickness throughout the drawing. Refer figure 1.24. Some
of the uses of this style include, logo designs, decorative and spot designs on book covers, advertising and
to display advertisements, game boards and stickers.
● Mechanical Style
This style is a form of drafting, and usually rendered in a technical manner as shown in figure 1.25. The
mechanical style is mostly employed commercially in blue-prints, product design, assembly procedures,
and drafting.
“Technical drawings explaining procedures are mechanical drawings. They are mostly
drawings depicting procedures as in blue-prints.”

Figure 1.25: Example of a mechanical drawing (Refer to the colored section of the colored image)
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● Silhouette
Silhouette is a dark shadow area that is first outlined and then completely filled. Any recognizable figure,
object or shape can be made into a silhouette. It is used mainly to show shadow images. For example, an
object in front of a source of light can be drawn using silhouette as shown in figure 1.26.
“Outline figures filled with shadows are silhouettes. Say for instance, the sketch of a sports
person in action can be filled out in dark shade to create a silhouette.”
Figure 1.26: Depicting a silhouette drawing

■ Utilities of Line
A line has two primary utilities as far as art is concerned. These are:
● The Concept of Contour
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Drawing
“Contours define edges. It is a line indicating a boundary.”
Figure 1.27: Displaying contour
A contour is a line that defines or bounds anything in terms of defining its edge. Most lines in art are
contours as depicted in the figure 1.27.
● The Phenomenon of Dividing Space
“Lines can divide space. A drawing such as a square, rectangle, plane and triangle can be
easily divided by a line to effect space.”
Figure 1.28: Demonstrating a line dividing space
A line can be used to define the edge of space as well as the edge of an object. The line that forms the
rectangle to the right separates that shape from the rest of the page. It divides the rectangle into two parts
as shown in figure 1.28.
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■ Usage of Line
“Lines of different strengths can be applied according to the requirement.”
Figure 1.29: Different variations of pressure applied on lines
Variation in pressure can be applied for creating lines of differing strength and intensity as illustrated in figure
1.29.
Figure 1.30: Lines reflecting three dimensional forms, tone, texture, and surface qualities of objects
● Lines can reflect three-dimensional forms, tone, texture, and surface characteristics of objects as seen in
figure 1.30.

Figure 1.31: Employing lines for outlining drawings

● Lines are useful to sketch the outlines of a drawing and can serve as a guideline for any composition as
shown in figure 1.31.
1.1.3 Shapes
“There are several possibilities when creating shapes. Shapes can vary from ordinary objects to
geographical drawings such as the sun, the moon, and the solar system to architectural structures like
buildings.”
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Drawing
Figure 1.32: Displaying different types of shapes
Shape refers to an area of a real or imaginary object that is defined and determined by other elements such as
value, line, color, texture, and space. Refer figure 1.32. A circle, a square, and a triangle are the three basic shapes
in nature. Everything is made up of these three shapes or their variations. Circles can be seen in faces, sun, moon,
balls, tires, fruit, vegetables, and many more objects. The same goes for the other shapes. Buildings, appliances,
computers, and everything around us. You can come up with examples of many other things that have these
shapes. Drawing is basically just putting these objects together in a way that makes sense.
Each of these shapes has a psychological meaning associated with it. The triangle depicts conflict or action. The
circle emanates a feeling of protection or infinity. Square stands for honesty and equality.
How Basic Shapes Can be Used to Create an Illustration
In the example given in figure 1.33 and figure 1.34, you can see the way in which the shape of a fish is rendered,
before the final illustration.
Figure 1.33: Basic shapes used to create an illustration of a fish Figure 1.34: Final illustration of the fish
Try it out !!!
A car is made up of rectangles, triangles, and circles. In figure 1.35 of an automobile, the basic shapes are easy
to see.
● Go ahead and try this exercise by yourself.
● You will see how easy it is to use basic shapes as a skeleton or frame to build your drawing on.
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Try it out !!!
Discover your own way of building a skeleton or frame. You may not require to use as many shapes as another
person. On the other hand, you may need more time. The lines drawn in figure 1.36 are dark only for depiction
purposes. Normally, baseline drawing is sketched with a very light hand. It should disappear as you complete the
drawing over it.
■ The Concepts of Shapes
Figure 1.37: Depicting positive and negative shapes

● When lines are enclosed, they create shapes. There are basically two types of shapes that are created by
this method. These two shapes can be referred to as occupied and unoccupied areas of a design.
● A shape that is inherent within the line is called a positive shape. A shape that ends with the boundary of
the design is referred to as a negative shape as shown in figure 1.37.
● Shapes can be representational, expressive or abstract. Abstract shapes can be in the form of geometric,
irregular or organic shapes. An organic shape is composed of curvilinear lines, which suggest movement and
growth. Irregular shapes, unlike geometric shapes, are not confined to any mathematical calculations..
● Shapes can also appear transparent, solid, opaque or textured and they can be sharply defined or elusive.
They can also vary in size, complexity and placement, and this, in turn, decides the overall appearance of
the artwork.
■ Construction of Basic Shapes
Shapes can be symmetrical, meaning equally balanced on both sides of the center, or have something added
on them such as a handle. A central guideline is deployed in shapes to ensure that the shape is balanced on
both sides.
1.1.4 Tone and Shadow

Shadow and tone are the methods used to trick the brain into perceiving a two-dimensional object as a three-
dimensional one. The following examples are a comparison of the same objects before and after shading and after
adding some drawing techniques. Some other changes such as change in size and positions were also done to
create a more interesting display.
“Tones and shadows can create illusion of shape.”
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Drawing
Figure 1.38: Two-dimensional objects
By adding some tone or shading to the illustration in figure 1.38, you can give the objects the illusion of shape. The
rendering of texture, tone and shadow will improve your drawing ability and make your subject more interesting as
Figure 1.39: Objects with tone and shadow

You will now see how shadow and tone can be given to a square.
● First decide the light source. It should be located at the upper left of the drawing and is assumed to be
behind the cube.
● Just add a few straight lines to the front left side of the cube to begin the work. Refer figure 1.40.
Figure 1.40: Square with few straight lines

● Then add texture and color to the back of the cube. The straight lines are used on the front of the cube and
diagonal lines on the farthest side of the box away from the light source. Notice that the corners of the cube
are dark, as seen in figure 1.41.
Figure 1.41: Square with dark tone

● Begin to add some shadow. Lay down more pencil to the cube and the flat plane to suggest a three-
dimensional box. Refer figure 1.42.
Figure 1.42: Square after adding shadow

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● Add more diagonal lines to the cube and more pressure at the corners for stronger tone. The shadow
should be strong near the cube and weak as it fades away. Leave a lighter tone in the center of the back
panel of the cube to allow light to be reflected as shown in figure 1.43.
Figure 1.43: Square with tone and shadow
Try it out !!!
Now go ahead and try all the different shapes given in figure 1.44. Experiment with and vary them into rectangles,
cones, pyramids, and whatever other shapes you can imagine.
1.1.5 Plane
Figure 1.45: A plane
While dabbling with the art of lettering, one should give more attention to the employment of background spaces.
Such spaces are two-dimensional. These kind of spaces possess height and weight or length and breadth but not
depth. They comprise a plane, having flat surface as shown in figure 1.45. Such surfaces may be parallel. Just as
a point has position and line has direction, a plane has extension because it covers an area in any direction. For
example, if you are looking at a page, then it is a plane without depth. A plane has extension because it covers an
area in any direction. It may be at a right angle or diagonal to the observer.
ithout a plane, an artist cannot work. A plane provides the artist with a platform for simplifying, organizing and
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intensifying his or her effects.
1.1.6 Texture
Texture refers to the surface quality of an actual or represented substance. There are two kinds of textures as
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Drawing
Figure 1.46: Visual texture in a fabric inspired from the tactile texture of a Zebra
● Tactile Texture: Tactile means touch. It refers to the actual (3D) feel of a surface.
● Visual Illusion: Visual texture refers to the illusion of the surface texture. It is what tactile texture looks like
on a 2D surface. All surfaces have textures. Textures make an image rich and more interesting.
“Texture signifies the outer surface of any given substance. It can be experienced in the form of
touch and sight.”
Figure 1.47: Displaying the appearance of textures
The figure 1.47 shows some textures. When these textures are applied to an image they would appear as
in figure 1.48.
Figure 1.48: An image after applying textures

■ The Concept of Pattern
“Repetitive designs form patterns. They project different facets such as modifying the color and
make the material more noticeable.”
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Figure 1.49: Images depicting a pattern
Pattern is a trait that requires repetition of designs. The more regular the repetition, the stronger is the pattern.
Refer figure 1.49. Patterns modify the color or light emission of a material. Patterns are generally more
noticeable than textures.
Try it out !!!
Use the pattern given on the right to decorate the invitation card shown in figure 1.50.

1.1.7 Color
“Color is the lifeline of many creations. It compels attention from the viewer because of its psychological
and emotional appeal.”
Figure 1.51: Displaying color

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Drawing
Color has a strong emotional and psychological impact on the viewer. When color is used in a layout, that part of
the layout attracts attention. It adds interest and reduces boredom. Yellow, orange, and red are considered warm
colors whereas blue, green, and violet are regarded as cool colors. In the following session, you will learn about
colors to a great length.
1.1.8 Mass
“Mass refers to substance and matter. It can be a powerful visual tool.”
Painting and graphic arts are two-dimensional possessing height and width, while other visual arts are three-
dimensional having depth as well. They utilize an element, which painting can possess only by illusion, that is the
element of mass, which consists in the bulk or quantity of matter.
1.1.9 Space
In a surplus room, you tend to ignore the space left after materials occupy the required space. But, space in which
you live, move about, and breathe is just as important as any other living matter. The open space that has the
potential to be occupied, must be considered as another kind of volume, important to art.
Space fits into any 3-D work as a negative area entering the structure of a 2-D work. Any space not occupied
by mass should be regarded likewise as negative space. Space stretches in the tension between one line and
another.
The surface of your drawing contains a distinction between shapes, in the form of positive and negative space.
Positive space refers to the shape of the object drawn. Negative space describes the area surrounding the positive
shapes.
Human eyes are trained to seek out positive shapes such as recognizing a chair or a coffee cup. In order to
successfully master the skill of drawing, an artist has to get rid of this habit and not only look at positive shapes,
but the negative space that surrounds them as well. All shapes, both positive and negative are equally important.
Together they provide a composition with unity.
Two-dimensional design is concerned with flat space, where the design takes place and relates to the illusion of
three-dimensional space. The important methods of controlling the illusion of space are as follows:
● Overlap: It signifies space whereby objects are located in front of another.
● Shading: It signifies space whereby modeling is done with light and dark shades.
● Linear Perspective: This implies the relationship between apparent size and space.
● Atmospheric Perspective: This demonstrates how atmosphere affects the appearance of objects in
space.
The following example can clarify the terms of positive and negative space.
Figure 1.52: Example of positive and negative space
Positive shape is the shape inside the outline while negative shape is the area outside it.
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In figure 1.52, the two objects are joined to create a composite shape (a single form). The two objects are overlapped
in one or more areas to achieve enclosed positive and negative shapes.
Now after understanding about the different elements of drawing, you will know the ways of creating drawing.
1.2 Creating Drawing

There are mainly three perspectives for creating drawings. They are, drawing from observation, drawing from
imagination and drawing from memory.
1.2.1 Drawing from Observation
“A keen observation aids drawing. One can observe the surrounding environment, take inspiration
from it and draw the objects in sight.”
Figure 1.53: An image depicting a drawing from observation
Observation is the mental reaction to different things that you see around.
For example, when you observe the things around you, like books, stationery, household items, or furnishings, you
interpret them accordingly and they come out in the form of works of art or designs when translated on paper or
through any other medium.
These drawings are generally done on the spot without any time delay, as the artist who draws will need to observe
and draw simultaneously. For instance, when you watch the sunrise and sketch the same, it is called observation
drawing.
Such drawings are informative and contain a record of the facts. The process of observation can be carried further
to obtain a detailed analysis for producing non-objective or abstract art. The process of observation is reflected in
drawings as is visible in the figure 1.53.
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Drawing
Try it out !!!

● Draw a simple cup and saucer by observing the image given in figure 1.54.
● Before you start drawing, take a good look at it and find a perfect starting place.
In the cup and saucer shown in figure 1.54, a good starting place might be the rounded bottom edge of the cup,
where it meets the saucer.
By observing the figure 1.55, you can analyze that it needs two straight vertical lines that go straight up on either
side to form the sides of the cup.
Figure 1.55: An image depicting cup and saucer
It is better to get the basic shapes first. As you can see in figure 1.56, there are two strong repeating shapes namely
the oval of the cup’s rim and the oval of the saucer.
Figure 1.56: Ovals used to draw a cup
These are ovals because your eyes say they are. If you listen to your brain, you would be drawing circles. And the
resulting drawing, wouldn’t have the realistic look you are trying to achieve here.
Figure 1.57: Usage of lines and shapes to draw cup and saucer
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Now go ahead and draw the cup and saucer; begin from the starting point and then build it from there, constantly
evaluating the relationships of lines and shapes as you see them in figure 1.57.
When you are finished, take the completed picture and compare it to the one drawn at the very beginning. You can
see the progress.
1.2.2 Drawing from Imagination
“A vivid imagination can lead to the creation of marvelous drawings. This is basically a figment of the
artist’s fantasies brought to the canvas.”
Imagination is a way of thinking. Drawing from imagination includes fantasies as well as unreal happenings. Hence,
these drawings will look very appealing to the human mind. For example, a drawing of a fish flying in the sky depicts
the imagination of the artist.
Try it out !!!
Draw a picture of an angry sea or a noisy city. The lines you draw should help to express the mood of your
picture.
1.2.3 Drawing from Memory
“Retaining scenes, events and objects in memory can help produce them in the form of drawings.”
Figure 1.58: An artist memorizes the objects located around him or her and creates a work of art from
memory
All drawings are memory drawings. Because, from the time you look at any model and start drawing it, you are
memorizing what you have just seen. The artist memorizes the image and puts his work on paper or any other
medium of drawing. For instance, when you memorize the scene of a railway station and sketch it on paper, you
create memory drawing. These drawings relate to both, observation and imagination drawings. Refer figure 1.58.
24
Drawing
Try it out !!!

● Examine an object for one minute.
● Put the object away.
● Then draw a picture of what you remember about it.
Merely creating a drawing will not make a drawing perfect. A drawing may look good to the artist who has drawn it
but it may not be so attractive to the viewer. The artist also has to decide how to present the drawing. Now, learn
how to present these drawings.
1.3 Types of Drawing

Drawings are mainly of three types:
● Objective Drawing
● Subjective Drawing
● Abstract Drawing
1.3.1 Objective Drawing

These drawings depict things that resemble real life and concrete objects. Some instances are, still-life images,
interiors, or portraits. For example, jugs or pots that you use at home. When the actual form of these objects is put
on paper, it is called still-life drawing. Refer figure 1.59.
“Objective drawing projects real objects. It represents the actual concrete object as seen by the
artist. A portrait is an instance of this type.”
Figure 1.59: The images depict an artist’s perception of real life objects
25
Try it out !!!
Sketch a still-life drawing of the image given in figure 1.60.
1.3.2 Subjective Drawing

This type of drawing expresses your feelings or ideas about something through your work of art. It acts as an
interface between the feelings of the artist and those of the viewers.
For example, cartoons are a type of subjective drawing, which are humorous sketches with some meaning. Take for
instance, the cartoons which you see everyday in newspapers express the feelings of an artist towards a particular
situation but, with a humorous touch to it. Refer figures 1.61, 1.62 and 1.63.
“Subjective drawing reflects feelings. They project the artist’s own thinking of any particular subject
or topic. They can contain a message as in a cartoon.”

Figure 1.61: Cartoons conveying some message with the help of humor
26
Drawing
Figure 1.62: One of the popular newspaper cartoons done by R.K.Laxman which conveys real-life facts
through humor
Figure 1.63: Showing emotions in cartoons by changing the shape of the eyes, eyebrows and mouth
Other examples of subjective drawing are Logos and symbols, which are items or objects that already have a name
and represent something significant.
1.3.3 Abstract Drawing

An abstract illustration does not attempt realism, but renders the drawing using a particular style and with greater
simplicity. Therefore, it is also known as a stylized drawing.
Take a look at the abstract drawing displayed in figure 1.64. It is made of abstract things that are unreal but,
presented with a style. These drawings are mostly based on fantasies.
“Abstract drawings give style to an unreal environment by depicting it as pictures. Abstract art, as it
is popularly known, is mostly based on the artists’ fantasies.”
27
Figure 1.64: Depiction of abstract drawing of geometrical shapes
1.4 Drawing Composition

The term composition in art refers to the design and planning and/or arrangement of form and/or color, in two or
three-dimensional work. Design/composition is one of the formal elements used in art, along with space, color, tone
(light and dark), and other elements.
An arrangement of placing or putting design elements together is called composition. Composition creates illusion
of depth, space and adds interest to the drawing.
“Appropriate composition in a work of art ensures that different elements such as space, color, and
tone have been balanced properly.”
1.4.1 Depth Cues

Depth cues are a very important concept of drawing composition. 3D objects must be represented on flat surfaces.
To visualize and represent the depth of an object, you need to utilize depth perception cues in drawings. Depth
cues give the illusion of depth in a drawing. Some of the perceptual cues that give rise to the impression of depth
include:
● Interposition
● Relative Height
● Relative Size
● Texture Gradient
■ Interposition
Interposition is the partial blocking of a more distant object by a nearer object. In figure 1.65, the two triangles
appear at different depths because one is partially obscured by the other. Actually, both triangles are at the
same distance (the distance of the screen from your eyes). Interposition (overlap, occlusion or superposition)
causes the sense of depth to arise.
The example in figure 1.66 shows that although the three shapes are actually at the same distance, they seem
to appear at different depths due to interposition.
28
Drawing
“The Concept of Interposition”
Figure 1.65: Displaying interposition Figure 1.66: Examples depicting interposition
Try it out !!!
Using the shapes given in figure 1.67, employ interposition to show depth in these shapes.
■ Relative Height
Another pictorial cue to depth is the relative height of objects in the drawing. An object close to the viewer will
be at the bottom of the drawing, an object at a distance will be near the middle of the drawing, and objects will
be ever higher as they are more distant. This cue can lead to a powerful sense of depth. Refer figure 1.68.
29
“The Concept of Relative Height”

Figure 1.68: Depicting relative height as a powerful pictorial cue for depth

Try it out !!!
Employ the depth cues of relative height in figure 1.69.
■ Relative Size
Another pictorial cue to depth is the relative size of objects in the drawing. Objects are drawn smaller as they
move further away from the viewer. Refer figure 1.70.

