Air Pollution

Example Q0: Pollutant Concentration

 Concentration Estimation
(Y- and Z-directional dispersion constants)

April 22, 2011 arunku@civil.iitd.ac.in 7

 Example Q1: Pollutant Concentration
(repeat using empirical relationship for
sigma y and sigma z) and compare.
Pollutant Concentration (ppm or µg/m3)
– µg/m3 = [ppm * g mol/mass* 1000]/[L/mol]

– At 0°C and 1 atm pressure (760 mm Hg), the volume of

the gas is 22.4 L/mol.
Example Q3: Pollutant Concentration
– A sample of air analyzed at 0deg C and 1 atm pressure
is reported to contain 9 ppm of CO. Determine the
equivalent CO conc. in µg/m3 and mg/L?
Solution (Q3): Pollutant Concentration
– gm molecular mass of CO = 12+ 16=28 g/mol

– At 0deg C and 1 atm pressure (i.e., 760 mm Hg),

volume of gas is 22.4 Liters/mol.

– Conc. (µg/m3 ) = 11.250 mg/m3

Example Q4: Gaseous and Particulate
Emission
Air Pollution Control
 A) Stationery Sources
– Pre-combustion controls (improved fuel quality)
– Combustion controls (improved combustion process)
– Post-combustion controls (capture emissions after they
are formed but before they are released to the air)
 Example Q5: Particle removal
efficiency in cyclones
– An air stream with a flow rate of 7 m3/s is passed
through a cyclone of standard proportions. The
diameter of the cyclone is 2 and the air temperature is
77degC.

– Calculate (i) Removal efficiency for a particle with a

density of 1500 g/m3 and a diameter of 10 µg, if a bank
of 64 cyclones with diameters of 24 cm are used
instead of the single large unit.
Solution Q5:Particle removal efficiency
in cyclones
– B= D/4=0.24m/4=0.06m
– H=D/2=0.12m
– Cross section area of entrance=bh=0.06*0.12=0.072m2
– As we have 64 similar units=> total entrance area
• =64*0.072 m2 = 0.45 m2
– Inlet velocity = (7m3/s)/(0.45m2)= 15.5 m/s
– Calculate d50 ???
– Calculate d/d50
– Use efficiency vs. (d/d50) plot to find out efficiency for
calculated d/d50 value?
 1) Electrostatic Precipitators

Intense electric
field ionizes
particles.

They move
under the
influence of
electric field to
grounded
collecting
surface
 Electrostatic Precipitator
• Consists of alternating plates and wires, a large direct
current potential is established between them
– As gas stream passes between the wire and the plate,
gas molecules are ionized, ions attach to the particles,
giving them a net negative charge

– The particulates then migrate to the plate where they

stick and can later be removed
 Electrostatic Precipitator
• Efficiency usually > 98%, including submicron particles
– Uses: electric power plants, acid production facilities
etc

– Can accommodate large flow rates, solid or liquid

particles, low operation and maintenance costs, but
are expensive and require a lot of space
 Q6: Electrostatic Precipitator-Example
Problem
• We want to remove fly ash particles from stack gases
flowing at 10m3/s.

• Drift velocity (w) can be written as

• w=3*105 .(dp) where dp is particle diameter in (m)

Calculate plate area requirement to collect a 0.5 micron

particle with 90% efficiency?

Comment on effect of area increase on efficiency?

 2) Filtration
• Gas stream drawn or pushed through fabric that prevents particle
passage

• Generally used for particles < 5 µm

Filtration

Bag house
 Filtration
• Two configurations:
– Deep bed filter: Used for relatively clean gases and low volumes,
e.g., air conditioning systems

– The Baghouse: for dirty industrial gas with large volumes

• Many applications (e.g. cement crushing, feed and grain
handling and sanding machines)
• Effective removal of small particles, but are large and expensive
 3) Liquid Scrubber

• For particulate matter that is wet, corrosive or very hot

• Particle pollutant can be removed by injecting water into
the gas stream
• Particles/droplets grow and removed by cyclone
 Liquid Scrubber (SO2 control)

Fine limestone (CaCO3) is mixed with water to create a slurry.

