.

II

22 r; b 00 1
· Prefabrication
of Concrete
Structures

Bibliotheek TU Delft

IIIIIIIIHI
C 1849689
•
Organizing Committee:

Prof.lr. A.J. Hogeslag

Prof. Di pl.-Ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky
Prof.Dr.lr. J .C. Wal raven
Ir. W.A. de Bruijn
Marjo van der Schaaf
Anneke Kool
Prefabrication
of Concrete
Structures

Proceedings of the International Seminar Delft 1990

Delft, The Netherlands

October, 25-26, 1990.

Edited by:

AJ. Hogeslag
J.N.J.A Vambersky
J.C. Wa/raven

De/ft University Press / 1990

~ .. ""...

Published and distributed by:

Delft University Press

Stevinweg 1
2628 CN Delft
The Netherlands
(0)15 - 783254

by order of:

Delft Precast Concrete Institute

Faculty of Civil Engineering
Delft University of Technology

Cover:

Bloemenveiling Westland
Waco-Liesbosch Beton BV, Utrecht, The Netherlands

CIP-GEGEVENS KONINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG

Prefabrication

Prefabrication of concrete structures : proceedings of the International

Seminar 1990 Delft, The Netherlands, October, 25-26, 1990 led. by A.J.
Hogeslag, J.N.J.A. Vambersky, J.C. Walraven. - Delft: Delft University
Press. - 111.
ISBN 90-6275-612-3
SISO 693.5 UDC 624.04.012.3 NUGI 841
Trefw.: betonconstructies.

Copyright © 1990 by Delft University Press

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by print, photo-

print, microfilm or any other means without written permission from
Delft University Press

Printed in The Netherlands

CONTENTS

Foreword 5
General Introduction 7

SESSION 1 - DESIGN ÀSPECTS 13

General Design Philosophy 15

Prof.Dipl.-Ing. J.N.J.À. Varnbersky, Delft University of
Technology / Corsrnit Consulting Engineers
Stability of Precast Concrete Structures 29
Prof.lr. À.J. Hogeslag, Delft University of Technology
Precast Concrete Cores and Shear Walls 41
Ing. J.P. Strarnan, Delft University of Technology

SESSION 2 - PRECÀST CONCRETE FÀCÀDES 55

Building Physics and Facade Design 57

Prof.lr. C. den Ouden, Delft University of Technology /
EGM Engineering
Double Skin Facades 69
Prof.lr. À.J. Hogeslag, Delft University of Technology

Prestressed Thin Wal led Concrete Facades 81

Mr. À. Suikka, M.Sc. Civ.Eng., Partek Concrete Industry
Thin Walled Fibre-reinforced Concrete Facades 89
Ing. À. Gerritse, HBG, Dept. S&O

Surf ace and Surface Treatrnent 103

Ir. À. van Àcker, Partek Ergon NV

SESSION 3 - CODES ÀND CÀLCULATION PRINCIPLES 115

Prefabrication and Eurocode 1992 117

Ir. À. van Àcker, Partek Ergon NV
Bond and Ànchorage of Strands 129
Ir. J.À. den Uijl, Delft university of Technology
Load Distribution and Failure Behaviour of Prestressed 143
Hollow Core Slabs
Prof.Dr.lr. J.C. Walraven, Delft University of Technology
Composite Action of Floor Elements 155
Prof.Dr.lr. J.C. Wal raven , Delft University of Technology
Mortar Joints Loaded in Compression 167
Prof.Dipl.-Ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky, Delft University of
Technology / Corsmit Consulting Engineers

SESSION 4 - PRODUCTION 181

Production of Wall Elements 183

Ir. H.W. Bennenk, Schokbeton BV
High strength Concrete 187
Prof.Dr.lr. J.C. Walraven, Delft University of Technology

RECEIVED AFTERWARDS 201

Diaphragm Action 203

Ir. J. Stroband
FOREWORD

Nowadays, high requirements are imposed on the quality of structures and building
processes. On the other hand the last decade has shown a drama tic increase of man-
hour costs especially in the building industry. Owners, developers and construction
companies are demanding a more man-hour efficient way of building.
Designers are being required to meet ever more stringent requirements concerning the
efficiency of construction to cut down its own spiraling costs.
The heavy labour on the construction site, which very of ten takes place under wind,
rain and frost conditions is criticized by the unions and the health organizations.
In this respect prefabrication of concrete structures offers a number of advantages,
which deserve a due consideration.
Prefabrication of structural members stands for high quality with regard to strength,
stiffness and durability. It offers a wide variation in spans, shapes and colors.
Manufacture and erection of prefabricated concrete structures can occur in short
periods, with a small crew of qualified people, who can work in more favourable
working circumstances.
Designing and building in prefabricated concrete however requires other concepts and
strategies than applied for in-situ concrete, not only with regard to strength and
stability but also with regard to organizational aspects. Only when this is realized, the
way is open to successful applications.
The papers presented at this seminar are dealing as weil with the fundamental
principles of prefabrication as with the recent developments in structural design, code
provisions production techniques and products. As the field of prefabrication is very
large, actually too large to be sufficiently covered by a seminar with a time span of
only one and a half day, the subjects dealt with were this time limited to only those
related to buildings.
The seminar is intended to give a survey of concepts which are experienced and known
to be appropriate for actual building practice, to show new trends and developments
and to open the way to face new challenges in structural engineering.

Prof.Dipl.-lng. J.N.J.A. Vambersky

Delft, October 1990

 -7-

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Ir. A. Van Acker

Partek Concrete International , Chairman of the FIP
Commission on Prefabrication

At the start of this seminar on Prefabrication of Concrete

Structures, it might be interesting to analyze the essence
of concrete prefabrication in Western Europe today, and to
outline the challenge for the future .

When analyzing the market of precast concrete structures, it

is not an easy matter to get precise figures about
quantities, output, market penetration etc., since
statistics hide many completely different products under the
same heading: from street furni ture to bridge beams, and
from roof tiles to large floor units.