30
Drawing
Figure 1.70: Depicting relative size
Try it out !!!
Employ the concept of relative size in the image displayed in figure 1.71.
■ Texture Gradient
Most surfaces such as walls, roads, and fields like a field of flowers in bloom have a texture. As the surface
gets farther away from us, this texture gets finer and appears smoother. The figure 1.72 attempts to illustrate
texture gradient using circles. At each level, as the circles get smaller, you get the impression that the circles
are moving farther away.
“The Concept of Texture Gradient”
Figure 1.72: Texture gradient
31
Try it out !!!
Employ the object given in figure 1.73 and create an illusion that the objects are moving farther away by using
the concept of texture gradient.
1.5 Perspective, Multiview Drawings, and Forms

■ Perspective Drawing
“Distance is expressed in perspective drawings. Such drawings are mostly employed by

professionals such as architects and commercial artists to project their concepts.”
Figure 1.74: An image depicting a perspective drawing
A drawing system where the viewer is a finite distance away from the projectors, results in projectors converging
upon the viewer and from the object to the horizon line. It is most realistic, as the eye perceives it. Some artists
like Da Vinci and Alberti used perspective drawings extensively. Perspective projection is primarily employed
by architects and commercial artists to describe the external appearance of an object. Refer figure 1.74.
■ Multiview Drawing
A multiview drawing shows the shape of an object from two or more directions. Each view is arranged at a 90°
angle to the adjacent view and provides the true shape of horizontal or vertical surfaces. The main purpose is
to obtain views of an object on which true measurements can be made. Therefore, the front face is oriented
parallel to the projection plane, so that the established view shows the true width and height of the object. Refer
figure 1.75.
32
Drawing
Figure 1.75: An image depicting the front, side, and top view of the object
A surface that appears in its true shape in one view will appear as a line or an edge view or an adjacent view.
This relationship of views arranged at 90° to each other is called Orthographic Projection. Basically, this means
that a line, corner, edge or surface in one view should line up or project to a line, corner, edge, or surface in
the adjacent view.
■ Form
“Form signifies appearance”
Form is the physical appearance of a work of art including its material, style and composition. It is basically any
identifiable shape or mass.
33
1.6 Summary
● In simple terms, drawing is an art of image making.
● Drawing has three categories: drawing from observation, drawing from imagination, and drawing from
memory.
● Drawings can be objective, subjective or abstract.
● The drawing elements are point, line, plane, texture, color, mass, and space.
● To visualize and represent the depth of an object, you need to utilize depth perception cues in drawings.
● Perspective drawing system is where the viewer is a finite distance away from the projectors, resulting in
projectors that converge to the viewer, and from the object to the horizon line.
● A multiview drawing shows the shape of an object from two or more directions.
● Speculative drawings are acts of investigation made for the edification of the designer.
● Drawing composition is a process of creating a drawing sheet and attaching views of your model as
reference files.
● A presentation sketch or drawing is used to illustrate and communicate the designer or architect’s solution
to the client’s design problem.
34
Drawing
1.7 Exercise
1. O
bserve some images around you such as water glass, telephone, book, pen, and draw these on a paper
measuring 10x7 inches.
2. Construct an imaginative abstract drawing on any one of the subjects given below:
a. A dog driving a car
b. A man flying in the sky
3. Create a memory drawing of the market place in your area on a piece of paper.
4. Construct an abstract drawing of any two unreal things.
5. M
ake a subjective graphic design of a logo for an advertising company specializing in creating company logos
and symbols.
6. Employ all types of lines to sketch an image.
35
Color Theory
Session 2: Color Theory
Learning Outcomes
In this session, you will learn to-
● Define color theory
● Describe the color wheel
● Describe the basic color concepts
● Discuss hue, saturation, and value
● Define transparent and opaque colors
● Examine the various color models
● Define indexed color
● Define true color
“Color compels attention.”

Figure 2.1: Chameleon, known for changing colors

(Refer to the colored section for the colored image)
After learning about drawing, you will now start with 32 colors and their formation.
As a well known fact, color is the component that makes objects appealing, attractive and gives pleasure to the
observer.
There are about 8,000 different colors that exist with different derivatives.
Color is actually an aspect of vision. The color seen by you is transmitted to the brain through the nervous system.
However, each individual elicits a different response to this information and experiences varying emotions and
influences.
A visualizer, illustrator or an artist, may use colors to design or draw, for any one or a combination of the following
reasons:
1. For the purpose of creating an atmosphere or mood.
2. For attracting the attention of the viewer to an image or drawing.
37
3. For attracting the attention of the viewer to a special feature in the picture.
4. For presenting the drawing or the illustration in a more realistic or lifelike manner.
2.1 Introduction to the Color Wheel
“Everything you ever wanted to know about color is indicated in the color wheel. It signifies the
relationship of colors with each other and presents the primary, secondary and complementary colors. It
is effectively an array of colors.”
Figure 2.2: A color wheel indicates a wide spectrum of colors

A color wheel is a chart depicting a combination of colors. Refer figure 2.2. To understand and explore the universe
of colors it is important to understand the color wheel. The color wheel is a simple device for understanding colors
in relation to one another. A color circle based on red, yellow, green, and blue is traditional in the field of art. Sir
Isaac Newton developed the first circular diagram of colors in 1666. Since then, scientists and artists have studied
and designed numerous variations of this concept. There are different classifications such as, secondary colors that
can be obtained by mixing primary colors. Complementary colors and warm/cool colors can be appreciated by just
glancing at the color wheel. The image in figure 2.3 represents a work of art that involves the principle of the color
wheel.
38
Color Theory
Figure 2.3: Representing a work of art created using the principle of color wheel
(Refer to the colored section for the colored image)�
2.2 The Color Concepts

In human beings, color is perceived through three cones of the retina in the eye. These cones are sensitive to the
wavelength of the color. This information of color, as perceived by the eye is then sent to the brain through the
nervous system. Once processed by the brain, it then, allows one to see the full color spectrum.
The different kinds of colors are as follows:
2.2.1 Primary Colors
Figure 2.4: Representative diagram displaying primary colors

Red, yellow, and blue are the primary colors. Refer figure 2.4. They are also called basic colors because all other
colors are obtained by mixing these elementary colors. However, these are the primary colors of pigment, or paint
and crayon. The primary colors of light are red, green, and blue, commonly referred to as RGB. The pigment color
system does not apply to computer monitors because colors are created on monitors by adding light.
39
2.2.2 Secondary Colors

Figure 2.5: Representative diagram displaying secondary colors

The color obtained from the mixture of primary colors is termed as secondary color. You can mix yellow and red
to get orange, blue and yellow to get green, and violet can be derived by mixing red and blue. Refer figure 2.5.
Secondary colors depend on the proportion of primary colors used in the mixture.
2.2.3 Complementary Colors

hese are colors that are positioned opposite to each other in the color wheel as shown in figure 2.6. Thus, for
T
instance, red and green are complementary to each other. Similarly, yellow-violet is another such pair. In color
theory, complementary colors are important because, when they are placed next to each other, they appear more
intense and bright.
Figure 2.6: Representative diagram displaying complementary colors

“These colors project a striking visual effect.”
40
Color Theory
2.2.4 Natural Colors

White and black are natural colors. These are not regarded as colors. White indicates light while black denotes the
absence of light. However, they are referred to as white and black colors for the sake of convenience. These colors
can be used to mix with other colors to create lighter or darker shades.
2.2.5 Tertiary Colors (Third Grade Colors)
Figure 2.7: Representative diagram displaying tertiary colors

If any two secondary colors are mixed together in equal proportion, then you generally obtain a third grade color
also referred to as a tertiary color. In tertiary colors, the primary or original colors are always dominant. For example,
yellow is the primary color in both green and orange and consequently the mixture becomes yellowish gray (Olive).
Figure 2.7 diagrammatically represents the color obtained upon mixing two secondary colors.
41
Try it out !!!
Fill each of these triangles in figure 2.8 with primary, secondary, and tertiary colors.
2.2.6 Warm Colors
Figure 2.9: Representative diagram displaying warm colors

Red, yellow, orange, and brown are warm colors. Red is the most powerful color, so you don’t often see pure red
used in large amounts. It stirs up excitement, and is the favored color for both sports cars and fire trucks. Have you
ever wondered why red is so popular in dining rooms, restaurants and movie theaters? Science has proven that
red stimulates appetite. Yellow and orange are the sunny colors that denote warmth. Yellow, by itself, is one of the
most difficult colors for the eye to process and therefore, some believe that it makes larger rooms look warm and
cheerful. The range of warm colors include popular colors like, peach, terracotta, and brown, all of which owe their
warmth to red and yellow. Figure 2.9 diagrammatically represents the warm colors.
42
Color Theory
Try it out !!!
Use warm colors to fill the drawing shown in figure 2.10.
2.2.7 Cool Colors
Figure 2.11: Representative diagram displaying cool colors

Blue, green, and violet are cool colors. Refer figure 2.11. Viewing these colors soothes the mind. They are related
to water, sky, and greenery. In order to create the effect of depth or distance in a painting, the foreground should be
painted in warm colors while cool colors should be used for the portion that is in the background.
Intense cool colors lend a fresh, dramatic appeal to a room, while softer cool shades make rooms feel less confining.
In very warm climates, entire house dressed in cool colors make the home more inviting.
43
Try it out !!!
Use cool colors to fill the drawing shown in figure 2.12.
2.3 Hue, Saturation, Value

Color is derived from sunlight and depends on illumination to make it apparent.
Hue, value and saturation are ways of presenting colors. Value and saturation are as important as the hue while
planning a color combination.
■ Hue
Figure 2.13: Representative diagram displaying hue

Hue has the color type red, blue or yellow as shown in figure 2.13. When full daylight is broken up by a passage
through some transparent medium like rain or a glass prism, color reveals its true richness in the form of a
rainbow. The colors perceived in the rainbow are called hues. In its purest form, a hue is at maximum chrome
and is indicative of colors that are not grayed.
● Vibgyor

Figure 2.14: When light passes through the glass prism, different colors are refracted
��
The rainbow colors, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red are collectively known as VIBGYOR.
This effect results from sunlight getting refracted through raindrops.
44
Color Theory
A rainbow is nothing but sunlight spread out in its spectrum of colors and diverted to the eye of the observer
by droplets of rain in the sky. The word ‘bow’ aptly describes a group of nearly circular arcs of color with a
common center. The traditional description of a rainbow is that it is made up of seven colors namely red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Actually, the rainbow is a whole band of colors from red to
violet and even beyond the colors that the eye can see. The colors of the rainbow arise from two basic
facts:
◦ Sunlight is made up of the whole range of colors that the eye can detect. The range of colors of sunlight
(when combined) looks white to the eye.
◦ Amount of light refracted when it passes from one medium (air, for example) to another (water or
glass). Refer figure 2.14.
■ Saturation
Figure 2.15: Representative diagram depicting saturation

The intensity of a color is described as saturation. Refer figure 2.15. Saturation is determined by how little or
how much of grayness a particular color contains. Less saturated colors are often described as soft, muted,
subtle, toned-down, misty, dull or dusky. Highly saturated colors tend to be bright and intense.
All hues are at 100% saturation. Reducing the saturation for each of the hues to about 20%, while keeping the
brightness setting at 100%, produces the delicate pastel colors.
■ Value
Figure 2.16: Representative diagram displaying value pattern

The lightness or darkness of a color is called its value. Lightened values are tints, darkened values are indicative
of shades, and medium value colors are described as midtones. A variation in the light to dark arrangement or
design is termed as a value pattern. Refer figure 2.16.
45
2.4 Transparent and Opaque Colors
Figure 2.17: Representative image displaying transparent colors
Tube and cake colors are transparent colors. Refer figure 2.17. In such cases, a color that has been previously
applied is visible through another transparent one, overlapping it.
Figure 2.18: Representative image displaying opaque colors

(Refer to the colored section for the colored image)��
Poster or bottle colors are called opaque colors. Refer figure 2.18. An opaque color overlapping another color
makes it invisible. A transparent color mixed with white becomes opaque.
2.5 Color Models

A color model is an orderly system for creating a whole range of colors from a small set of primary colors.
There are two types of color models, those that are subtractive (CMYK) and those that are additive (RGB). Additive
color models use light to display color while subtractive models use printing inks. Colors perceived in additive
models are the result of transmitted light, while colors perceived in subtractive models are the result of reflected
light.
There are several established color models used in computer graphics, but the two most common ones are the Red-
Green-Blue model (RGB) for computer display and the Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black model (CMYK) for printing.
2.5.1 CMYK
CMYK is the color model associated with color printing and therefore, has no relevance to web graphics. When these
four inks namely, cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (collectively known as CMYK) are combined, they can produce
millions of different colors. Figure 2.19 shows how changing the percentage (screen) of one ink can dramatically
affect the color. Note that only cyan, magenta, and yellow are used in the figure. Black, the fourth process ink, is
used to darken the colors created by the other three process colors.
46
Color Theory
Figure 2.19: Representative diagram displaying CMYK colors

2.5.2 RGB Colors

The RGB model forms its gamut from the primary additive colors of red, green and blue. When red, green, and blue
light is combined, it forms white. Computers generally display RGB using 24-bit color. In the 24-bit RGB color model
there are 256 variations for each of the additive colors of red, green, and blue. Therefore there are 16,777,216
possible colors (256 reds x 256 greens x 256 blues) in the 24-bit RGB color model.
In the RGB color model, colors are represented by varying intensities of red, green and blue light. Refer figure 2.20.
The intensity of each of the red, green, and blue components is represented on a scale from 0 to 255 with 0 being
of least intensity (no light emitted) and 255 being the maximum intensity.
Figure 2.20: Representative diagram displaying RGB color model

47
2.5.3 HSL/HSB
HSL or HSB stands for hue, saturation, and luminance or brightness and is just another way of looking at the RGB
model. Hue means the same color and saturation indicates the amount of color.
2.6 Indexed Color

Images that do not define colors in terms of their actual RGB or CMYK values and derive their colors from a palette
are known as Indexed Color. The color palette of an indexed color image has a fixed number of colors. Because
the palette is limited to a maximum of 256 colors, it is not possible for an image to look as realistic as in RGB or
CMYK. Hence, they are not true colors. This type of color is known as Indexed color because colors in the palette
are referenced by index numbers that are used by the computer to identify each color. Some file formats restrict the
number of colors to fewer than 256. The GIF format is one such format and has a color depth of 8 bits per pixel or
less. GIF files use indexed color and allow a maximum of 256 colors. TIFF files can be stored as indexed color or
true color. A sample palette is displayed in figure 2.21.
Figure 2.21: Representative diagram representing color palette with index numbers
2.7 True Color

Images are known as true color where each pixel is defined in terms of its actual RGB or CMYK values. Every pixel
in a true color image has 256 possible values for each of its red, green or blue components (in the RGB model) or
cyan, magenta, yellow and black (in the CMYK model). Due to the fact that there are 256 possible values for each
RGB or CMYK component, RGB true color would have a 24-bit color depth and CMYK true color would have a
32-bit color depth. There are millions of possible colors for each pixel in a true color image. That’s why it is called
true color. For example, white would be composed of maximum intensity of red, green and blue light (R=255 G=255
B=255) and black would be composed of zero intensity of red, green, and blue light (R=0 G=0 B=0). Cyan would be
composed of maximum intensity of blue and green light and zero intensity of red light (R=0 B=255 G=255). Magenta
would be composed of maximum intensity of red and blue light and zero intensity of green light (R=255 G=0 B=255).
Refer figure 2.22.
Figure 2.22: Representative diagram depicting true colors along with their value
48
Color Theory
2.8 Summary
● Color is the ingredient that makes objects appealing, attractive and gives pleasure to the observer. It is
actually an aspect of vision.
● The color wheel is a simple device for understanding colors in relation to one another.
● There are various classifications such as secondary colors that can be obtained by mixing primary colors.
● Tertiary colors are obtained by mixing any two secondary colors.
● Red, yellow, orange and brown are warm colors.
● Blue, green and violet are cool colors.
● The colors that are perceived in the rainbow are called hues.
● The intensity of a color is described as saturation.
● The lightness or darkness of a color is called its value.
● Tube and cake colors are transparent colors. Poster or bottle colors are opaque colors.
● A color model is an orderly system for creating a whole range of colors from a small set of primary colors.
● Images are known as ‘True color’ where each pixel is defined in terms of its actual RGB or CMYK values.
49
2.9 Exercise
True or False
1. Red is the coldest of colors and evokes feelings of calm and allure.
2. Green is a color of harmony and balance.
3. The primary colors of light are red, green and yellow.
4. W
hen two secondary colors are mixed, the color so obtained from the mixture is known as a complementary
color.
5. The colors that are positioned opposite to each other in the color wheel are called complementary colors.
6. Red and orange are two of the warm colors.
7. Saturation is the amount of whiteness a color contains.
8. The variation in the light to dark arrangement of colors or design is termed as a hue pattern.
9. When an opaque color overlaps another the first one remains visible.
10. The CMYK color model is associated with web publishing.
1. False – Blue
2. True
3. False – Red, Green and Blue
4. False - Tertiary color
5. True
6. True
7. False - Gray
8. False - Value pattern
9. False - invisible
10. False - RGB
50
Typography
Session 3: Typography
Learning Outcomes
● Define typography and discuss its history
● Discuss the importance of using correct fonts and the different ways of measuring them
● Examine the basic font types
● Discuss text formatting
● Discuss how typographical oriented designs can make a better impact
”Words must look effective for impact.”
Figure 3.1: A general display of font types
Typography is the design and use of typefaces or fonts, as a means of visual communication from calligraphy to
the ever-developing use of digital type. Typography is the study of type and typefaces, the evolution of printed
letters. Since man did not start with typing, but rather with chisel, brush, and pen, it is the study of handwriting that
provides you with the basis for creating type designs. Typography encompasses many separate fields from the type
designer, who creates letterforms to the graphic designer, who selects typefaces and arranges them on the page.
51
Figure 3.2: Writings carved on the stones and metals from ancient times
Writing was first developed in Sumer, through accounting practices. Slowly and steadily writing began to develop in
other parts of the world. The design of type began with early cuneiform images carved on stones or painted on the
walls of caves as shown in figure 3.2. The tradition expanded into blackletter calligraphy in the middle ages, then
flourished during the industrial age with the development of Roman (serif) and Gothic (sanserif) letterforms.
● 20th Century Typography
During the 20th century, styles in book design, whether it is fine art or applied art, have become increasingly
international. Styles born in one country spread throughout the world and die through overuse at a dizzying
speed. As a consequence, it has become increasingly difficult to distinguish truly individual or national
styles. Today books, magazines, clothes, paintings, and music irrespective of their country of origin, all
resemble one another far more than they differ.
● Changes in Printing Technology
“Printing has evolved through stages. The invention of printing led to a rise in literature, art,
philosophy and politics. The linotype which marked a moveable type created tremendous impact
on the speed with which printing was being done.”
Figure 3.3: Displaying an early printing machine
52
Typography
Things began to change with the advent of the printing press. There were improvements in printing
technology for centuries. Refer figure 3.3. Innovations in the accessibility of knowledge and the structure of
human thought that led to the rise of print in Europe, also influenced art, literature, philosophy and politics.
Linotype is a method of creating movable type by machine instead of hand, marking a significant leap in
production speed. The typewriter made the production and the appearance of standardized print much
more widely accessible. A typewriter is shown in figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Displaying a typewriter
The photocopiers made a means of disseminating printed documents, available to everyone. A company
that makes photocopiers is called Xerox. Figure 3.5 displays a machine made by xerox. Word processing
transformed editing, and contributed dramatic new flexibility to the writing process.
“Photocopiers are known for utility. Multiple copies offer great facilitative support.”
Figure 3.5: Photocopier
Computer printing has already moved through several stages of innovation, from the first daisy-wheel and
dot matrix impact printers to non-impact printers such as ink-jet, laser, and thermal-transfer. Refer figure
3.6.
53
“Modern-day printers have completely revolutionized printing with their ingenious features
such as speed and flexibility. These are printers that accompany personal computers.”
Figure 3.6: Computer printers
3.1 Typeface and Fonts
“The life of the text lies in typefaces and fonts. Sheer artistry is possible by manipulating these to
suit the requirement.”
Figure 3.7: Image depicting typefaces and fonts
Although typefaces and fonts are often used interchangeably, a typeface refers to a type family, such as Times
Roman, Avant Garde or Frutiger. A font refers to a single instance of one of these typefaces, such as Frutiger Light,
Frutiger Roman or Frutiger Roman Italic. Image depicting typefaces and fonts are shown in figure 3.7.
To understand how type works, it is essential to know how it is measured. Basically, typefaces can be measured in
two ways namely, height and width.
3.1.1 Type Height

