[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow 279 | (ote asebage oro = 6, 7 _ 098 x 70685 176.7 _ {(706:85)" 2x 981x352.77 _ 1018322199 oR 148.79 litres/s. Ans. (i Pressure difference between entrance and throat section ha (Bi+e)-(Bra) =asa7 z = 148790.5 em*is ps 30 4 or 4-25 352.77 Pr iE But 27% = 30m I Pe) _39 = 352.77 a) tm Fig. 6.11 Pi _ 22 = 352.77 + 30 = 382.77 cm of oil = 3.8277 m of oil. Ans. Pe pw or (1 — 9) = 3.8277 x pg But density of oil = Sp. gr. of oil x 1000 kg/m? = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/em? (=p) = 3.8277 x 900 x 9.81 Problem 6.20 Crude oil of specific gravity 0.85 flows upwards at a volume rate of flow of 60 litre per second through a vertical venturimeter with an inlet diameter of 200 mm and a throat diameter of 100 mm. The co-efficient of discharge of the venturimeter is 0.98. The vertical distance between the pressure tapings is 300 mm. (i) If two pressure gauges are connected at the tappings such that they are positioned at the levels of their corresponding tapping points, determine the difference of readings in Nem of the two pres- sure gauges. (ii) Ifa mercury differential manometer is connected, in place of pressure gauges, to the tappings such that the connecting tube upto mercury are filled with oil, determine the difference in the level of the mercury column. Solution. Given : Specific gravity of oil, $= 0.85[280 Fluid Mechanics Density, p= 0.85 x 1000 = 850 kg/m? Discharge, 2 = 60 litres = = 0.06 mis 1000 Inlet dia, 4, = 200 mm = 0.2 m ‘Area, a= F (2) = 0.0318 m? Throat dia. y= 100 mm = 0.1 m ‘Area, 200 0m Value of Cy Let section (1) represents inlet and section (2) represents throat, Then 222 = 300 mm=0.3 m (i Difference of readings in Nlem’ of the two pressure gauges, ‘The discharge Q is given by, Fig. 6.11 (@) x (2X981xh = 2S XOOIDIS 9 J Vix__00600308 agg * 0.98 x 0.00024649 x 4.429 — - ‘A= 1.705? = 2.908 m Bisa) (Boe) PS PS But fora vertical venturimeter, h = ( rane (B+ )-(2+5) PS Ps PKPa 2.008 + 232 = 2.908 + 03 pg (2-2, =03m) = 3.208 m of oil Pi ~P2= PBX 3.208 = 850 9.81 x 3.208 Nim? = SOx OS 3208 Niem* = 2.675 Niem*, Ans.[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow 281] (i Difference in the levels of mercury columns (i.e., x) ‘The value of fis given by, k= Problem 6.21 In a [00 mm diameter horizontal pipe a venturimeter of 0.5 contraction ratio has been fixed. The head of water on the metre when there is no flow is 3 m (gauge). Find the rate of flow {for which the throat pressure will be 2 metres of water absolute. The co-efficient of discharge is 0.97. Take atmospheric pressure head = 10.3 m of water. Solution. Given : Dia. of pipe, d= 100 mm = 10 em E aoe. 5} Area, = © (0)? = 78.54 em GMO = 78.54 Dia. at throat, 15x 10= Area, 19.635 em? Head of water fornoflow = PL. = 3m (gauge) = 3+ 103= 133 m abs) 8 ‘Throat pressure head 2m of water absolute. Difference of pressure head, f= 2 Ps pg 3.3 - 2.0 = 11.3 m= 1130 em Rate of flow, 0 is given by Q = C, = 0.97 x 6.7.2 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate. It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a tn amet a pe nght may vay fon Oto. umes pe amet A differential manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2.0 times[282 Fluid Mechanics ] Let _p, = pressure at section (1), 1, = velocity at section (1), 4, = area of pipe at section (1), and Fig. 6.12. Orifice meter. Pp, V2» dz ate corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and Q), we get riya Pug tigg pe 2g Ps Ps 2g 2g m Ese) Differential head eM oe 2gh=vy—v? 2g 28 ue fogh+ v7 oli) Now section (2) is at the vena-contracta and a, represents the area at the vena-contracta. If ay is the area of orifice then, we have cat % where C,= Co-ffcient of contraction 