For this reason we have based our analysis on the amount of

hollow core floor elements produced in each country. Related
to the number of m2 per inhabitant, it gives a good
representation of the present situation of the precast
construct ion.

m2 pro capita

0 . 70

Finland (O.65)

0.60

0 . 50

0.40

Holland (0.36)

0.)0 Sweden (0. JO)

Norway (O.l2)
0.20

Oenmark (0.1 5)

0.10
BelqiulII (0.08)
Italy (0.06) UK (0.05)
Franc e (0.03)
0.00 L -_ __ __ _- " ' =n:L.JlJL..IllJllll--.5.ll.il.lJlcJ..Q.
O,..g
. O.Q!0lL

Annual pr oduction of hollow core floors pro capita

in different european countries
 -8-

As you can see, the differences are enormous : from nearly

0.7 m2 to zero. Which other observations can we make:
- Smaller countries have a relative much higher production
than the large ones.

Nordic countries are clearly using more precast floors and

structures than the more southern ones. The climate is cer
tainly an influencing factor. However, the market share in
Holland, and to a lower degree in Belgium, illustrates
that this can't be the only decisive parameter.
- Finland is the absolute fore runner in spite of the fact
that their precast industry started much later than in
most other countries.

Historically, the West European prefab industry has grown

out of many small private companies. One of their
characteristics was that they were fighting each other on
small local markets. Af ter the war some larger prefab
companies appeared, but the majority of the firms still
remains small and medium size.
In comparison, the steel industry or cast insitu
construction - the real competitors of the prefab industry -
contain small companies, as well as a large number of big
companies and multi national Groups. Their policy and
strategy is far broader than the local market. In addition
they have astrong foothold in all existing national and
international committees to defend their common interests.

These rather opposite attitudes of both precasters and their

real competitors have had direct consequences on the
penetration of precast concrete in the construction
activity. In the fol1owing some aspects are analyzed.

1. In smaller countries, the impact of Prefab Companies and

Federations on the mark et has been much larger than in
bigger countries.
A typical example in respect to Standardization is
Germany: DIN standards are rather conservative, and
hence less favourable for precast construction, the
latter being developed much later than cast insitu
constructions . Unfavourable limi tations are imposed on
maximum floor loads, steel stresses for prestressing,
detensioning stresses, lateral load distribution, etc.
All this resul ts in higher costs for the same product
than in other countries.
 -9-

Eurocodes are certainly going to improve the situation.

In fact already now we see a positive influence on e.g.
type approvals.
2. Another factor is the chauvinism of the bigger countries.
They don/t feel inclined to look at evolutions abroad,
since they are convinced of their own savoir-faire.
Small countries on the contrary, are much more open and
interested in what is going on abroad. They constantly
try to take advantage of all possible evolutions which
may improve their mark et position.
3. The dominance of big contractors over the prefab industry
is much heavier in large countries than in the smaller
ones. Precasting is not being considered as a specif ic
construction technique, with its own design and
execution philosophy, but rather as a complement to cast
insitu structures.
As a direct consequence, precasting is not used
optimally, e.g. with respect to modulation, connections,
vertical bracing structures etc. , and thus less
economical, slower and more difficult to industrialize
than i t could be. In this way, one is running in a
vicious circle, because their is no real motivation to
exploit precasting to its maximum.
The complete opposite has happened in Finland, which
explains to a great extend, the success of precast
structures over there. Already from tradition, through
its wooden houses, Finland has been closer to
prefabrication than other countries. In addition, af ter
the war reconstruction has started much later in Finland
than in most other West European countries. In order to
decrease delays, all important contractors decided to
work with precasting. At the same time, a national study
group worked out a precast construction system based on
the interchangeability of the different components used.
Architects and consultants were informed about the
system and made their projects accordingly. The system
has already been improved during the seventies, and a
complete new building system, named TAT has been worked
out during the last years.
4. Another parameter which played an important role in the
development and the use of precast concrete is research.
During i ts introduction on the market every new
technology has to be supported by research in order to
get the necessary credibility from the users.
This is also true for prefabrication, and has been
proven by countries such as Finland, the Scandinavian
countries, The Netherlands, Belgium, etc, where
Technical Institutes, Federations and precast companies
have spent large efforts in research and development of
precast concrete structures. Technical universities from
 -10-

Delft, Göteborg and Finland have played a leading role

in this respect and should be followed also in other
countries.

5 . Construct ion , and especially housing habits are playing a

role in the spread of precast concrete. The act of
building has a st rong country-linked character. For
example, when comparing Holland to Belgium we see
completely different housing styles: housing estates
with mostly the same houses in Holland, build by the
public authority, against highly individualistic houses
in Belgium, build by the tenant.
Politics are certainly playing a role in all this.
Indeed, countries with socialistic governments are
constructing far more social housing projects than
liberal governments.
It is obvious that precasting has only a chance in the
first case. Indeed, nearly 50 % of the total Dutch
precast hollow core floor market is for housing, whereas
in Belgium a much smaller percentage goes into that
segment.
Unknown ,unloved is one of the conclusions of the previous
statements. The intention of this seminar to do something
about this. The different themes are dealing with all
aspects of prefabrication, ranging from fundamental
principles to recent developments in structural design, code
provisions and product i on techniques.

The challenge for the future

Among different construct ion materials and tèchniques,

precast concrete obviously disposes of a great potential
with respect to the future. The question is what to do in
order to meet this challenge.
A first target is to acquire the image of a modern
progressive construction technique, with numerous advantages
for the user wi th respect to quali ty, industrialization,
environment etc.
In fact, the term "Precasting" should be reserved only for
products made in fixed, weIl controlled plants. It should be
a sort of trade mark, enabling to distinguish ourself from
light prefabrication or other kinds of so cal led in situ
prefabrication. The latter being a complementary execution
technique to cast in situ construction , rather than real
precasting.
 -11-

Another objective is research and development. There should

be a continuous effort to keep our industry ahead of
competition from steel and cast insitu construction. We see
two different domains: fundamental research and applied
research.
Fundamental research is clearly the domain of universities.
It should deal with basic research, both with respect to new
materials and to calculation models and methods.
A good example is fibre reinforced concrete. I'm still
wondering why, in the past, universit ï es have been so little
interested in glass fibre concrete. still it was, and is an
interesting new material with a lot of potential, but also a
lot of open questions with respect to material technology.
It is obvious that the classical methods of design and
calculation for mass concrete do not apply for thin walled
structures, because of the relati vely large importance of
stress concentrations due to material properties,
dilatations, element configuration etc. I'm convinced th at a
lot of problems could have been avoided if more basic
research would have been done in the past.