In ancient times, when type was molded out of metal, it was sold in discrete sizes that were measured in points.
Today’s digital types can be enlarged or reduced by simply selecting or specifying a point size.
“Required type height can be easily obtained through point size.”
54
Typography
Figure 3.8: Demonstrating different font sizes
Originally, the term point size was referred to the height of the metal body that held the characters. This was slightly
larger than the distance from the highest to the lowest feature in the design.
A traditional point is approximately 1/72 of an inch or .01384 inch.
3.1.2 Leading (Line Spacing)
Figure 3.9: Demonstrating line spacing
Leading is the space between lines of text. Extra leading makes the body text to look more open and less daunting.
Too much leading makes it hard to jump from line to line while reading.
Leading is expressed in a ratio of size, for example, 10 on 12.
Typical leading or auto setting in most page layout programs is around 20 percent more than the size of the type,
such as 10 on 12.
3.1.3 Tracking and Kerning

Tracking adjusts the space between three or more selected characters. This is often used to adjust the letter and
word spacing for an entire line of text or a paragraph of text.
Kerning adjusts the space between two characters or between two words.
To adjust tracking, highlight the text to be adjusted with the text tool and then increase or decrease the tracking
amount. A decrease in point decreases the space while an increase in point increases space. Refer figure 3.10.
“Tracking helps to adjust letter and word spacing and is used to adjust an entire line or paragraph.”
55
Figure 3.10: Demonstrating tracking
To adjust Kerning, place the text insertion cursor between two letters or two words and adjust the setting.
Notice in figure 3.11, the uneven letter spacing between w and o and the two e’s and v. After applying kerning to
these characters, space between the characters becomes consistent. Kerning is mostly needed when large text is
used. It is employed to minimize inconsistent letter spacing.
“Kerning helps to minimize inconsistent letter spacing.”
Figure 3.11: Demonstrating kerning
3.1.4 Picas and Points

Type is traditionally measured in picas and points. There are 6 picas to an inch, 12 points to a pica and 72 points to
an inch. A line of text is called Measure and is calculated in picas and points. The space between measures of text
is measured in points.
3.2 Font Family

A set of fonts bearing the same typeface, but with different size, weight and slants is called a font family.
As for the families, there are five fonts that correspond to the five generic-family values: Serif, Sans-serif, Monospace,
Cursive, and Fantasy. Serif fonts are much more traditional print-page-looking fonts, like Times or New Century
Schoolbook. If you look closely, the strokes in each letter have areas which are thinner and thicker, as though
inscribed with a pen. Sans-serif fonts, on the other hand, are somewhat simpler with every stroke of a consistent
width throughout its length; examples are, Helvetica, Arial, and Verdana.
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Typography
Most Serif and Sans-serif fonts come with variations of weight (boldness), width (condensed or extended) and
italics.
3.2.1 Serif Fonts

Serif fonts are marked by little feet that extend from the stem of the letter. All fonts were Roman (serif) until the 20th
century. Serifs are traditional, elegant, and formal. Serifs enable easier reading of large blocks of printed text, hence
most books and magazines use it for body text.
■ Types of Serif Fonts
● Old Style: With some of the earliest fonts, the Serifs flow out in simple, graceful curves. Examples: Caslon,
Caxton, Garamond, Goudy, Oldstyle, Palatino, Early Roman.
● Transitional: Smaller curves connect the serifs. Examples: Baskerville, Century, Tiffany, Times.
● Modern: The stems are thick and the serifs thin, contrasting with each other. Example: Bodoni.
● Egyptian: Slab serifs. Thick. Think Circus, Westerns. Examples: Clarenden, Lubalin, Memphis.
Figure 3.12: Serif fonts
3.2.2 Sans-Serif Fonts

These fonts are clean, simple, and less traditional. They were highly popular in the mid-century Swiss design
movement. Examples: Helvetica, Univers, Futura, Avant Garde, Gill Sans.
Figure 3.13: Example of Sans-serif fonts

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Studies show that reading on-screen is easier with Sans-serif typefaces. So designers started creating new, easy
to read styles for web use like Verdana, Arial, and Trebuchet.
3.2.3 Postscript Fonts

As with other computer fonts, postscript fonts are numerous and take up too much space. There are several other
basic familiar fonts as well. Unless you really have a specific need or exotic tastes, the basic fonts will probably
be adequate. Printers generally come with dozens of basic fonts, with the actual number depending a lot on how
you count. There are hundreds of additional fonts for those who feel they must have more to be complete. Some
common Postscript fonts are shown in figure 3.14.
Figure 3.14: Depicting the standard 39 postscript fonts
These fonts are also known as type 1 fonts or ATM fonts. Except for Windows NT, 2000 and XP, you need an extra
program called Adobe Type Manager (ATM). You can get ATM from PC dealers. Postscript fonts have two parts:
printer fonts and screen fonts
A printer font instructs the printer how to print the type on paper (or other media).
A screen font instructs the computer how to draw it on the screen.
Postscript fonts are defined by their outline. What is stored is not a map of the bits making up the actual characters,
but a description of how to draw them, or precisely, their outlines. The advantage of outline fonts is that they can be
precisely scaled to an infinite number of sizes, even factional sizes, and still look good. Fixed size bit map fonts, in
contrast, are harder to scale and often contain rough corners. Outline fonts are drawn with the full resolution of the
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Typography
printer instead of the fixed resolution in which the bit map was created.
Postscript type 1 fonts are considered the industry standard and are most reliable when printing to high-end digital
devices such as imagesetters and digital presses. Type 3 fonts are the original non-Adobe Postscript font description
standard. This standard is dying and type foundries have all moved to the type 1 standard. Multiple masters were
developed by Adobe to give users the ability to manipulate one or more design axes and thus provide one with
tremendous flexibility and control over the type. Multiple masters are also type 1 fonts.
3.2.4 Bitmapped and Outline (Scalable fonts)

There are various graphics image file formats. They represent same information in different ways. At one level, there
are two major sorts of fonts namely bitmapped and outline (scalable). Bitmapped fonts represent each character
as a rectangular grid of pixels. The bitmap for each character indicates precisely, what pixels should be on and off.
Printing a bitmapped character is simply a matter of blasting the right bits out to the printer. There are a number of
disadvantages to this approach. The bitmap represents a particular instance of the character at a particular size and
resolution. It is very difficult to change the size, shape, or resolution of a bitmapped character without significant loss
of quality in the image. On the other hand, it is easy to do things like shading and filling of bitmapped characters.
Outline fonts represent each character mathematically as a series of lines, curves, and hints. When a character
from an outline font is to be printed, it must be converted into a bitmap ‘on the fly’. Postscript printers, for example,
do this in the print engine. If the engine in the output device cannot convert, then some front end has to do it. Many
of the disadvantages that are inherent in the bitmapped format are not present in outline fonts at all.
An outline font is represented mathematically, and it can be drawn at any reasonable size. When it is small sized,
the font rendered is guided by the hints in the font. In low-resolution output devices such as screens, automatically
scaled fonts become unreadable. At that point, hand-tuned bitmaps become a better choice. Additionally, because
it is rasterized on demand, the font can be adjusted for different resolutions and aspect ratios.
3.3 Font Styles and Formatting

Changing the look of the font can bring different meaning or clarity to a document. Some examples of the common
font styles are given below.
For Helvetica:
This is upright, this is backslant, this is italic, and this is oblique. This is bold upright. this is bold backslant,
this is bold italic, and this is bold oblique.
For Times:
This is upright, this is backslant, this is italic, and this is oblique. This is bold upright. This is bold
backslant, this is bold italic, and this is bold oblique.
For Courier:
This is upright, this is backslant, this is italic, and this is oblique.

This is bold upright. This is bold backslant, this is bold italic, and
this is bold oblique.
3.3.1 Readability/Legibility
In typography, readability refers to the ease of physically reading a given body of text.
Legibility refers to the ease of distinguishing individual letterforms and, as a result, recognizing words becomes
easy.
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A distinction is sometimes drawn between legibility and readability.
Legibility is said to refer to an individual character, whereas readability is a characteristic of groups of letters (words
or sentences).
This is a useful distinction, as printed text is often more legible than readable (as in some newspapers), or more
readable than legible (as in many advertising logos). Figure 3.15 shows two different types of fonts.
Figure 3.15: Two different types of fonts
It is not necessary to choose an obvious font, such as a flowery script for a perfume advertisement or Sans-serif for
auto parts. The important thing is to serve the values that the text stands for.
3.3.2 Calligraphy
Calligraphy means artistic writing. It is virtually an art that can convey expressions and feelings. The word calligraphy
stems from Greek origins implying artistic beauty and drawing or writing.
Figure 3.16: Calligraphic writing
Calligraphy is a form of artistic writing where letters are made of few or many direct strokes. At times, it can be
legible and at other times completely impossible to read. The term calligraphy comes from two Greek words, roughly
meaning artistic beauty and writing or drawing. However, calligraphy does not necessarily have to be beautiful in
order to be of good quality. It should express the written text appropriately and communicate well. Today, in addition
to being a kind of communication, calligraphy is a serious art form. Through the style and composition of written
forms, the calligrapher attempts to visually interpret the spirit of texts, headlines, logos, painterly, and abstract
works.
Chinese calligrapher, Wang Hsi-chih said, “Writing needs meaning, whereas calligraphy expresses itself above all
through forms and gestures. It elevates the soul and illuminates the feelings.” In this respect calligraphy is very
close to painting and they have the same beginning.
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Typography
3.3.3 Text Formatting Choices

Text formatting choices are the key to differentiate the levels of typographic hierarchy. They work similarly for
printing or web design. Just remember to use consistent formatting at each level, for instance, all subheads should
look the same, all body copy the same.
● Size: The larger the type, the more it jumps out (but if body text is too large it looks like it is intended for
the blind).
● Weight: Use light against bold for emphasis.
● Alignment: Flush left, rag right. Remember that in the west, people read from left to right, so the eyes
prefer a hard edge along the left side.
● Alignment: Centered. Do not center the text body. Center only bold headlines.
● Alignment: Flush right, ragged left. Use only in rare circumstances. The reader’s eyes will have a tough
time finding the next line.
● Alignment: Justified, or force justified. Pushes text to both edges of margin. Uneven letter spacing can
create rivers of white space, especially if the column width is narrow.
● Case: All Caps is hard to read in large doses but grabs attention with its authority. Lower case connotes
friendly, low stress, easy text.
● Leading: The space between lines. With too much leading, your eyes have to leap from line to line.
● Space: Use space around words for emphasis, to set them off especially if they are bold. Keep spacing
consistent, in-between the chunks of text.
● Text Width: Legibility studies show that the ideal column width is about 36 characters, or 1-1/2 times the
alphabet. Small amounts of text can be placed in narrower columns.
● Indents: Use indents to set off a sub heading/category, by leaving extra space to the left and/or right
margin of the text.
An advertisement without proper type looks dull as shown in figure 3.17.
Figure 3.17: An advertisement (before makeover)
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Figure 3.18: An advertisement after applying the principle of good typography
3.4 Typographical Oriented Design

Design is fundamentally about communication and despite the power of images, words remain at the core of how you
communicate. Typography is the practice of visually representing words. Type conveys meaning both in the obvious
sense that words and sentences communicate, and in the subtler sense of the particular visual representation that
is used such as style, size, and so on, affecting the message.
All the effort you put into the text, both in terms of content and presentation, has a direct effect on the meaning of
the message you convey. This is one of the most basic precepts of typography.
Figure 3.19: Displaying the IBM logo

The IBM logo is an interesting example of how type gains meaning. Many of you see this familiar logo and think the
horizontal lines are there to convey the idea that IBM makes computers. But, as it turns out, the lines are there for a
very different reason. They lighten up what would otherwise be a very heavy logo while suggesting the company’s
authority and reliability by evoking the anti-forgery lines of financial documents. In fact, they signify “computer” only
because of their use in the logo of a huge, highly visible computer company.
Unlike associational meaning, which is dependent on culture and history, visual communication comes into play
on a basic human level. Hard edges evoke different emotional responses compared to soft edges. Ornamentation,
such as elaborate serifs or uneven edges, will give a different feel than sparse and unadorned letterforms. Other
differences are shape, thickness, color, variation, and symmetry.
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Typography
Figure 3.20: Demonstrating how type communicates visually with curves and corners, uniformity and
variation, strict geometry and humanist balance.
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3.5 Summary
● Typography is the design and use of typefaces or fonts as a means of visual communication from calligraphy
to the ever-developing use of digital type.
● Typefaces can be measured in two ways namely, height, and width.
● Tracking adjusts the space between three or more selected characters.
● Kerning adjusts the space between two characters or between two words.
● A font-family is a set of fonts all with the same typeface, but with different sizes, weights, and slants.
● Readability refers to the ease of physically reading a given body of text.
● Legibility refers to the ease of distinguishing individual letterforms and, as a result, the ease of recognizing
words.
● Calligraphy is a form of artistic writing wherein letters may be made in few or many direct strokes.
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Typography
3.6 Exercise
True or False
1. The Sumerian writing system originally developed out of accounting practices.
2. Typesetting was transformed by the introduction of line-casting machines.
3. I n earlier times when type was molded out of metal, it was sold in discrete sizes that were measured in terms
of inches.
4. Type has traditionally been measured in Picas and Points.
5. Legibility is a characteristic of groups of letters (words or sentences).
6. Calligraphy is a form of artistic writing wherein letters may be made in few or many direct strokes.
7. Tracking adjusts the space between three or more selected characters.
1. True
2. True
3. False - Points
4. True
5. False - Readability
6. True
7. True
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Laws of Design
Session 4: Laws of Design
Learning Outcomes
● Discuss the various Laws of Design
There are certain laws that govern the physical aspect of your design. These are not necessarily mutually exclusive
and might overlap in many instances.
Now, analyze the basic principles of design, which can be applied to a design or layout.
The basic laws of design include the following:

● Balance
● Rhythm
● Emphasis
● Unity
● Simplicity
● Proportion
4.1 The Law of Balance
“Proper balancing of elements is essential for a good design. Balance can be of two types, formal
and informal. Formal balance is achieved when all elements such as, height and width are positioned
symmetrically on a page. However, to obtain informal balance these elements maybe changed. This type of
balancing of unequal elements is also known as asymmetrical balance.”
Figure 4.1: Displaying examples of symmetrical and asymmetrical balance
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Balance refers to equalizing the weights of elements in a design. Formal balance is achieved when all the elements
of a page are of equal weights and are placed symmetrically on the page. Informal balance may be achieved when
the value, size and location of unequal elements on a page are changed. Balance is closely related to the law of
gravity.
There are two types of balance, symmetrical or formal balance and asymmetrical or informal balance, as shown in
figure 4.1.
4.1.1 Symmetrical Balance and Asymmetrical Balance

Symmetry denotes mirror image, meaning one side of an image is the mirror image of the other. Refer figure
4.2. Balance is concerned with the distribution of visual interest, which means dealing with the location in a
composition.
“Symmetrical balance denotes an exact mirror image.”
Figure 4.2: Image displaying symmetrical balance
The three systems for controlling balance are as follows:

● Inverted Symmetry
Figure 4.3: An image depicting inverted symmetry
Inverted symmetry is where the principle of symmetry is applied with half inverted images. An example of
the same is depicted by the playing cards as shown in figure 4.3.
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Laws of Design
● Biaxial Symmetry
Figure 4.4: An illustration displaying biaxial symmetry
A symmetrical composition can possess more than one axis of symmetry. Biaxial symmetry employs two
axes of symmetry, vertical, and horizontal. Refer figure 4.4.
● Radial Symmetry
Figure 4.5: A sunflower depicting radial symmetry
Radial symmetry is a related concept and can utilize any number of axes. Here the images seem to radiate
out from the center like a star as shown in figure 4.5.
“Balance can also be achieved without symmetry. When the elements of design are positioned
disproportionately, an asymmetrical balance is obtained.”
Figure 4.6: An image depicting asymmetrical balance in a flower
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Asymmetrical means without symmetry. It implies that there are no mirror images in a composition. A small visually
interesting object can balance a much larger but relatively less interesting object. Refer figure 4.6.
Try it out!!!
Complete figure 4.7 by drawing a symmetrical mirror image on the right side.
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Laws of Design
4.2 The Law of Rhythm

Rhythm is used to create eye movement and direction. It occurs when a design element is repeated. Refer figure
4.8.
“Rhythm is achieved by the way of a smooth flow, facilitating eye movement. It can be obtained
by repetition, progression and continuity. Each of these offers some variation of rhythm but all generally
suggest a quick and smooth succession and flow of elements.”
Figure 4.8: Images demonstrating the law of rhythm by the movement of eyes to the different aspects of
design
hythm acts as a guide, so that the eye reads important parts of a message. It is also called the denominator of the
R
arts. Rhythm in work of art is important because it plays a vital role in our physical lives. Rhythm helps a person find
order in the world. Refer figures 4.9 and 4.10.
Figure 4.9: Random change in size, shape and position of the elements can create a lively rhythm
Figure 4.10: Elements placed at regular intervals reflect a smooth rhythm producing a calming effect
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● Rhythm by Repetition, Progression and Continuity
An artist can achieve rhythm in a number of ways, most commonly by repetition, progression, and continuity.
For example, a column in a building, the slate or a post in a garden fence, or a ball of flame in the nimbus
surrounding a figure can be repeated in the drawing. When the artist resorts to progression in order to
establish rhythm, he or she follows a plan that sets up expectations of each succeeding step. A third way to
achieve rhythm is by providing an easily connected and continuous flow from one form to another.
● Complexities of Rhythmic Structure
Ordinarily artists use all kinds of rhythm in the same composition. They develop a combination of rhythms
in any building, statue, painting or product of the crafts, planning skillfully and subtly to make them all
contribute to the total effect desired. The artists thus draw heavily on the principle of rhythm to bring order
and expressive power into their use of basic elements.
4.3 The Law of Emphasis
“Elements that should stand out require emphasis. Emphasis can be achieved by virtue of placement,
by contrast, and emphasizing by action.”
Figure 4.11: An image demonstrating the law of emphasis by

bringing out the difference in color and appearance
Emphasis or contrast adds variety to a design. It is the variations of elements in the printed product. Refer figure
4.11. Some elements of a layout stand out because of contrast. This is achieved by a difference in size, color or
appearance. Some of the contrasts are round and straight, ornate and plain, broad and narrow. Various aspects
such as contrasts, dominance, isolation, floodlighting the copy with white, repetition, and radiation can bring about
emphasis.
● Emphasis by Placement
The means by which stress is given to a shape or a quality in a work of art, whether building, statue, picture,
or any other product vary infinitely. But mostly it is given by placement, contrast, ornamentation, and action.
You will often find an object made important merely by the position given to it in the whole arrangement.
This is a trick that can be achieved by proper placement.
● Emphasis by Contrast
Emphasis by contrast is derived from many devices, however, ones that draw on color are the most
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Laws of Design
common. Contrasts of line, shape, and size make for dominance of one detail over another.
For example, a flower arrangement gains by placement against a quiet wall and loses by placement against
a noisy screen.
● Emphasis by Action
Means of emphasis can be multiplied indefinitely, but the artist, in actual practice, combines them into
organizations that vary with his intent. A composition that seems simple may in reality represent the juggling
of many factors to bring them all into a close relationship with each other.
4.4 The Law of Unity

Unity or harmony gives elements the appearance of togetherness. It is the proper balance of all elements that gives
a pleasing result as a whole.
“Unity is reflected in total harmony. All elements are repositioned such that a complete homogeneity
is achieved and this gets reflected in the creation.”
Figure 4.12: An arrangement of balloons showing the law of unity
The image is viewed as one piece, as a whole, and not as separate elements. Unity implies the union of all elements
in a layout. Each part supports the others and all combine to form an artistic homogeneous whole. Refer figure 4.12.
It can be achieved by continuity or harmony.
Figure 4.13: Unity can be created by grouping, repeating or placing elements on a grid
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4.5 The Law of Proportion

Proportion is the relationship between size and shape. It helps to achieve balance and unity in a layout. In order to
achieve right proportion, the sizes of the elements must be regulated.
“Adjusting sizes of elements in proper proportion leads to a good design. If the size and shape relate
to each other proportionately, a good layout can be achieved.”
Figure 4.14: Different objects in the illustration depict the ratio of length to width, which explains the law
of proportion
Proportion is a matter of relationships namely relationships between height, width, depth, and surrounding space.
When these dimensions (height, width, and surrounding space) are placed together, relationships are established.
For instance, if you consider the image shown in figure 4.14, it is judged as, table is too narrow for its length, and a
lampshade is out of proportion with its base.
● The Question of Scale
The amount of open space around an object creates a factor called Scale. Scale too, is a matter of
relationship. Note how frequently the principle of proportion figures in daily life. For example, you go to buy
a lamp for the end table in the living room. In the high-ceiling showroom, you find one that is pleasing and
buy it. You carry it home and set it up in a small living room only to discover that it now looks very large and
clumsy. The lamp has not changed a bit but its relationship to its surroundings has changed and thrown it
out of scale.
● Static Proportion and its Compositional Role
Certain generalities still hold, regarding effectiveness of proportions. When height and width or height,
width and depth are all same, the relationship is obvious and therefore it is less interesting than dimensions.
Dimensions offer the surprise of unexpected or the fascination of the subtle. For example, one can equalize
the rhythmic sequence of images evoked in a poem by disposing around an invisible square, the succession
of miniature incidents.
● Correcting Proportional Defects
Sometimes it becomes necessary in art as in life, to work with a disagreeable proportion which is unavoidable.
Line can be employed in clothing to disguise undesirable proportions, like vertical stripes for the attire of an
overly bulky person and horizontal stripes for the attire of a person overly tall and slender. The principle of
proportions goes hand-in-hand with the principles of balance, emphasis, rhythm, and in fact with any other
principle.
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Laws of Design
4.6 The Law of Simplicity

The element of simplicity in a design leads to easier comprehension. It is necessary, especially in a layout to
achieve clarity.
“Simplicity in a design leads to an easy comprehension of the picture.”
Figure 4.15: Demonstrating the law of simplicity in the drawing of a bird
Try it out!!!
se the image in figure 4.16 and make simplified drawings in the areas provided by referring to the example given
U
in figure 4.15.
75
Try it out!!!
Identify the law that is prominent in each of the images given in figure 4.17.
(a) (b)
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Laws of Design
4.7 Summary
● Formal balance is achieved when all elements such as, height and width are positioned symmetrically on
a page.
● An artist can use two types of balance, symmetrical, and asymmetrical.
● Asymmetrical means without symmetry. It implies that there are no mirror images in a composition.
● Rhythm is defined as a succession of expectations and their satisfactions. It is vital as it plays such an
important role in our physical lives.
● Emphasis or contrast adds variety to a design. It is the variations of elements in the printed product.
● Unity implies the union of all elements in a layout, where each part supports the others and all combine to
form a homogeneous artistic image.
● Proportion is a matter of relationships, namely relationships of height, width, depth, and surrounding
space.
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4.8 Exercise
True or False
1. The amount of open space around an object creates a factor called scale.
2. Rhythm is necessary especially in a layout to achieve clarity.
3. Proportion is the relationship between size and shape.
4. Proportion is the proper balance of all elements to get a pleasing result as a whole.
5. A
rtists draw heavily on the principle of balance to bring order and expressive power into their use of basic
elements.
6. B
alance is concerned with the distribution of visual interest, which means dealing with what is located where in
a composition.
7. Rhythm can be achieved in a number of ways, most commonly by repetition, progression and continuity.
8. The principle of balance goes hand in hand with all other principles.
9. Inverted symmetry can utilize any number of axes.
10. Emphasis is the variations of elements in the printed product.
1. True
2. False - Simplicity
3. True
4. False - Unity or harmony
5. False - rhythm
6. True
7. True
8. False - Principle of Proportion
9. False - Radial symmetry
10. True
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Resolution and File Formats
Session 5: Resolution and File Formats
Learning Outcomes
● Define resolution
● Define and describe image resolution
● Define device resolution
● Define printer resolution
● Define and discuss interpolated resolution
● Differentiate between digital and analog
● Discuss file size and bit depth
● Discuss how to scan images
● Discuss various graphic file formats
● Differentiate between raster and vector images
Digital photographs are made up of pixels. A pixel denotes the ‘picture element’. It is the smallest unit in a computer
image or display. Computer graphics is actually nothing but a colored grid of pixels.
When you click a photo, the digital camera records pixels. The scanner reads and converts physical images into
pixels. The photo editing software manipulates pixels, the computer monitor displays pixels, and the printer paints
pixels onto the paper. In short, digitally only pixels exist, but not inches.
It is crucial to understand how pixels transform into inches and inches back into pixels. This helps you edit, scan,
and print images successfully.
The term resolution essentially interprets the physical world of inches and the digital world of pixels. While scanning
any image, the scanner converts inches into pixels using resolution. Similarly, when you print an image, the printer
translates pixels into inches using resolution.
Ironically, the term resolution has been used differently with respect to the context. For example, camera resolution
will generally be perceived as something different from image resolution and printer resolution is something else
again.
5.1 Image Resolution

Image resolution is defined as the number of pixels displayed per unit of the printed area of an image. Typically,
image resolution is measured in pixels per inch (ppi). In computer graphics, pixels are square shaped. In video,
pixels are rectangular shaped. This is equivalent to saying that video has different spatial sampling in the horizontal
and vertical directions. A square pixel has a pixel aspect ratio or sample aspect ratio (SAR) of 1:1. A non-square
pixel has an aspect ratio of W:H, where W and H are not equal.
When printed, high resolution images usually reproduce more detail and smooth color transitions than low resolution
images. Higher the image resolution, more is the disk space required and more is the time taken to display and print
images. Using too low resolution for a printed image results in pixelation and prints out large and coarse-looking
pixels. To determine the optimum image resolution, think about how you plan to use the image. If you’re producing
something for online display, the image resolution only needs to match a standard monitor resolution (72 or 96 ppi).
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Generally for printing purposes, 300 ppi is advisable.
Figure 5.1: Zoomed view of the marked area of an image
5.2 Device Resolution

It refers to the number of pixels or dots per inch (dpi) that the output device, such as a monitor, an LCD panel, or
a video/data projector can produce. This resolution depends on the size of the monitor and its pixel settings. Most
of the new monitors have a resolution of about 96 dpi, while older Mac OS monitors have a resolution of 72 dpi.
Knowing monitor resolution helps you understand why the display size of an image on screen often differs from its
printed size.
Resolution on a monitor depends upon the monitor size. Generally, monitors have a resolution of about 96 dpi.
Figure 5.2: Monitor screen with normal resolution in dpi
5.3 Printer Resolution

The printer resolution refers to the number of ink dots printed per inch (dpi). Most desktop laser printers have a
resolution of 600 dpi and image setters have a resolution of 1200 dpi or more. Inkjet printers have an approximate
resolution of 300 to 600 dpi and produce good results when printing images up to 150 ppi. Screen frequency or
screen ruling or line screen is the number of printer dots or halftone cells per inch used to print grayscale images
or color separations. It is measured in lines per inch (lpi) or lines of cells per inch in a halftone screen. Screen
frequency determines the appropriate resolution for your image while printing to any laser printers and especially
to image setters.
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Figure 5.3: Printer and diagram displaying resolution

■ Continuous Tones
Figure 5.4: Continuous tones in terms of gradual changes in shade
Determining image resolution for printed output is a little different because of the way an image gets printed. A
typical photograph like a snapshot or 8 x 10 glossy of your favorite movie star is known as a continuous tone
photo. It is called continuous tone because of the gradual changes in tones of color or shades of gray (for black
and white photos).
■ Halftones
Figure 5.5: Continuous tones converted to a pattern denote halftones
It is not practical to print continuous tones on a printing press. Therefore, a method was developed to simulate
the changes in tone using only black ink for black and white photos. For a photo to be printed on a printing
press it must be converted into halftone. A halftone is an image whose continuous tones have been converted
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to a pattern of solid dots. When viewed as a whole, this pattern of dots appear as a continuous tone. But actu-
ally it is not so.
Sometimes the image looks fine on screen but when printed it looks poor. There is nothing wrong with the
printer, but the problem is with the resolution of the file. When an image is too pixelated, it means that it has
low resolution. However, vector images are resolution independent because they are created using PostScript
principles. They are mathematical files and are treated as objects. This is one of the biggest advantages of
using vector images.
Lines per inch (lpi) or line screen refers to the number lines (of dots) per inch that will be used to simulate tones
of color and gray in the printing process. A typical line screen for a laser printer is 85 lpi. When scanning, the
trick is to remember that the resolution should be twice the line screen. That means, in case of a laser printer,
an image would require 170 dpi for the best appearance on a printer using 85 lpi. Less dpi value will cause an
image to deteriorate and pixelate.
5.4 Interpolated Resolution

Interpolated resolution is a resolution enhanced through software. This is useful for certain tasks like scanning line
art or enlarging small original images. Interpolated resolution measures how many pixels the scanner can scan.
Through a process called interpolation, the scanner turns a 300 x 300 dpi scan into a 600 x 600 dpi scan by inserting
new pixels in between the old pixels. In this process, the scanner also justifies at what light reading the new added
pixel would have been sampled if it already would have been there. This process almost diminishes the quality of
the scan and hence it is recommended to avoid it.
Therefore, this process is useful to scan line art at a very high resolution. Line art is any black and white or single
color graphic such as a logo, ink sketch, or mechanical blueprint. For this, set the resolution equal to that of the
output device. When producing line art to be printed by a 1200 dpi image setter, set the interpolated resolution up
to about 1200 dpi for superior quality.
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Figure 5.6: Image scanned at 33 dpi Figure 5.7: Image scanned at 100 dpi
Figure 5.8: Image scanned at 200 dpi Figure 5.9: Image scanned at 300 dpi,
that is at maximum optical resolution
Figure 5.10: Image scanned at interpo- Figure 5.11: Image scanned at interpo-
lated 600 dpi lated 1200 dpi
Figure 5.12: Image scanned at interpolated 2400 dpi
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5.5 Digital Images

Digital images are electronic snapshots of a scene or scanned from documents such as photographs, manuscripts,
printed texts, and artwork. The digital image is sampled and mapped as a grid of dots or picture elements (pixels).
Each pixel is assigned a tonal value (black, white, shades of gray, or color), which is represented in binary code.
It is easier to preserve digital images when they are captured consistently and well documented. Digital images can
be created to replace originals or can be used to produce paper copies. The key to image quality is not to capture
images at the highest resolution or bit depth possible, but to match the conversion process to the informational
content of the original image.
What you see as an image are the pixels. Pixels are discrete elements that are used to capture the images created
by the camera or scanner lens system on the device’s imaging chip. The problem arises when you are trying to
understand the relationship between what is captured and what ends up on a print.
5.6 File Size and Bit Depth

Image resolution affects the file size. The file size is proportional to the square of its resolution. File sizes also
depend on the file formats because different compression methods are used by GIF, JPEG, and PNG file formats.
Similarly, color bit depth and the number of layers and channels in an image also affect the file size. Refer figures
5.13 to 5.15 for different image resolutions in dpi and their respective file sizes.
Figure 5.13: Image resolution Figure 5.14: Image resolution Figure 5.15: Image resolution
of 72 dpi, file size 95kb of 96 dpi, file size 168kb of 300 dpi, file size 1.6MB
Bit depth or pixel depth or color depth measures how much color information is available to display or print each
pixel in an image. Greater bit depth means more availability of colors and more accurate color representation in the
digital image. For example, a pixel with a bit depth of 1 has two possible values: black and white.
A pixel with a bit depth of 8 has 28 or 256 possible values. A pixel with a bit depth of 24 has 224 or roughly 16 million
possible values. Common values of bit depth range from 1 to 64 bits per pixel. Increasing the bit depth will affect
resolution requirements, file size, and the compression method used. Refer figures 5.16 to 5.19 for different image
specifications.
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Figure 5.16: Image specifications - 24 Figure 5.17: Image specifications - 8 bit,

bit, 216 colors, JEPG, 4.321 bytes 256 colors, GIF, 8.822 bytes
Figure 5.18: Image specifications - 8 Figure 5.19: Image specifications - 24 bit,

bit, 256 colors, GIF, 8.822 bytes 8 bit, 4 bit
5.7 Scanning Images

A scanner’s capability to capture dynamic range is governed by bit depth and output as well as system‘s performance.
Higher the pixels per inch (ppi), the longer it takes to scan the slide. To ensure high quality scan, predetermine the
scanning resolution and dynamic range required by the image. The scanning resolution should not be greater than
the resolution of the display unit, which is usually 640 x 480 pixels.
While scanning images to be incorporated into a multimedia application, you should usually scan at a resolution
between 300 to 600 dpi. For exporting the scanned image into a multimedia application, you must change its
resolution to 72 dpi.
Lowering the resolution while scanning and increasing it later will delete some original color resolution information
and the resulting image will not be as sharp as the original.
■ Dynamic Range and 24 or 30 Bit Color Depth in Scanners
Dynamic range and bit color depth are two different things.
36 bit scanners with good dynamic range can sometimes capture more shadow detail from an image when
compared to 30 bit scanners. Specifically, dynamic range may add more detail in the shadow tones of images
from positive film (slides) and in the highlights of images from negative film.
Dynamic range is not a major consideration for scanning photo prints as prints are very limited, but it is very
important while scanning films. Virtually all scanners are 36 bits now and some of them are 42 bits. More bits
support more dynamic range, but do not ensure whether it exist.
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Figure 5.20: Scanners and resolutions
In short, a scanner’s ability to capture dynamic range is controlled by the bit depth used and output along with
system performance. The higher the number of pixels per inch (ppi), the longer it will take to scan the slide.
5.8 Graphics File Formats