5 0, = 4X C, « By continuity equation, we have asa, of 12% = om Ait) Substituting the value of v, in equation (i), we get v= Pgh +[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow 283 | “ sana) tes [(SP oom + ay = aC, from (iD) wiv) (6.13) ‘o-efficient of discharge for orifice meter. The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a venturimeter. Problem 6.22 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10 cm is inserted in a pipe of 20 cm diameter. The pressure gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter gives readings of 19.62 N/em? and 9.81 N/cm® respectively. Co-efficient of discharge for the orifice meter is given as 0.6. Find the discharge of water through pipe.[284 Fluid Mechanics ] Solution. Given : Dia. of orifice, dy= 10 em x 2 Area, ag = © (10)? = 78.54 em 5 (oy Dia. of pipe, d,= 20m Area, a, = F QO)" = 314.16 em* py = 19.62 Niem? = 19.62 x 10* Nim? Bu 196210" 90 m of water pe 1000x931 Similarly Ba = SBIXI0" = 19 m of water pg 100098 = PL — 22 = 20,0 - 10.0 = 10 m of water = 1000 em of water Ps pg Cq= 06 ‘The discharge, Q is given by equation (6.13) Q=C, Le x Reh LiSeRETSY x 2 x 981 x 1000 (314.16)° —(78.54)" =06 _ 2073683809 * 304 Problem 6.23 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 em is inserted in a pipe of 30.cm diameter. The pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of the orifice meter gives a reading of 50cm of mercury. Find the rate of flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.9 when the co- efficient of discharge of the orifice meter = 0.64. Solution. Given : 18213.28 cm/s = 68.21 litres/s. Ans. Dia. of orifice, y= 15cm Area, y= F (sh 1187 6m? Dia. of pipe. 4, = 300m Area, 4, = 5 (0)? = 706.85 em? Sp. gr. of oil, 5,=09 Reading of diff. manometer, x= 50 em of mercury Difernial head, he [z - i|- 50 [88-1] em oro 5 08[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow 285] = 50 x 14.11 = 705.5 em of oil C,= 0.64 -n by equation (6.13) O=C, Jane The rate of the flow, = 0,64 x 176710685 _ RS OBTX TOSS: ((706.85)° _ 94046317.78 Cor] 6.7.3 Pitot-tube. It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point ina pipe or a channel. Itis based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. In its simplest form, the pitot-tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles as shown in Fig. 6.13. The lower end, which is bent through 90° is directed in the up- stream direction as shown in Fig. 6.13. The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube. 7 Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just as the inlet of the pitot-tube and point (1) is far away from the tube. Let intensity of pressure at point (1) velocity of flow at (1) p= pressure at point (2) velocity at point (2), which is zero H = depth of tube in the liquid ‘= rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface. Applying Bernoulli's equation at points (1) and (2), we get au u Bates hs Bey pe 2g" pg” 2g +, 8 points (1) and (2) are on the same line and y, = 0. PL = pressure head at (I) =H Pg P2 = pressure head at (2) = (+ H) Ps Substituting these values, we get neticnem 2 net 2g 0 2g ‘This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by or v= gh = 137414.25 em’/s = 137.414 litres/s. Ans. Fig. 6.13 Pitottube.[286 Fluid Mechanics ] (Dea = Cy Pah where C, = Co-efficient of pitot-tube Velocity at any point. — v= C, /2ghr (6.14) ‘Velocity of flow in a pipe by pitot-tube. For finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by pitot- tube, the following arrangements are adopted 1, Pitot-tube along with a vertical piezometer tube as shown in Fig. 6.14. 2. Pitot-ube connected with piezometer tube as shown in Fig, 6.15, 3. Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube connected with a differential U-tube manometer as shown in Fig. 6.16. PIEZOMETER ..| PIroT-T TUBE BE fe L- Za) Fig. 6.16, Fig. 6.17 4. Pitot-static tube, which consists of two circular concentric tubes one inside the other with some annular space in between as shown in Fig. 6.17. The outlet of these two tubes are connected 0 the differential manometer where the difference of pressure head *h’ is measured by knowing the 5 Aiton ft kl ote manos igi» Then =x [=] S, Problem 6.24 A pitor-static tube placed in the centre of a 300 mm pipe line has one orifice pointing upstream and other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the central velocity. Find the discharge through the pipe if the pressure difference between the two orifices is 60 mm of water. Take the co-efficient of pitot tube as C, = 0.98. Solution. Given : Dia. of pipe, d= 300 mm = 0.30 m Diff. of pressure head, ‘= 60 mm of water = .06 m of water 0.98 Mean velocity, V =0.80 x Central velocity Central velocity is given by equation (6.14) = C, \2gh = 0.98 x J2X9RIX.06 = .063 mis[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow _ 287] . V = 0.80 x 1.063 = 0.8504 m/s Discharge, = Area of pipe x 7 = fe xv 5 (30)? x 0.8504 = 0.06 m*/s. Ans. Problem 6.25 Find the velocity of the flow of an oil through a pipe, when the difference of mercury level in a differential U-tube manometer connected to the two tappings of the pitot-tube is 100 mm. Take co-efficient of pitot-tube 0.98 and sp. gr. of oil = 0.8. Solution. Given Dit. ofpse ten, hf [38-1] <16moron Velocity of flow = C, J2gh = 0.98 J2X9BIXL6 = 5.49 mis. Ans. Problem 6.26 A pitot-static tube is used fo measure the velocity of water in a pipe. The stagnation pressure head is 6 m and static pressure head is 5 m. Calculate the velocity of flow assuming the co- efficient of tube equal 0 0.98. Solution. Given Stagnation pressure head, Static pressure head, “ Im Velocity of flow, V=C, J2gh = 0.98 JEXORTXI = 4.34 mis. Ans. Problem 6.27 A sub-marine moves horizontally in sea and has its axis 15 m below the surface of water. A pitot-tube properly placed justin front ofthe sub-marine and along its ais is connected tothe two limbs ofa U-tube containing mercury. The difference of mercury level is found 0 be 170 mm. Find the speed ofthe sub-marine knowing thatthe sp. gr. of mercury is 13.6 and that of sea-water is 1.026 with respect of fresh water. Solution. Given > Diff. of mercury level, x= 170 mm=0.17m Sp. gr of mercury, Sp. ef. of seawater, V= igh = J2X9RIXD0834 = 6.393 mis = 6393 x 60 x 60, “1000 Problem 6.28 A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm diameter. The static pressure in pipe is 100 mm of mercury (vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of the pipe, recorded by the km/hr = 23.01 krn/hr. Ans.[288 Fluid Mechanics ] pitot-tube is 0.981 N/em?. Calculate the rate of flow of water through pipe, if the mean velocity of flow is 0.85 times the central velocity, Take C, = 0.98. Solution. Given : Dia. of pipe, d= 300 mm = 0.30 m Area, $ (3)*= 0.07068 m* Static pressure head = 100 mm of mercury (vacuum) 100. 5613,6 =~ 1.36 m of water Stagnation pressure 981 x 10" Nim? 81x10" __981x10" Pe 1000x981 ‘i= Stagnation pressure head ~ Static pressure head 1.0 ~ © 1.36) = 1.0 + 1.36 = 2.36 m of water Stagnation pressure head = Velocity at centre Pgh = 0.98 x JX 9BTX236 = 6.668 mis Mean velocity, V = 0.85 x 6.668 = 5.6678 mis Rate of flow of water V x area of pipe = 5.6678 x 0.07068 m*/s = 0.4006 m*/s. Ans. > 6.8 THE MOMENTUM EQUATION Tes based onthe law of conservation of momentum or onthe momentum principle, which sates tha the met fore acting on ald mass sequal othe change in omentum of flow por unit ine in that direction. The force acting on a fluid mass ‘m’ is