There is of cause the problem of finance at universities:

since budgets are rather limited investments in expertise
and basic research need to be allocated carefully. Some
people suggest th at the financial means should come from the
precasting industry. However it is quite obvious that the
industry is only interested in those institutes where basic
experience in precast techniques is al ready available.

The continuous improvement and development of new products,

construction systems and product ion techniques, is the
domain of the precasting industry itself. This doesn't mean
that universities and technical institutes should be
excluded from this work - on the contrary they should assist
the precaster in all possible aspects but the
responsibility belongs to the industry.

A third point of interest is Standardization. One should not

underestimate the influence of the coming international
Design Codes, Product Standards and 9ther regulations.
Precasting has still to make up arrears compared to cast
insitu concrete, for example in the domain of composite
action between precast elements mutually, or between precast
elements and other materiaIs. Also the inherent high fire
resistance of weIl designed precast structures hasn't been
fully recognized. Future codes should enable us to benefit
more on safety margins, higher concrete quality, etc.
 -12-

Finally I would like to plead for more courses on precast

construction at universities and technical institutes.
Design and building in precast concrete requires other
concepts and strategies than applied for insitu concrete,
not only with regard to strength and stability but also with
re gard to organizational aspects. Future architects and
engineers should become familiar wi th these techniques so
that they are not hesi tating any more to design precast
constructions, because of a lack of knowledge, which
unfortunately, is of ten the case now.

Uni vers i ties and Technical Insti tutes in the Nordic

countries and also in The Netherlands have understood the
need for education and basic research on precast concrete
construction. In most of the other countries a lot has still
to be done in this domain. The Delft Precast Concrete
Institute is leading the way, not only through their
intensive teaching and research programme, but also through
the organization of this Seminar. I wish to congratulate and
to thank the organizing committee for this initiative.
 -13-

SESSION 1

DESIGN ASPECTS
 -15-

GENERAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Prof.Dipl.-ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky, Delft University of Technology/ Corsmit

ConsuIting Engineers The Netherlands.

1. INTRODUCTION
The dramatic increase of manhour costs during the past several years has impacted
heavily on the building industry . Owners, developers and construction companies are
demanding more manhour efficient way of building.
Designers are being required to meet ever more stringent requirements concerning the
efficiency of construction to cut down its ever spiraling costs.
The heavy labour on the construction site, which very of ten takes place under wind,
rain and frost conditions is criticised by the uni ons and health organisations.
These are some of the reasons why today more and more owners, developers and
construction companies are choosing precast concrete for their building projects.

In an industrialized proces of manufacturing of precast concrete elements the actual

work consists of relatively simple repeated handlings, so that it is possible to employ a
great deal of unskilled and semi-skilled labour and still produce high quality products.
Only a relatively small supervisory staff of foremen and specialists is necessary.
This property, together with
- short construct ion time
- easy to reach high concrete quality
- low sensitivity to weather conditions
- reduced manpower on site and the above dramatic increase of manhours costs have
led to a significant application of precast concrete elements within the construction
industry all over the world.
The impressive expansion of this technique, ho wever, does not always show the same
expansion of the "know-how" in the field of design and detailling.
It is all too often forgotten, that a good building or other construction constructed
from precast concrete elements should, from the very beginning, be designed as a
construction made of precast concrete elements.
Instead of that all too of ten the design of a traditional building is merely adapted to a
precast concrete, which is not the right approach.
The prefabrication has its own design approach which has to be respected to achieve
the fulI profit which the prefabrication offers. This design approach - or design
philosophy - is explained further in this article in particular for the precast concrete
buildings.
 -16-

2. DESIGN
Every construction system has its own specifics, which more or Ie ss influence the lay-
out, storey height, stability, statical system etc.
To achieve an optimum design and an optimum structure a design should, from the
very outset, respect these specifics and particular demands of the structure and
system aimed at.
Hence, it is very important when designing a precast concrete structure, to realize
that the best result is arrived at if the structure is designed as a precast concrete
structure from the very outset and is not merely adapted from the traditional cast in
situ or masonry design to a pre cast one.
Not respecting this may cause unnecessary faults and problems during the fabrication
and construction of the elements and during the service life of the whole building.
This is a very important point which, strangely enough, is still very of ten neglected.
It should be realized, that it is a good initial pre cast concrete design which to a great
extent determines whether the advantages of precast concrete shall fully develop and
so contribute to cutting down the construction time and costs and ensuring better
quality, as weIl as cutting down life cycle costs by assuring adaptability and openess to
current and future demands or not.
Designers should, therefore, bear in mind the possibilities, restrictions, advantages and
disadvantages of pre cast concrete, including its detailing, manufacture, transport,
erection and serviceability stages before coming to a final design in precst concrete.
As a rule modular co-ordination should be used throughout the building in every design,
and also necessary tolerances should be carefully considered.

~ Detailing
All successful ideas, formulas and inventions are mostly based on strikingly simple
solutions. This is generally valid, but even more for design and detailing of pre cast
concrete structures.
As time saving is one of the most important advantages of precast concrete, care
should be taken that the details used correspond with the principles of precast
concrete design and fit into the short construction time.
Too elaborate or vulnerable details should be as much as possible avoided.
A good design in precast concrete should use as simple details as possible, the
simplicity of the details determining all advantages of precast concrete.
As examples of simple details can be se en the figures below:
 -17-

-~l If-- I]
P'eca" colum,

I,
11 ' I1 Erection wedge
I1
111 I~
11

I
11
11' 11
1
Non-shrinking
grout I',
[
I Fully grouted

~ (

-f/~
:>:-
" .~ .= .-.:""'
.: ..-;:j -----j--- Box-shaped
foo tin..g

[ [ [ [ Levelling pad

(a) (b)

fig. 1. Column-base connection

1 I

FCJ5
Concrete poured on site

fig. 2. Slab beam connection

 -18-

Where possible standardized units, elements and systems should be used, and non-
standard solutions and details should be avoided wherever possible.
This also applies to the grid line distances, storey heights, stair step dimenstions, etc.
Precast concrete elements should be as large as possible, bearing in mind limitations
of manufacture, transport and erection and crane-lifting capacity, to re duce erection
handlings.
Precast concrete columns should preferably be made as one single unit over two or
more storeys to reduce the time taken in manufacture and erection, as weU as the
number of connections. To keep the detailing of the column/beam connections as
simple as possible and to permit the use of columns in one piece over two storeys or
more, the column/beam connection should preferably be realized by simply supporting
the beams by corbels (corbels forming part of the columns).
Cast in situ structural concrete topping should be used as little as possible, since it is
a disturbing element in the erection process consuming time (and money).
The connections between elements should be as simple as possible and in no way
attempts should be undertaken to make the connections similar to the cast in situ
ones.