You can use various file formats to insert or use images in your programs. Image files can be saved in different
formats. Graphics file formats differ in the way they represent graphic information, how the data is compressed,
and the advantages of using each format. Therefore, it is important to understand which file format to use for what
purpose.
5.8.1 Types of Graphic File Formats

There are many file formats that can be used for processing images. Some of the file formats that are widely used
are as follows:
■ BMP
BMP or Microsoft Windows Bitmap image is a simple way to save images. In Bitmap, an image is stored as a
large grid of dots. The BMP format can save images up to 24 bits. Therefore, Bitmap images consume very
less space on your disk. Bitmap files are named with *.bmp extension. Refer figure 5.21 for the file stored in
the BMP format.
Figure 5.21: File stored in the BMP format

Flower.bmp, 200*218, File size: 127 kb
■ TIFF
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) is a common file format used for exchanging Raster (Bitmap) images be-
tween application programs including those used for scanning. This format is useful for saving high quality
images for page layout applications. Most of the recent graphic programs support this format. These files are
named with *.tiff extension. Refer figure 5.22 for the file stored in the TIFF format.
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Figure 5.22: File stored in the TIFF format

Flower.tiff, 200*218, File size: 280 kb
■ PCX
This is the original PC Paintbrush format. It is popular as a low quality image file format because the color
palette is limited to 256 colors. These files are named with *.pcx extension. Refer figure 5.23 for the file stored
in the PCX format.
Figure 5.23: File stored in the PCX format

Flower.pcx, 200*218, File size: 76.7 kb
■ GIF
Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) is used frequently to send and share graphics. Although limited to a 256
color palette, it is commonly used. The color palette is adjustable and includes only those colors that are
required for the images. This format preserves transparency in the indexed color images. However, it does not
support alpha channels. These files are named with *.gif extension. Refer figure 5.24 for the file stored in the
GIF format.
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Figure 5.24: File stored in the GIF format

Flower.gif, 200*218, File size: 19.3 kb
■ JPEG
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) retains all the color information. Therefore, this format is often used
on the web to save images with continuous tone. JPEG files use a compression scheme, which saves only the
vital information of the image and thus reduces file size. It supports CMYK, RGB, and Grayscale color modes.
However, it does not support alpha channels. The JPEG files are named with *.jpg extension. Refer figure 5.25
for the file stored in the JEPG format.
Figure 5.25: File stored in the JPEG file format

Flower.jpg, 200*218, File size: 40.3 kb
■ EPS
Postscript is a printer language that describes the page to be printed using mathematical objects. Encapsu-
lated Postscript (EPS) is a refined version of postscript. It is used to transfer graphic files between programs.
To print an EPS image, you either need an EPS printer or a software that acts like a hardware based postscript
interpreter found with postscript printers. It can contain both vector as well as Bitmap graphics. These files
are named with *.eps extension. In desktop publishing, when you type in an EPS file, the same fonts must be
installed on the computer as the one where the file was created. Otherwise, the fonts won’t be displayed or
printed as intended. Although EPS files can contain either images or type, they are placed in a page layout
program as images. Refer figure 5.26 for the file stored in the EPS format.
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Figure 5.26: File stored in the EPS format

Flower.eps, 200*218, File size: 210 kb
5.8.2 Formats to Use

You can use various file formats based on your needs and the effect you desire for an image. You need to remember
certain general points when using different file formats.
■ File Formats for Bitmap Data
Bitmap data can be saved in the following formats:
● BMP - This is limited file format that is not suitable for use in pre-press.
● EPS - This is flexible file format that contains both bitmap and vector data.
● GIF - This is mainly used for Internet graphics.
● JPEG or JFIF - This file format is mainly used for Internet graphics.
● PDF - This is a versatile file format that contains any type of data including complete pages. This format is
not yet widely used to exchange images.
● PICT - This file format contains both bitmap and vector data. But this is mainly used on Macintosh
computers.
● TIFF - This is the most popular bitmap file format used in pre-press.
■ File Formats for Vector Data
Vector data can be saved in the following formats:
● EPS - This is the most popular file format to exchange vector drawings.
● PDF - This is a versatile file format that contain any type of data including complete pages. This format is
not yet widely used for exchanging images.
● PICT - This file format contains both, bitmap and vector data. This is mainly used on Macintosh
computers.
5.9 Understanding Graphic Images

Computer graphics can be classified into two main categories: Raster (bitmap) and Vector. It is important to
understand the difference between these two categories.
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5.9.1 Raster and Vector Images
Figure 5.27: Raster (Bitmap) image Figure 5.28: Vector image
Refer figure 5.27 for Raster image and figure 5.28 for the Vector image. The above images bring out the difference
as to what happens when the Santa Claus image is zoomed to four times its original size. With only a four-power
zoom, the bitmap image looks fuzzy while the vector image retains its crisp look.
■ Raster (Bitmap) Images
Figure 5.29: Raster (bitmap) image
Refer figure 5.29 for the Raster image. Raster images are also called bitmap images. A bitmap image uses a
grid of colors known as pixels to represent images. Each pixel is assigned a specific location and color value.
Bitmap images are highly resolution dependent and they contain a fixed number of pixels. As a result, they can
lose detail and appear jagged if they are scaled on the screen or if they are printed at a resolution that is lower
than what they were created for. For example, GIF and JPEG formats. Refer figure 5.29 for the raster image.
● Other features of bitmap files
Several formats incorporate unique or unusual data structures in their design. These are usually to
accomplish the specific purpose of the format or to create as much generality as possible.
A common file format is TIFF. TIFF contains a rudimentary header, but stores much of its data in a series
of tags called Image File Directories, which are not fixed in size or position. Image File Directories are
like an in-memory list data structure that are linked by a series of file-offset values. Data can be found
by seeking the next offset value from the current one. While this arrangement can lead to confusion, it
allows programmers to construct a header-like structure that can contain any information, thus adding to
its versatility.
Unusual or unique features of other formats include storing of image data and palette information in
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separate files (for example, Dr. Halo Cut and PAL files). It also includes storing of monochrome bitmaps
as blocks of ASCII format. That is, 1’s and 0’s (as in the PBM format) designed by taking into account the
inter-platform portability.
● Advantages of using bitmap files
◦ Bitmap files can be easily created from existing pixel data stored in an array in the memory.
◦ Retrieving pixel data, stored in a bitmap file, can often be accomplished by using a set of coordinates.
This allows the data to be conceptualized as a grid.
◦ Pixel values can be modified individually or as large groups by altering a palette (if present).
◦ Bitmap files can translate well to dot format output devices such as CRTs and printers.
Figure 5.30: Magnified (zoomed) view of part of the boat representing number of color changes
Vector files cannot display this level of color change effectively
Figure 5.31: Loss of quality due to scaling raster image to a larger size
● Disadvantages of using bitmap files
◦ Bitmap files can be very large, particularly if the image contains a large number of colors. Data
compression can shrink the size of pixel data, but the data must be expanded before it can be used.
This can slow down the reading and rendering process considerably. Also, the more complex the
bitmap image (large number of colors and minute detail), lesser is the efficiency of the compression
process.
◦ Bitmap files cannot be scaled without losing quality. Shrinking an image by decimation (throwing away
pixels) can change the image in an unacceptable manner. Because of this, bitmap files must be printed
at the resolution in which they were originally stored.
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■ Vector Images
Figure 5.32: Vector image ��

Vector graphics are made up of lines and curves defined by mathematical objects called vectors. Vector files
contain mathematical descriptions of one or more image elements that are used by rendering applications
to construct a final image. They are made up of descriptions of image elements or objects rather than pixel
values. Vector graphics are resolution independent and hence they can be scaled to any size and printed at
any resolution without losing detail or clarity. As a result, vector graphics are the best choice for representing
bold graphics that must retain crisp lines when scaled to various sizes.
● Scaling vector images
Figure 5.33: No loss in quality when an original vector image is scaled
A vector element may be scaled to any size. Precision, overflow, and underflow problems may occur.
However, if vector image is scaled too large or too small, the quality remains unchanged. Here, large and
small are related to the intrinsic data size of the hardware and software platform supporting the rendering
application. Although these problems are vivid as per numerical analysis, they are not generally recognized
by many programmers.
Another common problem occurs when enclosed elements are enlarged and then rendered. Two lines
that are meant to be joined may have endpoints that are slightly misaligned. This misalignment might be
displayed as a gap when the element is enlarged or rotated. When a rendering application attempts to
display the element on an output device, fill colors or patterns may leak. Many applications that allow the
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creation of vector files have tools to prevent this, but they may not be applied automatically before the file
is saved.
● Text in vector files
Figure 5.34: Text in vector files Figure 5.35: Text in bitmap files
Use of vector, stroke, or outline fonts usually increases the size of a file. But, this may be offset by an
increase in visual quality in case of spline-based outline fonts. Although there are a number of older font
formats still in use, spline-based outline font data in the TrueType and Adobe Type 1 formats is easily
available on all the major platforms. There is seldom any need to use stroke fonts. Unfortunately, the
reconstruction of characters from spline outline data is not a trivial task and the higher quality afforded by
easy availability of TrueType and Adobe Type 1 fonts comes at the cost of rendering time and program
development.
● Advantages of using vector files
◦ Vector files are useful for storing images that are composed of line-based elements such as lines and
polygons. They are also useful for images that can be decomposed into simple geometrical objects
such as text. More sophisticated formats can also store 3D objects such as polyhedrons and wire-
frame models.
◦ Vector data can be easily scaled and manipulated to accommodate the resolution of a spectrum of
output devices.
◦ Many vector files contain only ASCII-format data, which can be modified with simple text editing tools.
Individual elements may be added, removed, or changed without affecting the other objects in the
image.
◦ It is usually easy to render vector data and save it to a bitmap format file.
● Disadvantages of using vector files
◦ Vector files cannot easily be used to store extremely complex images, such as some photographs,
where color information is paramount and may vary on a pixel by pixel basis.
◦ The appearance of vector images can vary considerably depending upon the application interpreting
the image. Factors include the rendering application’s compatibility with the creator application and the
sophistication of its toolkit of geometric primitives and drawing operations.
◦ Vector data is also displayed best on vectored output devices such as plotters and random scan
displays. High-resolution raster displays are required to display vector graphics effectively.
◦ Reconstruction of vector data may take considerably longer time than that contained in a bitmap file
of equivalent complexity. This is because each image element must be drawn individually and in a
sequence.
5.9.2 Raster (Bitmap) Against Vector
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There are fundamental differences between Raster files and Vector files. Refer to the table 5.1 for the differences:
Raster (bitmap) files Vector files

A bitmap file contains an exact pixel by pixel mapping A vector file contains mathematical descriptions
of an image, which can then be reconstructed by of one or more image elements that are used by
rendering applications based on the display of an rendering applications to construct the final image.
output device.
Bitmap images cannot be scaled to a larger size Vector images can be scaled to any size with no
without losing quality. loss in quality.
Bitmap images are highly resolution dependent. Vector graphics are resolution independent.
Bitmap images use a grid of colors known as pixels to Vector files are made up of descriptions of image
represent images. elements or objects rather than pixel values.
Common bitmap formats are *.tiff, *.jpg/jpeg, *.gif, Vector images are commonly saved in Encapsulated
*.png, and *.bmp. Post Script (EPS) format or their own formats such
as *.ai, *.fh, and *.cdr.
Table 5.1: Differences between bitmap and vector files
Figure 5.36: Manipulated text with solid color
Figure 5.37: Raster image - Ideal for photos
5.9.3 Scalable Vector Graphics

Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is a perfect example of blending technology and design. SVG is a new file format
that enables high quality graphics and images to incorporate real time data. SVG introduces a new generation
of dynamic and information-rich graphics. Scalable graphics automatically get adjusted to the available screen
resolution. This makes SVG useful for web designers as it solves one of the most tedious issue of creating designs
that are inter-operable but as visually appealing as possible.
SVG rendering is based on a paint model. Color, gradients, and patterns are painted on the screen to achieve end
results. You can fill and stroke shapes and text or apply other graphic techniques like masking and opacity. There
are several softwares available to offer a standard drawing environment so that SVG can be exported and used in
browsers.
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■ Using SVG
SVG has many qualities. The SVG file is only 1992 bytes, which is quite small. When you try saving the same
image as a GIF, it will be almost four times larger. We could probably reduce the SVG file size substantially by
either removing the comments using classes instead of embedded styles and then compressing it. The Adobe
plug-in allows you to use the zipped SVG images.
Another aspect of SVG image is that it can be used in Flash animation. Also, since SVG files are vector-based,
you can zoom in and zoom out without any loss in quality.
Text that is a part of an SVG image can be copied onto the clipboard. This feature is not available with many
of the graphic formats.
In spite of these outstanding features, the biggest problem with SVG is its incompatibility with the Web. The
Adobe plug-in allows majority of web surfers to view SVG images. SVG images can’t be used on most of the
web pages until the plug-in for SVG is available. This plug-in is available with most of the standard browser
installations.
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5.10 Summary
● Image resolution is defined as the number of pixels displayed per unit of printed area of an image and is
typically measured in pixels per inch (ppi).
● Higher the image resolution, more is the disk space required and more is the time taken to display and print
images.
● Device or output resolution refers to the number of pixels or dots per inch (dpi) that the output device, such
as monitor, an LCD panel, or a video/data projector can produce.
● Printer resolution refers to the number of ink dots printed per inch (dpi).
● Digital images are electronic snapshots of a scene or scanned from documents such as photographs,
manuscripts, printed texts, and artwork.
● Interpolated resolution is resolution enhanced through software and is useful for certain tasks like scanning
line art or enlarging small originals.
● Image files can be saved in different file formats. But very few file formats are common and readable.
● Graphics file formats differ in the way they represent graphic information, the way they compress image
data, and the advantages or disadvantages of using them.
● The common file formats used are BMP, TIFF, PCX, JPEG, and EPS.
● Computer graphics can be classified into two main categories, raster (bitmap) and vector.
● A bitmap image uses a grid of colors known as pixels to represent images.
● Vector graphics are made up of lines and curves defined by mathematical objects called vectors.
● SVG is a new file format that enables high quality graphics and images.
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5.11 Exercise
State whether the following statements are true/false
1. Images with lower resolution usually reproduce more detail and smoother color transitions when printed.
2. S
creen frequency or screen ruling or line screen is the number of printer dots or halftone cells per inch used to
print grayscale images or color separations.
3. A
tone is called continuous because of the gradual changes of tones of color or shades of gray (for black and
white photos).
4. Halftones measure how much color information is available to display or print each pixel in an image.
5. The higher the number of pixels per inch (ppi), the longer it takes to scan the slide.
6. Bit depth measures how many pixels the scanner can scan.
7. Line art is any black and white or single-color graphic such as a logo, ink sketch, or mechanical blueprint.
8. Dynamic range is not a major consideration for scanning photo print as prints are very limited, but it is very
important while scanning films.
9. Lower bit depth means more availability of colors and more accurate color representation in the digital image.
10. GIF supports alpha channel.
11. Lossless compression actually eliminates some of the data in the image.
12. The eight transparency bits are sometimes called alpha channel.
13. Vector images are also called bitmap images.
14. Bitmap graphics are made up of lines and curves defined by mathematical objects.
15. R
econstruction of vector data may take considerably longer than that contained in a Bitmap file of equivalent
complexity.
1. False. Images with higher resolution usually reproduce more detailed and smoother color transitions when
printed.
2. True.
3. True.
4. False. Bit depth or pixel depth or color depth measures how much color information is available to display or
print each pixel in an image.
5. True.
6. False. Interpolated resolution measures how many pixels the scanner can scan.
7. True.
8. True.
9. False. Higher bit depth means more availability of colors and more accurate color representation in the digital
image.
10. False. GIF does not support alpha channel.
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11. False. Lossy compression actually eliminates some of the data in the image.
12. True.
13. False. Raster images are called bitmap images.
14. Flase. Vector graphics are made up of lines and curves defined by mathematical objects.
15. True.
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Understanding and Working with Graphics and Web Images
Session 6: Understanding and Working

with Graphics and Web Images
Learning Outcomes
● Describe the different graphic programs
● Describe the various features of graphic programs
● Discuss the different file formats for web-based graphics
● Discuss the web-safe color palette
In the previous session, you learnt about image resolution and various file formats. Now, in this session you will
understand and work with graphics and web images. You will also be able to differentiate between raster and vector
images and learn about different graphic programs.
6.1 Types of Graphic Program

Graphic programs are the softwares that allow a graphic artist to create and edit graphic elements. There are many
programs available today. The basic programs are those that come with basic operating systems. For example,
Microsoft Paint, which is available in Microsoft Windows. Other basic programs are those that are included in
authoring softwares and used as multimedia applications.
6.1.1 Drawing Programs

Drawing programs such as Adobe Illustrator and CorelDraw are used to draw graphics. These programs can be
used for freehand drawing as well as to draw geometric shapes such as circle, square, rectangle, etc. Therefore,
they are useful in creating designs where precise dimensions and relative positions are important. Refer figure 6.1
for the CorelDraw application.
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Figure 6.1: CorelDraw
6.1.2 Paint Programs

Paint programs are used for creating bitmap images. They are useful in creating original art because they provide
easy-to-use tools, such as brushes and pens. Refer figure 6.2 for the Microsoft Paint application.
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Figure 6.2: Microsoft Paint
6.1.3 Image Editing Programs

Image editing programs are useful in making changes, such as changing the brightness or contrast. They are also
used for applying textures or patterns to existing images. Refer figure 6.3 for the Adobe Photoshop application.
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Figure 6.3: Adobe Photoshop
6.1.4 Presentation Software

These programs allow you to create bar charts, pie charts, graphics, and other types of images for slide shows and
reports. Refer figure 6.4 for the Microsoft PowerPoint application.
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Figure 6.4: Microsoft PowerPoint
6.1.5 CAD Software