given by the Newton's second law of motion, Pema where sth acceleration acting inthe same dretion a force F. “~ dt tv dt But F=m _ dmv) 7 _ dmv) re (6.15) Equation (6.15) is known as the momentum principle. Equation (6.15) can be written as F.dt = d(m) (6.16) which is known as the impulse-momentum equation and states that the impulse of a force F acting on a fluid of mass m in a short interval of time dr is equal to the change of momentum d(mv) inthe direction of force. {mis constant and can be taken inside the differential}[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow 289 | Force exerted by a flowing fluid on a pipe bend The impulse-momentum equation (6.16) is used to determine the resultant force exerted by @ flowing fluid on a pipe bend. Consider two sections (1) and (2), as shown in Fig. 6.18. Let ¥, = velocity of flow at section (1), 1) = pressure intensity at section (1), A, = area of cross-section of pipe at section (1) and. Vy, Pay Ap = Comresponding values of velocity, pressure and area at section (2). Let F, and F, be the components of the forces exerted by the flowing fluid on the bend in x-and y-direetions respectively. Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the directions of x and y will be equal to F, and F, but in the opposite directions. Hence component of the force exerted by bend on the fluid in the x-direction = ~ F, and in the direction of y = ~ F, The other external forces acting on the fluid are pyA, and pA, on the sections (1) and (2) respectively. Then momentum ‘equation in x-direction is given by @ © Fig. 618 Forceson bend. Net force acting on fluid in the direction of x = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction 1A, ~ PaAp Cos @ ~ F,, = (Mass per sec) (change of velocity) PQ (Final velocity in the direction of x ~ Initial velocity in the direction of x) PQ (V, cos 8- Vi) (6.17) F,= pQ (V, ~ V2 cos 8) + p,Ay ~ ppAp cos 8 (6.18) Similarly the momentum equation in y-direction gives 0—poA, sin 8 F, = p@ (Vasin 0) (6.19) F, = pQ ( Vasin 8) ~ pyAy sin @ (6.20) Now the resultant force (F) acting on the bend +R 6.21) ‘And the angle made by the resultant force with horizontal direction is given by tan O= 5 46.22) none 22 Problem 6.29. A.45° reducing bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters atthe inlet and outlet ofthe bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively, Find the force exerted by water on the bend i the intensity of pressure at inlet to bend is 8.829 N/em? and rate of flow of water is 600 litres/s.[290 Fluid Mechanics Solution. Given : ‘Angle of bend, Dia. at inlet, ‘Area, Dia. at outlet, Area, Pressure at inlet, p, = 8829 Nlem? = 8.829 x 10" Nim? Q = 600 livs = 0.6 mis 2 _ 06 Viera == ype 22122 mis _2_ 06 Vy B= aig = 488 mis Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2), we get, PM ye Beye, pe 28 28 But nen PM pe VE 889.108 | 24227 _ p, pg’ 2g 2¢ 1000x981” 2x981 ~ pg 9+ 2295 = pxlpg + 3.672 22 = 0.2905 ~ 3.672 = 5.5575 m of water Pe py = 5.5575 1000 x 9.81 Nim? = 5.45 x 10" Ni 8.4887 2x981 Forces on te bend in x- and y-drections re given by equations (6.18) and (6.20) as F.= pQ IV, ~ V2.0 6] + piA, ~ pxA, cos 0 = 1000 x 0.6 [2.122 ~ 8.488 cos 45°] + 8.829 x 10* x 2827 ~ 5.45 x 10" x .07068 x cos 45° 24959.6 ~ 5048.2 = 2827.9 + 24959.6 ~ 2720.3 199114.N and F,= pO F Vp sin 0] pyAp sin O == 3601.1 - 2721.1 ve sign means F, is acting in the downward direction Resultant force, Fee R+k 6322.2 N 1000 x 0.6 [~ 8.488 sin 45°] ~ 5.45 x 10" x .07068 x sin 45°[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow 291] = ylis911ay? +(—6322.2)° Besta = 20890.9 N. Ans. ‘The angle made by resultant force with x-axis is given by ‘equation (6.22) or = 69222N Fy tan 0 = 2 = £3222 _ 3195 Fig. 6.20 F, 19914 ‘ @= tan! 3175 = 17° 36’. Ans. Problem 6.30 250 litres/s of water is flowing in a pipe having a diameter of 300 mm. Ifthe pipe is bent by 135° (that is change from initial to final direction is 135°), find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the bend. The pressure of water flowing is 39.24 N/m’. Solution. Given : Pressure, 39.24 Niem? = 39.24 x 10* N/m? Discharge, resis = 0.25 m/s Dia. of bend at inlet and outlet, D, 300 mm = 0.3 m Area, Ay= A= © DP = © x3?