2.2. Structural connections

Criteria:
Precast concrete connections must meet a variety of design, performance and other
criteria. Not all connections are required to meet the same criteria. Some of the
items discussed in this chapter are self-evident. Other requirements may not be so
obvious and may require special consideration or specification . by the designer or
owner of the structure.
The usual criteria are as follows:
a. Codes and Standards statical calculations and dimensioning
The statical calculations and dimensioning of the connections must comply with
the relevant national codes and standards.

b. Strength
A connection must have the strength to re sist the forces to which it will be
subjected during its lifetime. Some of these forces are apparent, caused by dead
and live gravity loads, wind, earthquake, and soB or water pressure. Others are not
so obvious and are frequently overlooked. These are the forces caused by restraint
of volume changes in the members and those required to maintain stability.
Volume changes are caused by temperature change, creep and shrinkage of the
 -19-

elements. Instability can be caused by eccentric loading (intentional or

unintentional), as weil as lateralloads from wind and earthquake. Very of ten, when
not properly looked at, measures taken to resist instability will tend to aggravate
the forces caused by volume changes, and vice-versa.
In addition to loads or forces that may be anticipated the Engineer may choose to
provide additional capacity to resist some "unanticipated", "accidental" or
"abnormal" loads. These loads could include foundation settlement, explosion,
aircraft or vehicle collision or others. These "abnormal" loads may be
accommodated in connections by a capacity for overload, by ductility within the
connection, or by redundancy (alternate load paths) in the total structure or within
the connection.
The connection strength can be categorized by the types of stress that may be
induced. These include:
- compressive
- tensile
- flexural
- shear
- torsional

lt is obvious, that different connections will have a different degree of resistance

to the different types of stresses as specified above.
Many connections will have a high degree of resistance to one type of stress, but
little or no resistance to another. In many cases it may be unnecessary, or even
undesirable to provide a high capability to resist certain types of stresses.

c. Volume change influences

The combined shortening effects of creep, shrinkage and temperature drop can
cause severe stresses on precast, concrete members and their connections, if the
connections restrain move ment. These stresses must be considered in the design,
but it is usually far better if the connection will allow some movement to take
place, thus relieving the stresses.

d. Ductility
Ductility is usually defined as the ability to accommodate relatively large
deformations without failure. In structural materials, ductility is usually measured
by the amount of deformation that occurs between first yield and ultimate failure.
Ductility in building frames is usually associated with moment resistance. This is
particularly true in designing for earthquake forces, which is where concerns over
 -20-

ductility are usually expressed. In concrete members with moment-resisting

connections, the flexural tension is normally resisted by steel components, either
reinforcing bars or structural steel members. First yield occurs in this steel
component, and final failure may be from rupture of the steel, crushing of the
concrete, or a failure of the connection of the steel to the concrete. Ductility of
the connections should be always considered together with the total structural
concept of the structure.

e. Durability
Evidence of poor durability is usually exhibited by corrosion of exposed steel
elements, or by cracking and spalling of concrete. Connections which will be
exposed to weather should have steel elements adequately covered with concrete,
or should be painted or galvanized. If not, sufficient non corrosive connection
materials should be used.
All to weather or other aggressive environment exposed connections should be
periodically inspected and maintained. Most precast concrete elements are of high
quality, and flexural cracking is seldom a serious problem, provided tensile stresses
are kept within code limits. However, local cracking or spalling can occur wh en
improper details result in restraint of move ment or stress concentrations.

e.1. Concrete encasement of exposed connection steel

The preferred method of protecting exposed steel connection elements is to
cover them with concrete, mortar or grout. Mix proportions, aggregate size
and application procedures will vary with the size, location, and orientation
of the element to be covered. Mixes containing chlorides should be avoided. '
Patches in architectural panels and others that will be permanently exposed
to view will of ten not be accepted. Anchoring the concrete or grout to the
relatively large steel surfaces is a problem that is of ten overlooked. Larger
elements such as steel haunches can be wrapped with mesh or wire. For
recessed plates and similar elements, connections such as those shown in fig.
3 can be used.
 -21-

:o!:olo14
_:. . '
d ii
". .
Q k 0'
. . .0
Q~
r----
" (a) Headed studs with wire tie

·>:1 :1;10 d: J:l

I1
~1

• • • • • •0 , • 0 °

(1)) Notched rectanguiar anchor with wire

(c) Wiggled refractory anchor

~!
fig. 3. Methods of anchoring patches to recessed plates.

f. Fire resistance
Many precast concrete connections are not vulnerable to the effect of fire and
require no special treatment. For example, the bearings between slabs and beams
do not generally require special fire protection. If the slabs or tees rest on
elastomeric pads or ot her combustibie materiais, protection of the pads is not
generally needed because deterioration of the pads will not cause collaps. Af ter a
fire, the pads could be replaced. Connections in which weakening by fire would
jeopardize the structures stability should be protected to the same degree as that
required for the structural frame. For example, an exposed steel bracket
supporting a beam may be weakened enough by a fire to cause the beam to
collapse. Such a bracket should be protected. The amount of protection depends on
(a) the stress-strenght ratio in the steel at the time of the fire and (b) the intensity
and duration of the fire. Connections which require a fire resistance rating will
usually have steel elements encased in concrete. Other methods of fire protection
include enclosing with gypsum wallboard, coating with fire protecting coating, or
spraying with fire protection material. There is evidence that exposed steell
 -22-

hardware used in connections is less susceptible to fire-related strength reduction

than other exposed steel members. This is because the concrete elements provide a
"heat sink", which draws off the heat and reduces the temperature of the steel.
Research on this sUbject is recommended.

g. Fabrication simplicity
Maximum economy of precast concrete construction is achieved when connection
details are kept as simple as possible, consistent with adequate performance and
ease of erection. Furthermore, complex connections are more difficult to design,
to make and to con trol and will of ten result in poor fitting in the field. This can
contribute to slow erection and less satisfactory performance. Underneath follows
a list of items to consider during the design in order to improve fabrication
simplicity. In many cases, some of these items must be compromised in order for
the connection to serve its intended function, or other functional reasons.