These softwares enable architects and engineers to draft designs. Refer figure 6.5 for the CAD program.
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Figure 6.5: CAD Program
6.1.6 Desktop Publishing

These programs provide a complete set of word-processing features as well as fine control over placement of
text and graphics. This helps you create newsletter layouts, advertisement layouts, books, and other types of
documents. Refer figure 6.6 for the Adobe Photoshop application.
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Figure 6.6: Adobe Photoshop
In general, such applications require a graphics monitor, large amount of memory, and support for one of the many
graphics standards. For example, most PC programs require a VGA graphics card. If your computer does not have
in-built support for a specific graphics system, you can insert a video adapter card.
The quality of most graphics devices is also determined by the resolution they support.
6.2 Features of Graphics Programs

The features supported by different types of graphic programs vary. It is important to understand which type of
images will be supported by which program. Also, it is imperative to know whether the program is generally used for
drawing, painting (bitmap), or image editing.
You should select the graphic program by considering the features available. Some of the features you need to take
into account are listed below:
■ Cross-Platform Compatibility
It is important to check whether the output files you create using the graphics program are compatible with
other applications. For that, you need to check if the graphics run on both Windows and Macintosh operating
systems.
■ File Format Support
Every graphic program supports different types of file formats. Therefore, before using any program, you
should check which file format the graphics program supports. You must also check if the program allows you
to save and/or convert graphic images using popular file formats, including TIFF, BMP, PCX, PICT, JPEG, GIF,
and PNG. Refer figure 6.7 for a graphic format support.
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Figure 6.7: Graphic format support

■ Object Layering
Object layering allows you to include more than one bitmap in an image and edit each bitmap independently of
others. Therefore, it is important to check if the graphics program you are using supports object layering. Refer
figure 6.8 for Object layering window.
Figure 6.8: Object layering

■ Image Enhancements
One of the important features to be considered is the image enhancement capability of the graphics program.
So, it is important to check whether the graphics program allows you to enhance images using painting tools.
Check if it has a pencil, brush, airbrush, text, and line tools. Many graphics programs allow you to define
brushes and preview the brush size. They also offer an option to paint with textures and patterns and to retouch
using the smudge, sharpen, and blur features. Refer figure 6.9 for image enhancement tools.
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Figure 6.9: Image enhancement tools

■ Selection Tool
Graphics programs come with various easy to use selection tools. You need to check which selection tools are
provided in the graphics program. Some of the graphics programs allow selection of any part of an image using
a freehand tool. Generally, programs that permit the most correct development of images allow you to select
all pixels of a particular color. This helps you to work in detail. Also, you need to check if the program allows
you to use masks. Masks are used to isolate parts of an image so that you can work on them separately. In a
nutshell, check if the graphic program provides selection tools that allow you to apply desired effects for the
required results. Refer figure 6.10 for different selection tools.
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Figure 6.10: Different selection tools

■ Color Adjustments
Graphics programs offer transformations due to color adjustments. You need to check if the graphics program
allows you to select from a range of colors and adjust the image color simultaneously. Many graphics programs
allow you to selectively change hue (the shade or color itself), saturation (the relative brilliance or vibrancy of
the color), and its brightness. Refer figure 6.11 for the Color adjustment window .
Figure 6.11: Color adjustment window
6.3 File Formats for the Web

Creating graphics with small file sizes is important when you want to publish the images on the World Wide Web
(WWW). With smaller files, Web servers can store and display images more efficiently and quickly. Also, smaller
size images are easy and quick to download.
There are various programs like Adobe Photoshop and Adobe ImageReady, which provide various options for
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compressing the file size of an image and optimizing its online display quality.
You can optimize image quality in two major graphic file formats used on the web, namely GIF (Graphics Interchange
Format) and JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group).
6.3.1 JPEG Format

The JPEG format supports 24-bit color and preserves the broad range and subtle variations in brightness and hue
in photographs and other continuous toned images. Most browsers support JPEG.
JPEG compresses file size by selectively discarding data. JPEG compression is referred to as lossy because it
discards data. Refer figure 6.12 for JEPG image.
Figure 6.12: JPEG image
6.3.2 GIF Format
Figure 6.13: 8 bit GIF of 15 kb and a 24 bit GIF of 215 kb
The GIF format uses 8-bit color and efficiently compresses solid areas of color while preserving sharp details such
as in the line art, logos, and illustrations with type.
You can also use the GIF format to create animated images. GIF is supported by many of the browsers. The GIF
format traditionally uses a lossless compression method, in which no data is discarded during compression. You
can save a GIF file as many times as you want without discarding any data. However, because GIF files are of 8-bit
color, optimizing an original 24-bit image to an 8-bit GIF will generally degrade the image quality. Refer figure 6.13
for 8 bit and 24 bit images.
6.4 Colors and Text for the Web

Colors and text are also an integral part of the web images. Therefore, it is important to check the appropriate usage
of colors and text on the Web.
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6.4.1 Using Colors on the Web
Typically, a user would be using an 8-bit color resolution to view pages on the Internet. An 8-bit color resolution
allows you to view 256 colors. 40 colors out of these 256 colors vary between Windows and Macintosh operating
systems. That is, remaining 216 colors are available to anyone viewing a web page.
The web-safe color palette is a set of 216 colors that are consistent across all video display devices, operating
systems, and browsers. The colors in the web-safe color palette are those that should always be available to all
images, regardless of user’s video display device, operating system, or browser. Using web-safe colors guarantees
that the web page would be viewed similarly on all the machines. Web-safe colors appear solid (non-dithered) even
on the 256 color display.
6.4.2 Using Text on the Web

Inappropriate use of text causes display issues on a website. The content on the site should be portrayed properly to
ensure that the message is conveyed clearly. Use of proper fonts is essential and a web page designer must ensure
that fonts used are compatible with commonly used browsers such as Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.
Research has proven that first-time visitors on a website spend less than 53 seconds on a web page. If the web
page does not gain the visitor’s attention during this period, then there are chances of the user losing interest and
quitting the site. The basic challenge of using text on a web page is to present the message in an exciting, creative,
and visually pleasing manner. Meeting this challenge means understanding how text is used differently on the web
than it is used in print. Two considerations when using text in web pages are, how the fonts are displayed using
different browsers and how to accommodate text-intensive multimedia applications.
Two major web browsers, Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator essentially determine which fonts are used by
web designers. This is because most users will access a web page using one of these two browsers. A designer
must ensure that the web page display is up to the expectations by specifying fonts that are compatible with these
two browsers. If web page designer specifies a font that is unavailable on the user’s computer, then the browser
substitutes a different font. A substitute font can have negative effect on the page design. For example, it may take
up more line space, and thus wrap differently on the page creating bad line breaks.
To ensure that the text is displayed properly, web page designers can use a fontset. Typically, fontset is an ordered
list of acceptable fonts. In case the first font is unavailable on the user’s computer, then the second font in the list is
used. If the second font in the list is unavailable, then the third font in the list is used and so on. The use of fontsets
is fairly common, but it is not so helpful for web page designers.
One more method to gain control over the use of text on the web is by using a Cascading Style Sheet (CSS). A CSS
is a template that defines the appearance of a web page including text fonts.
The most effective way to ensure that a specific font will work with various computer systems and browsers is to
embed it into your web pages. Two competing standards are OpenType (supported by Microsoft and Adobe) and
TrueDoc (supported by Netscape and Bit stream). Programs such as Microsoft’s Web Embedding Fonts Tool and
Bit stream’s WebFont wizard allow designers to embed fonts in a web page.
Another way to ensure that the text will be displayed in a specific format is to change the text into an image. That is
to create the text and save it in a graphic format. The graphic will be displayed as created, irrespective of the fonts
installed on the computer or the browser used. However, there are problems with this approach. For example, more
development time is required, which in turn increases the development costs. Another drawback is that a graphic
image is large, which increases the time taken to display an image on the user’s screen because of its size and the
developer cannot easily edit the text, which increases maintenance costs.
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6.5 Summary
● Many software applications include graphic components. Such programs are said to support graphics.
Paint programs, Illustration/Design programs, Presentation Graphics software, Animation software, CAD
softwares and Desktop Publishing are some of the graphics application softwares that are widely used.
● Graphics are used in web pages to make them look more attractive.
● Images can be optimized in two major graphic file formats, namely GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) and
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group).
● Various graphic effects can be given for web images.
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6.6 Exercise
1. P
aint programs help you create bar charts, pie charts, graphics, and other types of images for slide shows and
reports.
2. CAD software enables architects and engineers to draft designs.
3. Screen capture programs allow you to create rough freehand drawings.
4. Only window-based computers allow you to capture whatever is on the computer screen as a graphic.
5. D
esktop publishing programs provide a full set of word-processing features as well as fine control over placement
of text and graphics.
6. The GIF format uses 16-bit color.
7. The JPEG format supports 24-bit color.
8. A CSS is a template that defines the appearance of a web page including text fonts.
1. False. Presentation graphic programs help create bar charts, pie charts, graphics and other types of images for
slide shows and reports.
2. True.
3. False. Paint programs allow you to create rough freehand drawings.
4. False.
5. True.
6. False. The GIF format uses 24-bit color.
7. True.
8. True.
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Illustration and Softwares
Session 7: Illustration and Softwares
Learning Outcomes
● Define and discuss illustrations
● Discuss the history of illustration
● Discuss illustrations in today’s context
● Discuss the functions of illustration
● Discuss the various types of illustrations
Illustration and drawing are closely associated and inter-related. But there is a lot more to drawing than just random
scribbling. Drawing involves consideration of a lot of aspects like observation, thinking, feeling, and perception.
Figure 7.1: Example of illustration

Illustration is sometimes considered as the advanced form of drawing. Illustration primarily aims at expressing the
idea behind illustration rather than drawing structures and objects as they are. It requires a lot of visualization skills.
The key purpose behind creating an illustration is to explain or enhance textual matter or communicate the concept
behind it effectively. Illustrations are generally used in stories, poems, and newspaper articles. Textual information
can be presented better when it is communicated visually. Refer figure 7.1 for example of illustration.
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Figure 7.2: Example of textual illustration

In figure 7.2, you can see how the text is presented to communicate what it means. Therefore, visual communication
skills are essential. The challenging task is to put across an idea, concept, or emotion through illustrations. Illustration
skills can be honed and mastered with experience and practice. The greatest achievement is to create an artwork
that talks a lot more than plain words.
Today, many tools are used for creating illustrations. Some of the commonly used tools are pencil, ink, and paint. In
addition to the conventional drawing techniques, computers are also used as a medium to create illustrations.
7.1 History
The history of illustration is quite interesting. Illustration started at the early stages of a frontier country. Many
artists learned and got themselves trained in various illustration techniques. In Europe and America, limitations
on reproduction of art were the major roadblock to precise translation of the original drawings or paintings. The
innovation in printing technologies had a deep impact on the methods and techniques used for illustration.
7.1.1 Early History

Cave paintings are the best examples of the first form of illustrations. Prior to the use of printing press, illuminated
manuscripts were hand-drawn. An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is decorated with initials,
borders, and miniature illustrations. Refer figure 7.3 for cave paintings.
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Figure 7.3: Cave paintings
7.1.2 15th - 18th Century

The 15th century is known for woodcut illustrations that are primarily found in books. Illustrations were reproduced
during the 16th and 17th centuries through processes like engraving and etching. Many better illustrations were
reproduced through lithography at the end of the 18th century. Refer figure 7.4 for historical greek vase.
Figure 7.4: Historical greek vase
7.1.3 Golden Age

The American golden age of illustration is the phase that began around 1880 and lasted till after World War I.
However, some golden age illustrators started their gainful career late and continued for a few more decades.
During this golden period, the most commonly used media were newspapers, magazines, and illustrated books.
With the new developments in printing technology, colors and new rendering techniques were used and also
experimented with. A handful of illustrators quickly took advantage of these technological developments to create
valuable pieces of artwork. Many illustrators became famous during this era of illustration.
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7.2 Illustration Today
Figure 7.5: Illustration today

Since 1990, traditional illustrators have been facing challenges for choosing the most appropriate software for
illustration. Some of these applications are Adobe Illustrator, Photoshop, and CorelDRAW.
Many colleges, universities, and institutes are training new generation artists on various computer applications.
However, some illustrators are only aware of the technical capabilities of computers. They need to train themselves
to optimize the use of computers for their work.
Traditionally, illustration was considered less significant as compared to fine art and graphic designing. But times
have changed now. Entertainment and creative industry has become more dynamic and user-oriented. Thoughtful
illustrations can manipulate viewers’ moods through imagination. Moreover, due to the inventions in the gaming,
animation, advertising, and publishing industries, illustrations are becoming more popular and profitable. Today,
illustration has a global market, especially in Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, and USA.
Original pieces of artwork have always been in demand. There is a huge craze for collecting and admiring such
historical artworks. Adept illustrations in books, magazines, and posters have been treasured. There are innumerable
museums, exhibitions, and art galleries devoted to displaying and preserving illustrations from the past centuries.
7.3 Function
Illustrations help in portraying and conveying a variety of subject matter. Generally, illustrations are used for the
following purposes:
● Communicating theme-based subjects
● Drawing characters in a story
● Advertising brands by uniquely and creatively associating them with human expressions
● Invoking emotions of viewers or readers along with the influence of textual content
● Representing graphical examples or information in textbooks
● Demonstrating stepwise instructions in technical manuals
7.4 Illustrator
Typically, an illustrator thrives on presenting the content and conveying the text message. The key purpose behind
creating illustrations is to visually represent complex concepts or concepts that are difficult to describe through
text. Many illustrators work for the entertainment industry. For example, illustrators design greeting cards, cover
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art, interior art for books and magazines, and advertisements on posters. Many new generation illustrators create
artworks for books, advertising, newspapers, and magazines.
Traditionally, ink pen and airbrush artists were skilled in this area. Since the time of technological advancement, a
lot of illustrators have started using computers as a medium to create illustrations. However, some illustrators still
follow the conventional techniques, especially for books. A graphic artist can also become an illustrator.
Illustrators work a bit differently compared to fine artists. Typically, an illustrator first gets an assignment. Then
the art director gives a brief of the concept or provides an article to read. Most of the times, artworks created by
illustrators are based on different themes.
To be an illustrator, there is no strict rule for academic qualification. However, many well-known illustrators hold a
degree from art school or college and are trained on various painting and drawing methodologies. Many art colleges
and universities now offer specialized programs in illustration.
Computer gaming industries also involve illustrators in the initial stages of designing computer games. Moreover,
illustrators play a vital role in the conceptual stages of production. Many illustrators also choose to work as freelancers
rather than being full time employees.
Scientific illustrators create illustrations to represent scientific concepts. Their work can be seen in many scientific
parks and museums. Similarly, medical illustrators produce illustrations to depict human anatomy. This expertise is
achieved through several years of experience in artistic and medical training. Refer figure 7.6 for scientific illustration
and figure 7.7 for medical illustration.
Figure 7.6: Scientific illustration
Figure 7.7: Medical illustration
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7.5 Types of Illustration

There are different types of illustrations. Some of them are as follows:
7.5.1 Digital Illustration

The digital revolution has occupied all areas of life. Along with the traditional methods of illustration, there has always
been an increasing demand for digital illustration. Digital illustrations are also hand-drawn, the only difference being
that they are implemented on a computer platform. For creative artists, specifically illustrators, it has become
essential to create digital illustrations in a considerably small amount of time. Knowledge of drawing fundamentals,
painting skills, and experience helps in creating digital illustrations.
In digital illustration, you first trace or draw the outline of an element, object, or sketch. After drawing an image, you
need to scan it at a higher resolution. Remember to save the scanned image as a bitmap file. You can import this
bitmap image in any of the graphic softwares. You can then edit and/or color the image as per your choice. You can
also add different features or apply different effects to make the image look more lively and attractive.
Mainly, digital illustrations are created in two formats, bitmap and vector. With the tools that create bitmap illustrations,
the information is stored digitally in fixed rows, columns, and layers, which contain information about each pixel’s hue,
luminance, and sometimes, filter settings. For example, Photoshop, Paint Shop Pro, Corel Painter, and GIMP.
With vector-based tools, the information is stored digitally in the form of resolution-independent mathematical
formulae that describe lines, shapes, and color gradients. For example, Freehand, Illustrator, CorelDRAW, and
Inkscape. Refer figure 7.8 for an example of digital illustration.
Figure 7.8: An example of digital illustration

■ Features of Digital Softwares
Digital softwares come with various tutorials and techniques. These help you draw with bezier curves, work
with paths, and use the pen tool in vector-based illustration software. The different softwares available today
are Illustrator, CorelDRAW, Freehand, Xara, Canvas, etc.
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■ Terminology Used In Drawing Software
Vector-based drawing software is mainly used for path and node editing. The vector-based drawing tools are
more flexible and resolution independent. Therefore, nowadays, many painting and photo editing programs are
used widely. You need to understand the terminologies used for computer drawings irrespective of the painting
or drawing software that you use.
■ Facts About Vector Images
The best new feature of latest Illustrator CS2 application is the one called Live Trace. With this tool, you can
trace logos, sketches, scans, and many other bitmap images that are otherwise very time-consuming and
difficult to reproduce.
While working with vector images, you can use the new special features of the various applications. Some of
them are as follows:
● Working with Shape Layers
● Graffiti Spraypaint Art
● Graffiti Stencil Tags
● Urban Art using Real Paint Innovative Photo Conversion Methods
● Advanced Bitmap Methods for B-movie Poster Art
● Tracing Photographs
● Creating pop Art
● Retro Art Effects
● Illustrating from Scanned Sketches
● Comic Coloring Techniques
● Inkjet and Water
● Antique Effects
● Photocopier
7.5.2 Perspective Illustration

Detailed knowledge about the principles of perspective is a must for creating an apt and visually attractive artwork.
Perspective illustration is the approximate representation of an image, perceived at eye level.
The two most important characteristics of perspective view are as follows:
● As the distance between the object and the observer increases, the object look smaller as compared to its
original size.
● The object also look distorted when it is viewed through an angle.
An illustration drawn without any knowledge of perspective techniques may lead to misinterpretation. Therefore,
in-depth understanding of perspective techniques is essential. It provides a 3-dimensional view of an object. It also
gives you an idea about the visual depth of an object.
Perspective illustration always begins with a well-executed line art. It could either be hand-drawn or objects
modeled and rendered using computer software. Hand-drawn illustrations can be prepared through impressions or
constructed with the help of diagrams and elevations.
With the help of new computer applications and plug-ins, you can achieve realistic effects that portray images as in
the real world. Perspective illustrations are of great help to architects and interior designers to visualize and present
their ideas. Refer figure 7.9 for an example of perspective illustration.
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Figure 7.9: An example of perspective illustration
Now let’s learn about what is a perspective view in detail. When you stand on a straight road and look ahead,
you feel as if the parallel sides of the road are meeting at an illusionary point. This point is known as vanishing
point. Consider a railroad track as an example. You can draw an image of a railroad track that disappears into the
distance. Refer figure 7.10 for perspective view of the railroad from above.
Figure 7.10: Perspective view of the railroad from above

The figure above shows a view of an observer that is looking down the track. The observer can be a camera or an
eye. Imagine some points at regular intervals along the railroad tracks as shown in figure 7.10. The rays from these
points are projected into the eye. The angles formed at the eye by these rays depend on the distance between these
points and the eye.
Now, let’s look at the side view of a railroad track. Figure 7.11 shows the side view. Here, the observer is above the
ground. Refer figure 7.11 for perspective view of the railroad from side.
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Figure 7.11: Perspective view of the railroad from side

While drawing according to the perspective view, you need to draw a horizontal line and then draw a point anywhere
on the horizon. Consider this point as your vanishing point. Then lines are drawn from the object till they intersect
at the vanishing point. Figure 7.12 shows an example of the perspective view.
Figure 7.12: An example of the perspective view
As we all know, objects look smaller and different when seen from a distance and through different angles. But the
original shape and geometry of an object remains the same even as we go closer.
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Try it out !!!