SO2 is absorbed by the slurry producing CaSO3 or CaSO4 precipitate,
which is removed as a sludge.
 Flue Gas De-sulfurization (FGD)

• Flue gas (gas that exits via a flue, which is a pipe or channel
for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace,
boiler or steam generator)
– Or the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants

• FGD have reaction chemistries based on lime (CaO), caustic

soda (NaOH), soda ash (Na2CO3) or ammonia (NH3)

• Limestone slurry is sprayed onto the flue gas, SO2 is

absorbed by the slurry, producing calcium sulfate or calcium
sulfite, which is then removed as a sludge.
 4) Absorption

• Transfer pollutant from a gas phase to a liquid phase (gas dissolves in

the liquid)
– scrubbers (liquid droplets absorb the gas)
– towers (a thin film of liquid absorbs the gas)

• Process depends on:

– solubility of pollutant &
– creating a large air/liquid surface area

• Primarily for soluble inorganic gases, e.g. NH3, Cl2, SO2

Absorption
 5) Adsorption
• Gas to solid mass transfer (pollutant “sticks” to solid
surface)
• Adsorbents
1. activated carbon,
2. molecular sieves,
3. silica gel,
4. activated alumina (large active surface area per unit volume)
• At some point, adsorbent becomes saturated and needs
regeneration
• Commonly used for: hydrocarbons, solvents, H2S, SO2,
NO2
Adsorption
 6) Combustion

• Used when the contaminant in the gas stream is

oxidizable to an inert gas

• Typically CO and hydrocarbons

 B) Motor Vehicles
– Cleaner gasoline
– Exhaust system controls (catalytic converter)
– Improved engines
– Alternative fuels
Hazardous Waste Management
Hazardous Wastes
 Hazardous Wastes
• A waste with properties that make it dangerous or
potentially harmful to human health or the environment.

• Forms:
– Liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges.

• It can be the by-products of manufacturing processes or

simply discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids
or pesticides.
Characteristics
Ignitability

Corrosivity

Reactivity

Toxicity
Special Categories of Hazardous Wastes

• Hazardous waste mixtures

• Wastes derived from the management of hazardous
wastes
• Hazardous waste contained in a nonwaste container
• Low-level radioactive mixed wastes
• Special rules for recycling
 The “Cradle-to-Grave” Regulatory
Approach: Regulatory Requirements
1. Generators: identify, properly handle, and insure proper
disposal of all wastes

2. Transporters: Comply with Hazardous Materials

Transportation Act and meet other requirements on
packaging, handling, and documenting waste shipments

3. Hazardous waste management or treatment, storage

and disposal facilities: meet general and specific facility
standards, groundwater monitoring, closure/post-closure
activities, financial responsibility requirements
 Hazardous Waste Management Units

• Storage Units • Disposal Units

– Container storage units – Landfills
– Tank systems – Land treatment units
– Surface impoundments – Thermal treatment units
– Waste piles – Chemical, physical and
– Containment buildings biological treatment units
– Underground injection
wells
 Waste Management Options

WASTE WASTE TREATMENT

REDUCTION WASTE DISPOSAL
• Land treatment
• Source • Thermal conversion • Landfill
segregation • Physicochemical • Deep-well injection
• Process • Biological • Underground
modification • Stabilization storage
• Material • Ecosystem • Surface Storage
Recovery Assimilation

most desirable least desirable

Pollution Prevention Incentives

1. Reduce
– waste management costs
– raw material costs
– secondary costs
– liability
2. Increase
– compliance safety margin
– trust by regulators
3. Enhance public image
Treatment Strategies for Hazardous
Wastes
• Objectives
1. neutralize the waste;
2. recover energy or material resources from a waste;
3. render the waste less hazardous; or
4. make the waste safer to transport, store, or dispose.
 Treatment Technologies -1
• Incineration: is the high temperature burning (rapid oxidation) of a
waste, usually at 1600 to 2500 degrees F (i.e., controlled-flame
combustion or calcination). It destroys organic constituents in waste
materials.