g.l Avoid congestion

The area of the member in which the connection is made frequently requires
large amounts of additional reinforcing steel, embedded plates, inserts,
blockouts, etc. It is not unusual for so many items to be concentrated into
one area that there is then only very little room left for concrete, not to
mention for concrete to be placed properly.
In this respect it should be remembered that reinforcing bars and prestressing
strands, which appear as lines on drawings, have real cross-sectional
dimensions (which are larger than the nominal dimension because of the
deformations); a fa ct to be considered in the design phase. Reinforcing bar
bends require minimum radii, which can cause fit problems and leave some
regions unreinforced. If congestion is suspected, it is helpful to draw large
scale details of the area in question. In some cases, it may be economical to
increase the member sizes just to avoid congestion.

g.2 Avoid penetration of forms

Since most precast, prestressed concrete members are cast in steel forms,
projections which require cutting through the forms are difficult and costly
to place. Where possible, these projections shouJd be limited to the top of the
member as cast. Even this inhibits finishing of the top surface, especially on
deck members or double tees and hollow-core sJabs.
 -23-

g.3 Minimize embedded items

Items which are embedded in the member, such as inserts, plates, reglets,
etc., require plant labor to locate precisely and attach securely. Therefore,
these items should be kept to a minimum. This applies especially to the items
embedded in the top surface.

g.4 Reduce post-stripping work

A plant casting operation is most efficient when the product can be taken
directly to the storage area immediately after it is stripped from the form.
Any operations which are required af ter stripping and before placement at
the job site, such as special cleaning or finishing, or welding on projecting
hardware, should be avoided, whenever possible. These operations require
additional handling, extra work space, and added labor, of ten with skilled
trades. The trade-off between penetration of forms and post-stripping work
will sometimes need to be evaluated.

g.5 Use standard items

Wherever possible hardware items such as inserts, studs, steel shapes, etc.,
should be standard items that are readily available, preferably from more
than one supplier. Custom fabricated or very specialized proprietary items
add cost and may cause delays. It also simplifies fabrication if similar items
on a product or project are standardized as to size and shape. There is also
Ie ss chance of error. The same principle applies to reinforcing bars,
embedded plates, studs, etc.

g.6 Avoid non-standard tolerances

Dimensional tolerances which are specified to be more rigid than industry
standards, are difficult to achieve.
Connections which require close-fitting parts without provision for
adjustment should be avoided.

g.7 Use repetitious details

It is very desirabie to repeat details as much as possible. Similar details
should be identical, even if it may result in a slight overdesign. Once
workmen are familiar with a detail, it is easier to repeat it than to learn a
new one. Also, it will require fewer form set-ups and improve scheduling.
 -24-

g.S Be aware of material limitations

Examples of this are the radius requirements for bending reinforcing bars,
.standard lengths for certain sizes of inserts, etc.

g.9 Allowalternates
Very of ten, a precast concrete manufacturer will prefer certain details over
others. The producer should be allowed to use alternative methods or
materiais, provided the design requirements are met. Allowing alternate
solutions will of ten result in the most economical and best performing
connection.

h. Loading conditions during erection

During erection loading conditions can occure, which induce stresses, as weIl in the
precast concrete units as in the connections, which are higher then those under the
service conditions. When designing the connections due consideration have to be
paid to these effects unless special measures are taken during the erection - such
as temporary supports etc. - to prevent such situations.

i. Erection simplicity
Much of the advantage of precast concrete construction is due to the possibility of
fast erection of the structure. To fully realize this benefit, and to keep the costs
within reasonable limits, field connections should be kept simpie. In order to fulfill
the design requirements, it is sometimes necessary to compromise fabrication and
erection simplicity. Underneath follows a list of items that should be considered
during the design and detailing of the connections in this respect.

i.l Plan for the shortest possible hoist hook-up time

Hoisting the precast pieces is usually the most expensive and time-cri tic al
process of the erection.
Connections should be designed so, that the unit can be lifted, set, and
unhooked in the shortest possible time.
Before the hoist can be unhooked, the precast piece must be stabie and in its
fin al position.

Stabilityof the precast concrete elements:

Some shapes of precast units such as double tees and hollow-core si abs are
inherently stabie and require no additional connections before releasing the
crane. Others, such as columns, deep beams, wall panels and single tees
 -25-

usually require some supplemental shoring, quying, or fastening before the

hoist can be unhooked.
Preplanning for the fewest, quickest, and safest possible operations that must
be performed before releasing the hoi st, will greatly facilitate erection.
Bearing pads, shims, or other devices upon which the piece is to be set,
should be placed ahead of hoisting. Loose hardware that is required for the
connection should be immediately available for quick aUachment. In some
cases, it may be necessary to provide temporary fasteners or leveling
de vi ces, with the permanent connection made af ter the hoi st is released. For
example, if the permanent connection requires field welding, grouting, dry
packing, or cast-in-place concrete, erection bolts, pins, or shims can be used.
These temporary devices must be given careful aUention to assure that they
wil! hold the piece in its proper position during the placement of all pieces
that are erected before the final connection is made.

Stability of the total structure:

It is important, that in every stage of the erection the stability of the
structure as a whole is assured. If not, additional measures have to be taken.
The type of connections used may play a decissive role in this.

i.2 Provide for adjustment

A certain amount of field adjustment at the connections is always necessary.
Normal fabrication tolerances preclude the possibility of a perfect fit in the
field.

i.3 Provide accessibility

Connections should be planned so, that they are accessible to the workman.
The type of equipment necessary for making the connection should be
considered. Operations which require working under a deck in an overhead
position should be avoided, especially for weId ing. Alternatives to anything
tha t requires temporary scaffolding should be considered. Room to place
wrenches on nuts and swing them should be provided for bolts etc.

i.4 Standardize connection types

All connections which serve similar functions within the building should be
standardized as much as possible. As workmen become familiar with the
procedures required to make the connection, productivity is enhanced, and
there is less chance for error.
 -26-

Some types of connections require skilled craftsmen to accomplish, for

example, welding and post- tensioning.
The fewer of these skilled trad es required, the more economical the
connection will beo

i.5 Standardize Si:t.l;~ of components

Whenever possible, such things as field bolts, loose angles, etc. , should be of
common size for all connections. This re duces the chance for error, and the
time required to search for the proper item.

i.G Use connections that are not weather-sensitive

Such materials as grout, drypack, cast-in-place concrete, and epoxies need
special provisions to be placed in cold weather. Welding is slower when the
am bie nt temperature is low. If the connections are designed so that these
processes must be completed before erection can continue, costly delays may
result.

i.7 Use connections that are not susceptible to damage in handling.