● This is the picture of a long lobby. There is a window on the left wall. The window is in trapezoid shape.
Imagine an observer’s position and draw another window next to this window in the lobby. You can also
draw an entire row of windows.
● To do this, imagine that the tops of all the windows are at the same height and the window bottoms are
at the same level.
7.5.3 Cartoon
Illustrations are also used for cartooning. Cartooning involves creating mascots and designing characters for books
and comic strips. Cartooning involves free-style drawing techniques. Therefore, for cartooning, illustration is the
best medium as compared to other mediums.
It is a well-known saying that ‘a picture is worth a thousand words’. Cartoon and character illustrations are considered
as effective tools to convey ideas and present information. Characters are largely used to emphasize and convey
the ideas behind a particular product or service.
Cartoon characters are intended to catch the attention of the audience. Cartooning skills are all about understanding
the concept behind the character, analyzing the target audience, knowing its purpose, and then creating the actual
design. Refer figure 7.14 for illustration of cartoon character and figure 7.15 for cartoon character for a comic strip.
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Figure 7.14: Illustration of a cartoon character
Figure 7.15: Cartoon characters for a comic strip
7.5.4 Others
Artworks and illustrations are used for many purposes. Some of these are as follows:
● Drawing facial muscles, human expressions, and emotions
● Drawing diagrams to explain complicated information. For example, you can show association between
parts, organizational hierarchy, directions, flowcharts, and movements.
● Creating logos, events, simulations, and other smart products

● Preparing maps and posters
● Narrating stories effectively through pictures and graphics in books
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Figure 7.16: Illustration of a map
Figure 7.17: Illustration for a story book
7.6 Illustration Programs

Illustration softwares or programs are powerful, advanced drawing tools that can be used in creating high-end
professional designs or in business. They provide vector-based graphics editing and drawing capabilities to create
simple, non-photographic designs, technical diagrams, illustrations and stylized art. Some softwares also have
basic typography and page layout capabilities to produce small documents.
7.6.1 Types of Softwares Used

Some of the different types of softwares used in creating illustrations are as follows:
■ Xara Xtreme
Xara Xtreme is a software with high speed and small size. It has a powerful set of features and reasonable
system requirements.
■ CorelDraw Graphics Suite
This software provides Photo-Paint for photo editing, R.A.V.E. for web animation and several other utilities,
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fonts, and clipart along with CorelDRAW. CoralDraw is the core application for vector-based illustration. Al-
though CorelDraw is ignored by professional designers, it is a popular choice among small business users. It
is the most popular illustrator tool used for logo designing and other print media.
■ Adobe Illustrator
Adobe illustrator is an industry-standard software, which is well supported by service bureaus and is also
preferred by professionals, mainly those working in a print-oriented environment.
■ ACD Systems Canvas
Canvas is an all-in-one graphics suite combined within a single interface. Historically, canvas was primarily
used by large corporations and technical professionals. But it is also an all-purpose graphic tool, which is ideal
for small business users, web designers, educators, and creative professionals.
■ Macromedia Freehand
Macromedia freehand is a program with a long history of print production. It integrates well with other Macro-
media web products, especially Flash. It is an excellent choice for designers to work on web design, animation,
multimedia, and print. But the latest Adobe acquisition of Macromedia makes its future very unpredictable.
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7.7 Summary
● Illustration primarily aims at conveying subject matter rather than drawing structures and objects.
● Some of the commonly used media for illustration are pencil, ink, and paint.
● Cave paintings are the best examples of the first ancient forms of illustrations.
● Today, a lot of illustrators have started using computers as a medium to create illustrations. However, some
illustrators still follow the conventional techniques, especially for books.
● Digital illustrations are also hand-drawn, the only difference being that they are implemented on a computer
platform.
● In digital illustration, you draw an image, scan it at a higher resolution, and then save it as a bitmap file.
You can import this bitmap image in any of the graphic softwares and then edit and/or color the image as
per your choice.
● Perspective illustration is the approximate representation of an image, perceived at eye level.
● Perspective illustration is the illustration of an object as seen from a distance and through different angles.
But the original shape and geometry of an object remains the same even as we go closer.
● Cartooning involves creating mascots and designing characters for books and comic strips.
● Artworks and illustrations are used for various media and different purposes.
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7.8 Exercise
1. An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is decorated with initials, borders, and miniature
illustrations.
2. Cartooning involves creating mascots and designing characters for books and comic strips.
3. Digital illustrations are created in two formats, bitmap and vector.
4. Perspective illustrations provide a 3-dimensional view of an object.
5. With the tools that create bitmap illustrations, the information is stored digitally in the form of resolution-
independent mathematical formulae that describe lines, shapes, and color gradients.
6. Perspective illustration is the approximate representation of an image, perceived at eye level.
7. Perspective illustrations are implemented on a computer platform.
8. Objects look smaller and different when seen from a distance and through different angles.
1. True.
2. True.
3. True.
4. True.
5. False. With vector-based tools, the information is stored digitally in the form of resolution-independent
mathematical formulae that describe lines, shapes, and color gradients.
6. True.
7. False. Digital illustrations are implemented on a computer platform.
8. True.
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Illustration Tools and Techniques
Session 8: Illustration Tools and Techniques
Learning Outcomes
● Describe the different tools used when creating illustrations
● Discuss the various softwares that can be used to create illustrations
● Describe the different techniques used when creating illustrations
In the previous session, you learnt about illustrations and various softwares used to create illustrations. In this
session, you will learn about the various tools and techniques used when creating illustrations.
8.1 Tools
The tools used while creating an illustration are as follows:
8.1.1 Pencil
Pencil is one of the basic tools used for creating an illustration. Refer figure 8.1. The main focus area in pencil
drawing is marking. The process of applying pencil on paper is termed as mark-making. Your skill in pencil drawing
can be improved by selecting the pencil carefully, and by applying strokes on the page. Controlling and working on
the various possibilities of the mark is an important step for fine tuning the art of a developing artist.
Figure 8.1: An image depicting pencils
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Some of the techniques used to create a good illustration are as follows:
● Keep Your Pencils Sharp
For most pencil drawings, pencils should be kept sharp. But for some techniques, chisel-point or blunt
pencils can also be used. If you need to draw a dark line, use soft pencils. The only disadvantage of using
a soft pencil is that it goes blunt quickly. Pencils used for creating illustration are shown in figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: An image of blunt and sharp pencils

● Use a Variety of Line
In a linear drawing or within a texture of a tonal drawing, lines of different weights can be used. The weights
of these lines can vary by lifting the pencil or by pressing it harder.
● The Art is in the Mark
The mark you make on the paper can be compared to the notes played by a musician. However, how well
the music is written, if the ‘notes’ are not played carefully, the result will not be good. Similarly, the idea
of drawing can also be reflected more beautifully or dramatically by the kind of mark made on the paper.
Let the pencil strokes made by you reflect the feeling, whether the idea is gentle or flowing. An illustration
drawn using pencil is shown in figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: An illustration using pencil
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8.1.2 Pen and Ink

Creating an illustration becomes easy with the use of pen and ink. Different types of nibs and inks can be used in a
pen while creating an illustration.
Today, various kinds of nibs are available ranging from a delicate hairline to a broad heavy line. Architectural
subjects can be depicted tightly or loosely with a pen, using different types of nibs. In figure 8.4, the drawing shown
on the left is sketched with a fine point pen, and the drawing shown on the right is sketched with a stub point pen.
Figure 8.4: Illustrations using different kinds of pens
Suppose you want to draw a sketch when you are outdoor. It is extremely difficult to carry a bottle of ink and find a
flat surface to rest on. So at such times, it is better to use a fountain pen with a stub or a flexible point pen that will
enable you to draw nicely.
There are two types of fountain pens. One is specially made for the use of heavy black India ink and the other for
a deep blue-black ink, which serves all purposes. You will encounter difficulty only when pen drawing is supported
by colored water-color washes, because ordinary fountain-pen ink is water-soluble that runs and heavy black India
ink is waterproof. But this can turn out as an advantage to those artists who prefer the blurred line and termed it
‘atmospheric’. An illustration drawn using pen is shown in figure 8.5.
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Figure 8.5: A pen illustration
8.1.3 Brush
The combination of pen and brush with ink is one of the most common techniques used in drawing. Artists usually
draw the shapes of the composition on paper with the help of a pen. It is possible to emphasize lines or to draw
fields of various tints in diluted ink with the help of a brush. These effects are used to suggest space in the drawing.
Usage of diluted ink to improve a pen drawing is known as wash. Different types of brushes are used in illustrations.
Some of them are as follows.
● Flat Brush
These brushes contain long closely arranged bristles used for drawing detail. Refer figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Flat brush
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● Round Brush
They have long hairs used for spreading paint quickly and evenly over the surface. Different types of round
brushes are shown in figure 8.7.
Figure 8.7: Round brush

● Acrylic Brush
These brushes have long handles that allow the artist to work at a distance from the canvas. Since acrylic
paints are more caustic than oils, acrylic brushes are made using synthetic bristles. These brushes can
also be used in other mediums such as oils. Glazing and layering techniques can be utilized effectively
using acrylic brushes.
Figure 8.8: Acrylic brush
An Illustration made by brush is shown in figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9: An illustration using brush (��

Refer to the colored section for the colored image)
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8.1.4 Charcoal
Charcoal is one of the oldest art materials and it was used for drawing on the walls of caves during the pre-historic
age. It is easy to manufacture and can be used as an essential tool by all the artists. Charcoal is formed by burning
wood in a very little or no oxygen, i. e. in anaerobic condition. It is an impure form of elemental carbon. Refer figure
8.10.
Figure 8.10: Charcoal
Advantages and Disadvantages
The joy of using charcoal as a medium for drawing is due to its spontaneity and sensitivity. The mark made by
charcoal is very artistic, similar to the drawing made by brush. It is also used in making technical drawings. Artistic
drawings using fluid are best accomplished with the soft, rich crayons, whereas detailed drawings are best achieved
with harder ones, especially charcoal pencils.
The major disadvantage of charcoal is its tendency to ‘dust-off.’ This disadvantage will not be a problem when
drawn on cave walls where there is very little air-movement to blow it off, but it will be an important issue if it is
displayed in an open space.
■ Charcoal Over Pencil
The ‘feel’ of each medium is the main difference between pencil and charcoal. Artists tend to adopt more
technical and accurate drawing styles using pencils, be it graphite or charcoal pencils, whereas charcoal is
used as a very fast, direct and responsive art material. It can be used to produce bold and fluid lines, and is
also a great host of textures and elusive gradations of shadings.
■ Techniques
Charcoal can be used in three different drawing techniques. They are as follows:
● Contour drawing
This drawing consists of outlines and some internal lines that are drawn to define the form of a subject. The
thickness of the lines used in the drawing can vary to show shadow or strength. This method is used as the
basis of most of the Chinese ink brush paintings.
● Gestural drawing
This type of drawing is best compared to a scribble drawing. It is not very concerned about the subject’s
form, but tries to express motion and effective qualities.
● Volume drawing
This type of drawing has shading, almost entirely to produce a chiaroscuro effect. In this method, usually,
few lines are used, but applications having many lines, as in a cross-hatch technique, can also be used.
An illustration using charcoal is displayed in figure 8.11.
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Figure 8.11: An illustration using charcoal
8.1.5 Digital Pen

A digital pen is a battery-operated writing instrument that allows the user to capture a handwritten note or drawing in
digital form. These pens are slightly larger than normal ball-point pens and can be used on normal paper, but they
require special digital paper to capture notes or drawings.
Some of the new wireless high-end digital pens also make use of Bluetooth technology. These pens directly transfer
the captured notes or drawings to the user’s personal computer or mobile phone. They do not require any docking
station. Refer figure 8.12.
Figure 8.12: Digital pen

■ Using Digital Pen in Art and Design
Digital pen used for art and design is also known as portable electronic sketchbook. It can be used anywhere,
outdoors or indoor location, for making sketches or annotations.
A digital pen has the capability to store 40 to 100 A5 pages, depending on its capacity. It is a useful input device
used for creating freehand illustrations or design ideas, which can be further developed once the images are
downloaded into the computer.
135
8.1.6 Graphics Tablet
A graphics tablet is a hardware device that allows a user to draw or sketch illustrations accurately and easily. It is
connected to the computer and its stylus is used like a pencil to work freehand. Although this device is available
since quite some time, it is still not used extensively in the department of art and design. Figure 8.13 displays a
graphics tablet.
Figure 8.13: Graphics Tablet
8.2 Techniques
Various methods and techniques are used to draw illustrations. Let us discuss some of the techniques here.
8.2.1 Tracing
Tracing refers to the process of creating drawings from images. You can trace any image by using the pixels of an
image as a reference. The tracing process is all about drawing reference points, lines, and areas of an image. While
tracing an image, you need to place a sheet of tracing paper on an image. Next, you need to draw lines with a pen
or pencil and outline the visible areas of the image or photo. This gives you a line drawing. Tracing is also called as
vectorization according to the old GIS systems.
■ Methods of Tracing
Tracing can be done in the following two ways:
● Straight tracing
In straight tracing, the design from one area of the pattern is repeated, in a similar fashion, all over the
image. See figure 8.14 below:
136
Figure 8.14: Straight tracing
Here, tracing paper functions like a carbon paper. Place the tracing paper on the area where the design
needs to be drawn. The tracing paper needs to be placed in such a way that the blackened side of the
tracing paper is facing down. Next, redraw the design on the tracing paper the way it is. The design on the
tracing paper then gets transferred onto the paper. You can use these faint lines as guidelines to complete
the design pattern.
● Interchanged tracing
In interchanged tracing, designs from two areas of the pattern face each other rather than a continuous
design of uniform shapes. See the figure 8.14 below:
Figure 8.15: Interchanged tracing
137
Trace out the design on a sheet of tracing paper. Turn the tracing paper around and place it on the area
where the design needs to be drawn. Draw over the lines of the pattern on the tracing paper gently. This will
leave a faint impression of the design on the paper. Next, redraw the pattern over these faint lines. You will
see that the two areas of the pattern now face each other instead of continuing in a uniform manner.
Figure 8.16: Example of a photo to line drawing
Photos can also be traced using different software tools like Illustrator, CorelDRAW, Flash, etc.
8.2.2 Basic Methods of Making a Human Face

Often artists face a lot of difficulties while illustrating the human head and facial structures. These shapes are
complex to illustrate and have a lot of confusing aspects. To illustrate a human face appropriately with all the details,
you need to keep in mind certain simple rules.
These rules are as follows:
■ Observe the Shape
Human heads have different shapes and sizes. When drawing a head, the first thing you do is to identify the
shape of the head. For this, you need to first check the jaw line and hairline.
Figure 8.17: Proportions of a human face
138
■ Ensure the Accurate Proportions
Every face is different and has specific proportions. In many cases, these proportions are more or less similar.
You can notice the difference between the facial proportions of a baby’s head and an adult’s head.
Now, let’s look at the points to remember while drawing different parts of the face:
● Eyes
Always draw the eyes between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin. Ensure that the eyes are
drawn halfway down. Also, make sure that the eyes are eye-length apart. This means, the length of an eye
and the space between both the eyes should be the same.
● Nose
The position of the nose is always below the eyes. The remaining portion under the eyes is divided into
three parts. One-third line is the reference line to draw the bottom of the nose.
● Mouth
While drawing the mouth you should ensure that it is drawn in the next third or two thirds of the way from
the eyes to the chin. Also, the two corners of the mouth should be in line with the middle of each eye. You
can check this by placing your pencil on the middle of one of the eyes. The mouth is aligned correctly if the
lower part of the pencil touches the outer corner of the mouth.
● Body
There are various postures of a human figure. It is essential to know and understand the correct proportions
of the human body before you draw the human body.
Figure 8.18: Proportions of a human body
139
The above figure explains the proportions of a human figure. The human figure is divided into different
sections as shown. The distance between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin is termed as 1
head. This measure is then used as a reference to divide and measure proportions of the various parts of
the human body.
As per these proportions, the average height of an adult is 7 heads. However, the height of a tall person
could be 8 heads and that of a short person could be 6 heads. Starters can measure anything between 4
to 6 heads based on their age.
Try it out !!!