• Waste-to-Energy Incineration: This is usually associated with

municipal waste combustion where the waste is burned at a high
temperature. Heat energy is recovered from the combustion process
and is usually used to generate steam and or electricity.
 Treatment Technologies -2
• Boilers: This device is used to treat hazardous waste. Boilers use
controlled flame combustion and recover thermal energy in the form of
steam or heated gases.

• Steam stripping: This treatment technology is used to remove organic

compounds from liquid waste streams and it involves direct application
of stream to the liquid and subsequent condensation of the extracted
organic compounds. It not only removes hazardous constituents from
the waste stream but it also can have the added benefit of making the
constituents less toxic.
 Treatment Technologies -3
• Physical removal: This process removes the hazardous constituents
from waste streams by separation techniques, such as ion exchange,
adsorption, reverse osmosis, chelation, solvent extraction,
crystallization, precipitation, distillation, filtration, evaporation, etc. The
removed hazardous constituents may require further treatment to
make them less toxic.

• Carbon adsorption: Use of activated carbon to adsorb hazardous

waste constituents (both gaseous and aqueous waste streams).

• Chemical oxidation: Use of strong oxidizing agents (e.g.

hypochlorite, peroxides, persulfates, percholorates, permanganates,
etc) to break down hazardous waste constituents to render them less
toxic or mobile.

• Chemical reduction: Use of strong reducing agents (e.g. sulfur

dioxide, alkali salts, sulfides, iron salts, etc) to break down hazardous
waste constituents to render them less toxic or mobile.
 Treatment Technologies -4
• Deactivation: Removal of the hazardous nature of the waste by
neutralizing the characteristics of ignitability, corrosivity, and/or reactivity.

• Neutralization: Here, low pH acidic corrosive waste streams are usually

neutralized by containing bases and high pH corrosive waste streams are
usually neutralized by adding acids.

• Extraction: Removal of hazardous constituents from either gaseous or

liquid waste streams by means of settling, filtration, adsorption,
absorption, solvents, or other means. Further treatment is required in this
case.

• Stabilization: This process reduces the mobility of the hazardous

constituents of a waste or that makes the waste easier to handle. The
most common stabilization agents added to waste streams are Portland
cement, lime, fly ash, and cement kiln dust.
 Treatment Technologies -5

• Treatment in tanks: mechanical settling, gravity settling, chemical

oxidation, and neutralization, etc.

• Biological treatment: Treatment using bacteria, fungi, or algae to

remove and degrade the hazardous constituents (aerobic, anaerobic
treatment)
Household Hazardous Wastes
Automotive Products
Motor oil
Fuel additives
Carburetor and fuel
injection cleaners
Air conditioning refrigerants
Starter fluids
Automotive batteries
Transmission and brake fluid
Antifreeze
Cleaning Products
Oven cleaners
Drain cleaners
Wood and metal
cleaners and polishes
Toilet cleaners
Tub, tile, shower cleaners
Bleach (laundry)
Pool chemicals
Indoor Pesticides
Ant sprays and baits
Cockroach sprays and baits
Flea repellents and shampoos
Bug sprays
Houseplant insecticides
Moth repellents
Mouse and rat poisons
and baits
Workshop/Painting Supplies
Adhesives and glues
Lawn and Furniture strippers
Garden Oil or enamel based paint
Stains and finishes
Products
Paint thinners and turpentine
Herbicides
Paint strippers and removers
Insecticides
Photographic chemicals
Fungicides/wood
preservatives Fixatives and other solvents
Miscellaneous
Batteries
Mercury thermostats or thermometers
Fluorescent light bulbs
Driveway sealer