Reinforcing bars, steel plates, dowels, and bolts th at project from the
precast piece will of ten be damaged in handling, requiring repair to make
them fit, especially if they are of small diameter or thickness. Threads on
projecting bolts should be protected from damage and rust.

i.B Allowalternates
As with fabrication, the precast concrete manufacturer or erector may
prefer certain details or procedures not anticipated by the designer. Allowing
alternate solutions will of ten resuIt in more economical and better
performing connections.

j. Internal and extemal transport and storage

Oue consideration have to be given to the fact, whether the shape and the
dimensions of the chosen connection details can cause problems during the
transport and storage of the elements. This as well with respect to the damage of
the connection -liS with respect to the required space (economy) etc.
 -27-

k. Economy
The costs of the connection itself depend on the magnitude of the forces to be
carried over and the repetition (number of the same connections) involved. For the
economicaly justified choice it is however important to consider also the influence
which the connection has on the total cost of the prefabricated structure as a
whoie. The direct costs of the connection should be weighed against the costs of
the element manufacturing, storage, transport, erection and finishing.

I. Appearance
When the precast members are exposed, the appearance of the connection is of ten
an important consideration. It is sometimes necessary to compromise fabrication
and erection simplicity, and hence, increase the cost, to provide a satisfactory
appearance.

2.3. Standardization
Standardization has been always a hot item in the precast concrete industry. There are
enough examples known from differènt countries, where standardization has been
carried out to such an extent that stereotype buildings with the same appearance and
character over the whole country were the result. This so far carried standardization
has very of ten and understandably, lead to a certain aversion against prefabrication.
This is ofcourse a wrong approach.

In general, when architecture and the building structure are optimized for each
building - such as always should be the case - the component "standard" should be
limited as to allow wide applicability.
This means that precast concrete production plants should be as versatile as possible
in order to guarantee continuity of production and the standardization should be
pursued for details, cross-sections connections, base-type products and systems, taking
modular coordination into account, rather than 100% standardization of components
let stay the 100% standardization of the whole building.

3. SAFETY
Stability and safety are necessary structural considerations in prefabrication. In cast
in situ traditional buildings, up to a certain height the stability is mostly assured
without applying special provisions, but in precast concrete the stability and safety of
the structure should alsways be considered, even if the height is very smal!.
 -28-

Also the possibility of progressive collapse should be carefully studied and, where
necessary, provision should be made to prevent this or at least to reduce the risk to an
acceptable minimum.

Progressive collapse is a chain-reaction failure, which causes extensive damage or

total collapse of a badly designed and/or badly detailed structure. Basically, it is the
propagation of a massive failure, which radiates out from initial damage caused to a
relatively small portion of a structure.
lt is initiated by loading conditions not generally considered in the design - so called
accidental loading.

Accidental loading conditions and effects which can be structurally significant

include: errors in design and construction; local overloading; service system (gas)
explosions; ground vehicular and aircraft collisions; tornadoes, flooding; bomb
explosions; fire loads; and foundation settlements.
To reduce the risk of progressive collapse three approaches are commonly employed,
of ten in combination:

(a) reducing the risk of accidental loading

(b) preventing the propagation of a possible initial failure
(c) designing the structure to withstand accidental loading.

Generally spoken properly designed and detailed structures, with proper attention paid
to continuity, structural integrity and anchorages and, most important, ductile
performance of reinforced concrete members and connections, re sist in general
accidental loading without turning into a mechanism af ter the failure of the first link.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. STUPRé (uitgave Betonvereniging), "Constructieve verbindingen van
geprefabriceerde betonelementen", Zoetermeer, The Netherlands 1976
2. L.O. MARTIN and W.J. KORKOSH, "Connections for Precast Prestressed Concrete
Buildings including earthquake resistance", P.C .I. March 1982
3. FIP Recommendations "Design of Multi-Storey Precast Concrete Structures"
Thomas Telford London 1986
 -29-

STABILITY OF PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Prof. ir. A.J. Hogeslag

Delft University of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, Concrete Structures
Corsmit Consulting Engineer, Rijswijk

SOME REMARKS ABOUT DESIGN AND PRELIMINARY CALCULATIONS.

I.INTRODUCTION
Short and to the point: To satisfy the requirements as to stability and rigidity of
prefabricated bearing structures the partly restrained column seems to be the most
suitable solution.
By "restrained column" is meant the whole sequence of elements from the real
column, via the shearwall to the core (a system of composed walis), which all can be
seen statically as a partly restrained column.
This type of construction can easily be analysed by the approximate method, shown in
the figure.

FVd

12
~"-I/,,-~
c c=oo
T~~
c

Fig. 1

111 C
-=--+-- FE,2 =i (column)
FE FE , 1 FE , 2
2e
FE
, 2 = g;- (core)
E
o
EI + I = moment of inertia of uncracked cross section E" "3

g, c = buckling length (1 storey g, c 2 g" > 5 storeys g,c 1,12 g,)

 -30-

n ~ Ó
n-l' 0

n ~ 10 o.k.
10 > n > 5 acceptable
n < 5 improve design
n <1 incorrect

2. FRAMES
The monolithic frame does not fit weil in our design-philosophy of prefabricated
structures. To -enable a quick erection, the connections between the elements must
be simple. Moment resistant frames for lateral load resistance need moment-
connections and unfortunately the most effective and best performing moment-
connections usuaily employ some cast-in-place concrete, which is laborious and thus
not in line with the speed of erection.

111 I 1
Fig. 2

An effective way of providing simpier connections is to design members with the

connections at a certain distance from the junction of the beam and the column,
preferably at the points of zero bending moments.
However in general the members made in th is way are complicated and difficult to
handle in connection with bracing and variations in dimensions and other measures.
 - 31-

floors
e lement
?
brace
~
I
I
/
1lieverarm

0= hinge

Fig. 3

An acceptable solution is the ll-shaped element, possibly combined with a hinged

beam.