= 0.07068 m? 4 4 025 Velocity of water at sections (1) and (2), V= V, = Va=— 2— = 729 = 3.537 mis. (07068 a Vgsin 45° UP) pats sin as Vy 48) Pah 008 487 @ Y v x Fig. 6.21 Force along x-axis F, 21 Vaal + Pucds + Pac where, Vj, = initial velocity in the direetion of x = 3.537 m/s Va, = final velocity in the direction of x = ~ V, cos 45° = ~ 3537 x 7071 Pig = pressure at section (1) in x-direction = 30.24 Nlom? = 39.24 x 10" N/m? ax = pressure at section (2) in x-direction = py cos 45° = 39.24 x 104 x 7071 000 x .2513.537 — (3.537 x .7071)] + 39.24 10" x 07068 + 39.24 x 10% x 07068 x 7071 = 1000 x .25[3.537 + 3.537 x .7071] + 39.24 x 10° x 07068 [1 + .7071][292 Fluid Mechanics ] = 1509.4 + 47346 = 4855.4 N Force along y-axis = Fy= pQIViy— Vay) + (PrAdy + (rAd), where Vj, = initial velocity in y-direction = 0 Voy = final velocity in y-direction = ~ V, sin 43° = 3.537 x .7071 (yA), = pressure force in y-ditection = 0 (p2A2), = pressure force at (2) in y-tirection ~ pzAz Sin 45° = ~ 39,24 x 10 x ,07068 x .7071 F, = 1000 x .25{0 ~ 3.537 x .7071] + 0 + (~ 39.24 x 10* x 07068 x .7071) 625.2 - 19611.1 = - 20236.3 N ve sign means F, is acting in the downward direction Resultant force, Fy= fh +k (4885547 + 202363" = $2880.6 N. Ans. ‘The direction of the resultant force Fg, with the x-axis is given as 202363 _ 4142 Fr, 488554 ig. 6.22 o 0 = 22°30’, Ans. Problem 6.31 4 300 mm diameter pipe carries water under a head of 20 metres with a velocity of 3.5 més, Ifthe axis of the pipe turns through 45°, find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force a the bend. Solution. Given = Dia. of bend, D=D,=D,=300mm=030m aes, A= Ay=Ay= 2 pte Ex 3007068 0? Velocity, Ve V2 ¥9=35 mis o=45° Discharge, Q=Ax V= 0.07068 x 3.5 = 0.2475 m/s Pressure head =20mof water or 2 =20mof water pe p= 20x pg = 20x 1000 x 9.81 N/m? = 196200 Nim? 2 Pressure intensity, P=, = Py = 196200 Nim? Now Vi_= 35 mls, Vay = V9008 45° = 3.5 x.7071 Vj, =0, Vay = Vasin 45° = 35%.7071 (Adc Ay = 196200 x .07068, (4A,), =O (As)c== Pra 608.45° (P2A3), == Poa sn 45° Force along x-axis, F = POW g— Vad + PAD + aADdy = 1000 x 2475)3.5 -3.5 x.7071] + 196200 x.07068 - pr’ cos 45°[ Dynamics of Fluid Flow 293 | = 253.68 + 196200 x .07068 ~ 196200 x .07068 x 0.7071 = 253.68 + 13871.34 ~ 9808.04 = 4316.98 N Force along y-axis, F,= pO Wy ~ Val + (Ady + Paty 1000 x .2475{0 ~ 3.5 x .7071] + 0 + [- pyA, sin 45°) = ~ 612.44 ~ 196200 x .07068 x .7071 = 612.44 ~ 9808 = ~ 10420.44 N Resultant force Fy= [Fe + Fe = ¥(431698) + (1042044)? = 11279 N. Ans. peAgsin as" Vosin a5 fen Fig. 6.23 ‘The angle made by Fy with x-axis 10420.44 4316.98 * @= tan"! 2411 = 67° 28°. Ans. Problem 6.32 In a 45° bend a rectangular air duct of | m? cross-sectional area is gradually reduced 10 0.5 m? area. Find the magnitude and direction of the force required to hold the duct in position if the velocity of flow at the I m? section is 10 m/s, and pressure is 2.943 N/em’. Take density of air as 1.16 kg/m’, Solution. Given : ‘Area at section (1), ‘Area at section (2), tan @ AL Velocity at section (1), V, = 10 mis Pressure at section (I), py = 2.943 N/em? = 2.943 x 10* N/m? = 29430 N/m? Density of air, p= 1.16 kg/m? Applying continuity equation at sections (1) and (2) AV, = AsV AM v,=44 2. x 10=20ms > 05