Using the proportions of a human face, trace an image of a boy’s face.
8.2.3 Basic Methods of Making Cartoons

The face of a cartoon character can be drawn in two ways:
1. You can directly draw the final character by using any of the two methods: You can draw the outer shape first
and then draw the eyes, nose, and mouth. Otherwise, you can draw the eyes, nose, and mouth first and then
the outer shape. Irrespective of the method you follow, hair and ears should always be drawn in the end.
140
Figure 8.20: Drawing a cartoon
2. You can first draw the lines lightly. Then you can slowly draw the shapes and make the necessary changes.
Keep drawing the figure till you achieve the desired look of the character. When you are satisfied with the basic
drawing, you can darken the lines to give it a final look. You can then rub off the extra lines that are not required.
Next, you have to fill in the colors for the picture. You can give the final touch to a picture after the colors have
dried.
Figure 8.21: Drawing a cartoon by darkening the lines

■ Eyes of Cartoons
The most important characteristic of a cartoon character are its eyes. Eyes speak a lot about the character
and hence need to be drawn carefully in order to express the character’s emotions. The eyes you draw can be
circular, oval, or just dots. They need not be realistic. There are no set rules to draw a cartoon character. You
141
can use your own imagination and creativity to visualize and draw the eyes. You can draw the eyes as stuck
to each other or popping out of the face. Similarly, both the eyeballs could be on one side or on opposite sides
to make them squint.
Figure 8.22: Eyes of cartoons

■ Nose of Cartoons
You must draw a nose that suits your character. The nose portrays the look that you desire for the cartoon
character. You can draw a nose that is round, pointed, flat, or hooked. You can also give different shapes to the
nose to make your character funnier and entertaining.
Figure 8.23: Noses of cartoons

■ Hands and Feet of Cartoons
Hands and feet of the cartoon character do not need much detailing. Keep the hands and feet simple. You
need not go in much detail and draw nails of the fingers. For example, you can have a hand with three fingers
and a thumb.
142
Figure 8.24: Hands of cartoons
Figure 8.25: Feet of cartoons

■ Hairstyle of Cartoons
The hairstyle of the cartoon character can change the look of the cartoon character. While drawing the character,
keep in mind the character’s age, gender, and personality.
Figure 8.26: Hairstyles of cartoons
143
Try it out !!!
Trace an image of the following cartoon character.
144
8.3 Summary
● The process of applying pencil on paper is termed as mark-making.
● The idea of drawing can also be reflected more beautifully or dramatically by the kind of mark made on the
paper.
● Various kinds of nibs are available ranging from a delicate hairline to a broad heavy line. Architectural
subjects can be depicted tightly or loosely with a pen, using these nibs.
● There are different types of brushes such as Flat Brush, Round Brush, and Acrylic Brush.
● Charcoal is one of the oldest art materials that was used to draw on the walls of caves during the pre-
historic age.
● The major disadvantage of charcoal is its tendency to ‘dust-off.’
● A digital pen is a battery-operated writing instrument that allows the user to capture a handwritten note or
drawing in a digital form.
● A graphics tablet is a hardware device that enables a user to draw or sketch illustrations accurately and
easily.
● Tracing refers to the process of creating drawings from images.
● Tracing can be done in two ways: straight tracing and interchanged tracing.
● While drawing the human face, you need to observe the shape carefully and ensure accurate proportions.
● The distance between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin is termed as one head.
● The important parts of a cartoon character are: eyes, nose, hands, feet, and hairstyle.
145
8.4 Exercise
1. The process of applying pencil on paper is termed as mark-making.
2. The pencils used during pencil drawing should always be blunt.
3. Use of diluted ink to improve a pen drawing is known as wash.
4. Flat brushes have long hairs used for spreading paint quickly and evenly over the surface.
5. Charcoal is an impure form of elemental carbon formed by burning wood in anaerobic conditions.
6. Charcoal is one of the oldest art materials that was used to draw on the walls of caves.
7. Contour drawing consists of outlines and some internal lines that are drawn to define the form of a subject.
8. A graphics tablet is a battery-operated writing instrument, which allows the user to capture a handwritten note
or drawing in digital form.
9. The tracing is also known as illustration according to the old GIS systems.
10. In interchanged tracing, the design from one area of the pattern is repeated in similar fashion all over the
image.
11. The length of an eye and the space between both the eyes should be the same.
12. The distance between the top of the head and the bottom of the neck is termed as 1 head.
1. True
2. False. The pencils used during pencil drawing should always be sharp.
3. True
4. False. The Flat brushes have long hairs used for spreading paint quickly and evenly over the surface.
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. False. A digital pen is a battery-operated writing instrument that allows the user to capture a handwritten note
or drawing in digital form.
9. True. The tracing is also known as vectorization according to the old GIS systems.
10. False. In the straight tracing, the design from one area of the pattern is repeated in similar fashion all over the
image.
11. True.
12. False. The distance between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin is termed as 1 head.
146
Glossary
Glossary
A
Additive theory
When the light primary colors (Red, Green, and Blue) are mixed, the pigment primary colors (Yellow, Cyan, and
Magenta) are generated. For example, Red + Green = Yellow, Green + Blue = Cyan, Blue + Red = Magenta, and
Red + Green + Blue = White.
Align
Aligning refers to lining up text or other graphic elements as specified, using a platform and vertical lines as the
reference points.
Art paper
A smooth coated paper obtained by applying coating of china clay compound on one or both sides of the paper.
B
Balloon
Balloon is a circle or bubble shaped object in an illustration. It is generally used in cartoons.
Bitmap image
An image purely made up of pixel information.
BMP (Windows Bitmap)
The standard file extension for Microsoft graphics files.
Border
A continuous decorative design or rule around the subject matter on the page.
C
Calligraphy
It is an art that can convey expressions and feelings.
Coated
Printing papers that have a surface coating to give a smoother surface with good finish and greater opacity.
Color separations
The division of a multi-colored original or line copy into the basic (or primary) colors of yellow, magenta, cyan, and
black. These should not be confused with the optical primaries, such as red, green, and blue.
Color theory
When two primary colors are mixed, they generate their complementary secondary color.
147
Concepts of Graphics and Illustrations
Color wheel
A simple device for understanding colors in relation to one another.
Complementary colors
Complementary colors are those that are repositioned opposite to each other in the color wheel.
Continuous tone
An image in which the subject has continuous shades of color or grey without being broken up by dots. Continuous
tones cannot be reproduced in the form for printing but must be screened to translate the image into dots.
CSS (Cascading Style Sheet)
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet that defines and describes the styles for presenting a document
written in a markup language. The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
D
Digital Pen
A writing instrument that is operated using battery that allow the user to capture a handwritten note or drawing into
a digital form.
Dots per inch
Dots per inch refers to the number of dots in a linear inch of screen material. Sometimes called as lines per inch.
Lowest in common use: 65. Highest: 300. Common: 85, 100, and 133.
Also, in computers and digital output devices, a measurement of resolution or detail refers to the number of dots
rendered in a square inch of material such as film or resin-coated paper.
Lowest in common use: 72; Highest: 5080; Common: 300, 600, 1270, 2540.
E
EPS (Encapsulated Postscript)
EPS (Encapsulated Postscript) is a refined version of postscript. It is used to transfer graphic files between pro-
grams.
G
GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)
The GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) file format was developed by CompuServe Inc. for use on their on-line
service. GIF files are color-mapped files that can have up to 256 colors. Most applications support both the 87a and
89a versions of the GIF standard. The GIF files are always compressed and offer an efficient way to store large
images. The default file extension for CompuServe Graphics Interchange Format files is “.GIF”.
Additionally you can place multiple GIF’s on top of each other to create an “Animated GIF”, these are only used
within Web design and will only appear animated in an Internet browser. They have the same file extension and will
open in a drawing package (PSP, Photoshop, etc), but only the first image will be visible. Their are various packages
around to generate them, many of which are distributed on a shareware basis, (GIF construction set, PSP 5).
148
Glossary
Graphics Tablet
A hardware device that enables a user to draw or sketch illustrations accurately and easily.
Grey scale
A range of luminance values for evaluating shading through white to black. Frequently used in discussions about
scanners as a measure of their ability to capture halftone images. Basically more the levels the better, but with
correspondingly larger memory requirements.
Grid
A systematic division of a page into areas to enable designers to ensure consistency. The grid acts as a measuring
guide and shows text, illustrations, and trim sizes.
H
Halftone
An illustration reproduced by breaking down the original tone into a pattern of dots of varying sizes. Light areas have
small dots and darker areas or shadows have larger dots. Offset (or Lithographic or Conventional) printing process
cannot create ink layers on paper with different density. Hence by varying the size, a visual impact of shades is
created. Gravure printing (used for high volume packaging, plastic, metal printing) can transfer inks with different
density on to the substrate and hence do not need halftone screening. (However, images need to be etched to
create compartments to carry ink).
Highlight
The lightest area in a photograph or illustration.
Hue
When full daylight is broken up by a passage through some transparent medium like rain or glass prism, color
reveals its true richness in the form of a rainbow. The colors perceived in the rainbow are called hues.
I
Indexed Color
Images that do not define colors in terms of their actual RGB or CMYK values and derive their colors from a palette
are known as Indexed Color.
Inverted Symmetry
The principle of symmetry is applied with half inverted image.
J
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
The JPEG format uses a method of compression that reduces image file size by selectively reducing the amount
of detail contained in the image and by transforming the image data into a format that is better suited for compres-
sion. Images with fewer details compress extremely well, while pictures with a high degree of random detail do
not compress so well, or suffer some degree of image degradation. The relative amount of detail removed can be
specified in most applications.
At the default value of 75, relatively little picture degradation will take place, but a significant amount of compression
will be obtained. At lower values you will experience still better compression, but with a marked loss of image quality.
149
JPEG images are either true color or grayscale (256 shades of gray). The default file extension for JPEG files is
‘.JPG’.
L
Layout
A sketch of a page for printing showing the position of text and illustrations and giving general instructions.
Lines per inch
A measurement of video or digital output resolution.
M
Mark-making
The process of applying pencil on paper.
Mask
Opaque material or masking tape used to block an area of the artwork.
O
Offset
The printing process that uses an intermediary surface called a blanket to transfer the image from the plate to the
sheet.
One head
The distance between the top of the head and the bottom of the chin.
Opacity
This term is used to describe the degree to which paper will show print through.
P
PCX (PC Paintbrush)
PCX files were originally developed for Z-Soft’s PC Paintbrush package. These files come in monochrome, 16 color,
256 color, and true color (24-bit) varieties. PCX files are compressed using a method that offers a modest degree of
compression compared to other compression formats. The default file extension for PC Paintbrush file is ‘.PCX’.
Pica
A printing industry’s unit of measurement. There are 12 points to a pica, one pica is approximately 0.166 in.
Point
The standard unit of the type size. A traditional point is approximately 1/72 of an inch or 0.1384 inch. Point size is
measured from the top of the ascender to the bottom of the descenders.
Primary colors
The primary colors are Cyan, Magenta, and Yellow. These three colors when mixed together with black will produce
a reasonable reproduction of all other colors.
150
Glossary
R
Raster image
It is the output when using most paint programs. They are composed of individual picture elements, or pixels that
when viewed from a distance appears to form a complete image. You can tell if you are looking at a raster image
by the extension on the filename. The .bmp, .pcx, .gif, .tga, .jpg, .png and .tif are common raster image filename
extensions.
Resolution
The measurement used in typesetting to express quality of output. Measured in dots per inch, the greater the
number of dots, the more smoother and cleaner appearance the character/image will have. Currently Page (laser)
Printers print at 300, 406 and 600 dpi. Typesetting machines print at 1,200 dpi or more.
S
Scaling
A means of calculating the amount of enlargement or reduction necessary to accommodate a photograph within the
area of a design.
Scanner
A digitizing device using light sensitivity to translate a picture or typed text into a pattern of dots which can be
understood and stored by a computer. To obtain acceptable quality when scanning photographs, at least 64 gray
scales are required.
Sheet
A single piece of paper. In poster work refers to the number of Double Crown sets in a full size poster.
Subtractive theory
When the pigment primaries (Yellow, Cyan, and Magenta) are mixed, light primaries (Red, Green, and Blue) are
generated. For example: Yellow + Cyan = Green, Cyan + Magenta = Blue, Magenta + Yellow = Red and Yellow +
Cyan + Magenta = Black.
Saturation
The intensity of a color.
Silhouette
Silhouette is a dark shadow and the outline of a solid object.
T
TIF (Tagged Image File Format)
The TIFF format was developed by Microsoft and Aldus Corporations as a portable method of storing bitmap im-
ages. TIFF files come in monochrome, 16-color, 256-color, 16-color grayscale, 256-color grayscale, and true color
(24-bit) varieties. TIFF files exist in both compressed and uncompressed formats. The compression format offers
a high degree of compression. However, certain older paint programs that use an early version of the TIFF format
may have difficulty reading compressed TIFF files. If you find that a program will not read the compressed files, try
saving the file in uncompressed format. The default file extension for TIFF files is ‘.TIF’.
151
Template
A standard layout usually containing basic details of the page dimensions.
Texture
The surface quality of an actual or represented substance.
Tracing
Tracing is the process of creating drawings from images.
Transparency
A full-colored photographically produced image on transparent film.
Typography
A set or group of fonts chosen for a specific design purpose.
V
Vector graphics
Contain geometric information that describes the object and enables you to manipulate the dimensions and other
properties of the object (such as the surface material that covers it and the motion that is applied to it). Popular
vector file formats are ‘.ai’ (standard Adobe Illustrator vector files), ‘.cdr’ (standard Corel Draw vector files) & ‘.dwg’
(standard AutoCAD files).
152
Bibliography
What is Graphic Design

- Piers Schmidt, Quentin Newark
Graphic Thinking for Architects & Designers

- Paul ( Laseau)
Becoming a Graphic Designer: A Guide to Careers in Design

- Steven D. Heller, Teresa Fernandes
Session Name Rating

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Color Theory
Working with Text
Typography
Laws of Design
Understanding and Working with

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Colored Section
Colored Section
Figure 1.25: Example of a mechanical drawing
Figure 2.1: Chameleon, known for changing colors
Figure 2.2: A color wheel indicates a wide spectrum of colors
157
Figure 2.3: Representing a work of art created using the principle of color wheel
Figure 2.4: Representative diagram displaying primary colors
Figure 2.5: Representative diagram displaying secondary colors
158
Colored Section
Figure 2.6: Representative diagram displaying complementary colors
Figure 2.7: Representative diagram displaying tertiary colors
Figure 2.9: Representative diagram displaying warm colors
159
Figure 2.11: Representative diagram displaying cool colors
Figure 2.13: Representative diagram displaying hue
Figure 2.14: When light passes through the glass prism, different colors are refracted
Figure 2.15: Representative diagram depicting saturation
Figure 2.16: Representative diagram displaying value pattern
160
Colored Section
Figure 2.17: Representative image displaying transparent colors
Figure 2.18: Representative image displaying opaque colors
Figure 2.19: Representative diagram displaying CMYK colors
161
Figure 2.20: Representative diagram displaying RGB color model
Figure 2.22: Representative diagram depicting true colors along with their value
Figure 5.21: File stored in the BMP format Figure 5.22: File stored in the TIFF format
Flower.bmp, 200*218, File size: 127 kb Flower.tiff, 200*218, File size: 280 kb
162
Colored Section
Figure 5.23: File stored in the PCX format Figure 5.24: File stored in the GIF format
Flower.pcx, 200*218, File size: 76.7 kb Flower.gif, 200*218, File size: 19.3 kb
Figure 5.25: File stored in the JPEG file format Figure 5.26: File stored in the EPS format
Flower.jpg, 200*218, File size: 40.3 kb
Figure 5.30: Magnified (zoomed) view of part of the boat representing number of color changes
Vector files cannot display this level of color change effectively
163
Figure 5.31: Loss of quality due to scaling raster image to a larger size
Figure 5.32: Vector image
Figure 8.9: An illustration using brush
164

Concepts of Graphics and Illustration - CPINTL

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Concepts of Graphics and

© 2013 Aptech Limited

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All trademarks acknowledged.

Contact E-mail: ov-support@onlinevarsity.com

Edition 1 – February 2008

Disclaimer: Arena Multimedia is registered Brand of Aptech Ltd.

ARENA Design Team

This page has been intentionally left blank

Session 1: Drawing. .................................................................................................................. 01

Session 2: Color Theory ............................................................................................................ 37

Session 3: Typography. ............................................................................................................. 51

Session 4: Laws of Design. ........................................................................................................ 67

The Law of Proportion........................................................................................................................................ 74

Session 7: Illustration and Softwares .......................................................................................... 113

Session 8: Illustration Tools and Techniques ............................................................................... 129

Glossary. ................................................................................................................................. 147

: Answers to Quick Tests

Figure 1.1: Pencil drawing

1.1 Elements of Drawing

Figure 1.2: A point

Figure 1.3: Using points to convey an expression

Figure 1.4: Depicting points in combination

Figure 1.5: Points in various forms

Figure 1.6: Points used to give shading and toning

Figure 1.7: Indicating point as a center of focus

Figure 1.8: A line

“Lines can take several forms.”

Figure 1.9: Different types of lines

There are different types of lines like:

The various styles of lines are explained as follows:

Figure 1.10: A normal line

Figure 1.11: Example of a drawing created by using normal line

Figure 1.12: Displaying a dot dash line

Figure 1.13: Drawing made by using dot dash lines

Figure 1.14: Displaying an irregular dot dash line

Figure 1.15: Displaying a drawing using irregular dot dash line

Figure 1.16: Displaying a saw blade line

Figure 1.17: Example of a drawing created using saw blade lines

Figure 1.18: Practice

Try it out !!!

Figure 1.19: Drawing made using horizontal lines

Figure 1.20: Drawing made using vertical lines

Figure 1.21: Practice

Try it out !!!

Figure 1.22: Drawing created by using crisscross lines

Figure 1.23: Practice

Try it out !!!

Figure 1.24: Drawing indicating the use of hard edge graphic

Figure 1.26: Depicting a silhouette drawing

Figure 1.27: Displaying contour

Figure 1.28: Demonstrating a line dividing space

“Lines of different strengths can be applied according to the requirement.”

Figure 1.29: Different variations of pressure applied on lines

Figure 1.31: Employing lines for outlining drawings

Figure 1.32: Displaying different types of shapes

Figure 1.35: Practice

Try it out !!!

Figure 1.36: Practice

Try it out !!!

Figure 1.37: Depicting positive and negative shapes

1.1.4 Tone and Shadow

“Tones and shadows can create illusion of shape.”