1T f rame

Fig. 4

But still by removing the points of zero bending moment from the middle of the
column to the boHom the rigidity of the frame decreases. On the other hand a possible
moment-connection by means of threaded bars is succeptible to dimensional variation.
Altogether the moment resistant frame is to our opinion a less attractive and out of
date structure.
An exception is the external bearing framework, obtained by joining efficiently rigid
units together, to which I will return later.

3. PARTLY RESTRAINED COLUMN

For buildings with a limited number of storeys ( 1 to 4 storeys or up to about 12 m
height) the simplest form of moment-resisting is the column fixed in the base. The
horizontal framing members are connected to the columns with connections, which are
assumed pinned. Of course the foundation must be able to withstand the restraining
moments due to fixed connection.
In the design of foundations the areas of the basis, in contact with the ground should
 -32-

be such that the safe bearing pressure will not be exceeded.

If piles are used at least three piles are necessary under the pile cap, unie ss beams in
two directions are applied.

-,-
. mI
•-
~;:L-----...J~~
rnl
I

r-tr--tr
,.,
~.I
.. ,
!. ..

I
I
-

Fig. 5

Two principal methods for restraining precast columns in the foundation are:
connection in a foundation-socketj
connection by protruding bars.

Fig. 6

The connection with steel base-plate and extended anchors (a rea I steel-connections)
is attractive from the point of view of erection, but quite costly.
The connection in a foundation-socket is mostly applied if no piles are used. In
Germany and Belgium these sockets are prefabricated and as a half standard product
put on the market.
 -33-

If a pile foundation is used the socket will be too laborious, employs much material
and therefore is Ie ss attractive because of the costs.
In The Netherlands the application of foundation on piles dominates and is the
foundation socket Ie ss popular. MosUy the connection by extended bars is used, in
spite of the disadvantages of the wet connection, the need of bracing of the columns
and a large dimensional accuracy. Also the cross-sectional area of the columns is
larger in connection with the required spa ce for the recesses.
The aim is to transfer the lateral loads as much as possible to all columns. Then there
is hardly any difference between the loads on the columns so that Ie ss column-types
will do, or even one type will do without a waste of material.

r~
n colums

Fig. 7

To transmit horizontal forces the floor- and/or roof slabs must possess a certain
amount of rigidity within their own plain. Next speaker will deal with that topic. It
implies also contradictionary demands on the beam-column connection, because on the
one side the build-up forces caused by the restraint of shrinkage, creep and
temperature-change must be prevented and on the other hand the lateral wind forces
must be transferred.
The solution can be found on the ground of the characteristic differences between
these two loads: the slow proces of shrinkage etc. opposite to the fast developing
lateral forces. The recess around the threaded bars in the connection can therefore be
filled up with bitumen: plastic for slowly build-up forces, but rigid for fast build-up
forces. Of course each column must be checked with regard to its own inclination and
geometrical imperfections.
The loads are usually distributed to the columns in proportion to the flexural column-
stiffness (depending on cross-sectional area, available normal force and rotational
stiffness of the foundation). "Exact analysis" has become increasingly complex and
adds considerably to the time and cost of engineering. Uniformity in the design and a
regular basic grid of the columns can simplify the method of analysis to a large
extent.
 -34-

otter erec! ion

to pour
bdumen

11 column
threaded II
bar

onch~~.~__~-'.I
fostener

Fig. 8

This type of structure is very ductile because each column provides his own stability.
Besides, by the simple connections, the structure can be regarded as suitable for
demountable design. The provision of the stability, as defined before, is not limited to
single-storey (industrial) buildings, as it will appear from the following examples:
Extension of the flower-auction-buildings at Aalsmeer and Honselersdijk.

Some data:
Column grid: about 16 x 20 m
Cross-sectional area columns:
1,2 x 1,2 m 2
Loads on floors and roof:
10 kN/m 2

Fig. 9
 -35-

4. SllEAR WALLS AND CORES

For multy-storey buildings, higher than ca 12 m, the most commonly adopted method
of ensuring stability is by means of shear walls or rigid cores in combination with
horizontally rigid floor slabs.
Minimum: three walls without a theoretical common intersection point of the axis are
required or a torsion-stiff box-shaped core, combined with rigid floor slabs.

o
Fig. 10

In many cases it is taken as a basis of the structural design that the core resists the
entire horizontal loading and thus completely ensures the required stability. In that
case the columns can be detailed as members hinged at top and base. The bending
moments developing at the connections are small, so that simple detailing of the
connections is possible. The statical model of the total structure can be as shown in
the figure.

Fig. 11

This sche me justifies using a si mple method of analysis. To determ ine the second order
effects the core will be se en as a partly restrained column.
The procedure of the calculations is the same as already discussed before for the
single column. The location of the stability elements in the plan has to be as effective
as possible. In this choice the structural arguments must have priority.
In practice it is of ten taken for granted that walls of stairwells and elevators are used
as shearwells and cores. In principle that is wrong, because the location of stairwells
and elevators is determined on the ground of serviceability requirements of the
building. In my opinion the stability structures must be located on the most
structurally-favourabie position in the plan. Perhaps, with a little adaptation, either
structural or architectural a combination of stairwells, elevatorshafts or wet cells can
 -36-

be possible.
For the distribution of lateral forces it is assumed, that each floor can be modeUed as
an infinite rigid deep beam, elastically supported by the shear waUs. As already has
been said, the required diaphram action of the floor wil! be discussed in the next
lecture.
In general a building loaded by lateral forces wil! translate as weU as rotate.

r---
I ---
-'-'~'-B
i
, ' -". - '--.- .~'
x 1
x
,- ' x " - -
x
x
X
x

-----
I q,

II 1II I!I~

Fig. 12

Starting from the supposition mentioned and from linear elastic behaviour, the
rotation point (the centre of gravity of the fle xural stiffness EI of the stability
elements) can be determined.
In principle the horizontal displacement of each point of the plan is known and with
that the contribution of each element. Depending on the amount of stabilizing
elements and the way of determination of the flexural stiffness, the calculations can
be complex by which a computer is necessary or can be a simple short manual
calculation. By applyil'lg the latter the flexural stiffness of the elements has to be of
the same magnitude, as far as a statically indetermined situation is concerned (i. e.
minimum EI not less than 8096 of the maximum EI), because of the fact that by the
second order effect redistribution of forces occurs; the stiffer elements are loaded
higher than calculated with a linear elastic method.
In the preliminary design phase, linear elastic calculations to establish the load
distribution wil! do, af ter that for each separate element the second order
excentricities have to be determined. If the additional moments, caused by these
excentricities, are large, the sum of the moments can be redistributed among the
stabilizing elements. In this calculation the use of a fictive EI is necessary, taking into
account the non-linear behaviour of the element and also the rotation-stiffness.
An example is shown in the figure.
 -37-

2 3 n

e
z

b,

Fig. 13

Z H.e b. - 8.-Z
1 1

1. 1.. b.
. 1 1
Wind: 1:~ . • H T orslOn: 2 . H.e
1 1:(1. .b. )
1 1

1 b.
Total on wall i: H. 1.. ( - + -----'1- • e)
1 Ll i 1:(1 .• b. 2 )
1 1

The stabilizing element can be a single wall, or a composition of coupled walls or even
a box-shaped element. If the bearing structure is prefabricated it is obvious to
prefabricate the stabilizing structures too.

-----1 H
D
Fig. 14

For mid-rise buildings the application of prefabricated elements for shear walls and
cores is, from the point of view of costs, attractive. Because of the limitation of the
composing elements by transport restrictions or crane capacity, the problem of joints
is introduced. Mr. Straman will discuss this later. Of course it is possible to make a
monolithic structure by means of welding re bars.
 -38-

If it is necessary to increase the flexural stiffness of the cracked cross-section of an

element a lot of reinforcement is needed and that means an expensive solution.
A better solution is to avoid tension in the cross-section, so that no ties between the
elements are needed, the elements keep uncracked and rigid. The most effective way
is increasing the structural dead load on the elements. A good design with a sensible
location of the stabilizing elements will contribute to it to a large extent. However
of ten the most favourable constructive solution is not possible by other requirements.

f : ~ : ~ : I f:
acceplable 10 good
II:I
occeplable

acceploble 10 good

t i ::: i I I :
struclural good
orchiteclural nol 50 good
very
• • •
• • •
acceptoble
:I
1~ ~~~~
wrong
l eb very wrong

Fig. 15

In the figure examples are shown of favourable, less favourable and incorrect
locations. A practical choice to irlcrease the vertical force is the use of post-
tensioning.

5. LOAD BEARING EXTERNAL WALL-UNITS

An important development is the load-bearing external wall. On account of strength,
sound-proofing and heat-economy in general a lot of material is used for these
elements. By efficiently joining these units together, a rigid structural framework is
obtained, which is able to transmit the horizontal loads to the foundation.
These elements of the external walls are of ten one storey high with a width of up to
5,4 or 7,2 m. The floor spans usually between the longitudinal facades.
 -39-

In some cases, at a ratio between the length and the width of the building < 4, the
facade structure at both ends can cooperate with the longitudinal facades. In such a
case a building structure is stabilized by an "external core", composed of strongly
connected facade elements. The norm al force diagram at the base as a result of
lateralloads perpendicular to the longitudinal facade is shown in the figure.

~ A

11 UJllD"'"
Fig. 16
IJ
"""ïl!!!Jl

By shear lack there is no linear distribution of the normal forces. The calculation of
this type is rather time-consuming. For preliminary design purposes a simple
calculation method has been developed to deal with this problem. The calculation is
based on a experiment by mind by which the facade has been modelled as a series of
equal rectangular units horizontally coupled by a shear force connection. A working-
out is given in the appendix. For a 10-storey building some results are shown in the
figure.

Fig. 17
 -40-

By the horizontal loads tension as weU as pressure forces exist. As the end facade
concerned the ten sion forces are only compensated by the own weight of the elements.
However, with astrong connection between the facades, a part of the floor loads, in
the first instance carried by the longitudinal facade, will be transmitted to the end
facades. By this the tension forces are leveled, at a right length-width ratio of the
building. The effective part of the longitudinal facade amount to about half the length
. of the end facade.
The effective width will increase if the height of the building increases. With regard
to the check of the stability the first adoption can be, that all columns (the vertical
parts of the units) in the longitudinal fa ca de are equally loaded. The calculation of the
total building is reduced to a single fixed column. In the case of instability the lowest

I
g -r-"}
l l t l l J t t l l -.. l

Hi~
~ i~;
i ~ !~HJ
endfacad e long i ludinal element
focade

Fig. 18

columns are S-shaped curved. The columns of the end facades are supposed to be
rocker members. The column located on the leeside of the building is loaded with the
largest normal force; its contribution to the stability is small, which will be
compensated by the other, less loaded columns. Partial buckling is in general no
problem because the buckling-length is l/2, as the remaining columns prevent the
horizontal displacement.
 -41-

PRECAST CONCRETE CORES AND SHEAR WALLS

Ing. J.P. Straman

Delft University of Technology
Department of Civil Engineering
Concrete Structures

INTRODUCTION
For housing as weil as for appartment and office buildings pre cast concrete elements
have found significant application.
To keep the detailing of the connections as simple as possible, beams and floor slabs
are usually simply supported.
If buildings have more than two or three storeys, the stability is of ten provided by
walls or cores, which already can be present for other (functional) considerations.
In the circumstances it is obvious to prefabricate the stabilizing walls and cores also.
However prefabrication of shear walls is not widely developed. To increase the
application, the following items are important:

.ll Economic connections

Because the dimensions of prefabricated elements are limited by transport
restrictions and by the capacity of the crane, the shear walls consist of elements,
coupled together by connections.
Development of economical connections, sufficient strong and stiff, is necessary.

~ Knowledge of the load deformation response of the connection

The structural behaviour of precast panel systems is mainly influenced by joints.
Different stresses occur in the joints depending on their location within the plane
and on the existing supporting conditions.
In the case of stability structures deformations are very important. From
literature it has been found that experimental research usually is based on
knowledge concerning the strength properties and not on the stiffness properties of
the connections.

~ Knowledge of the influence of joints on the overall behaviour of the wallor co re

By lack of suitable design models it is not possible to establish the extra stresses
and extra deformations of the prefabricated structure, caused by the presence of
the joints.
 -42-

The three above mentioned items lead to an investigation, carried out by Delft
University of Technology.

The following topics will be dealt with:

1) Forces in the connections

2) Types of connections
3) Influence of joints on the structural behaviour of the entire system
4) Design methods
5) Conclusions

1. FORCES IN THE CONNECTIONS

Besides a part of the vertical loads, stabilizing structures carry over the horizontal
loads to the foundation.
The elements of the prefabricated walIon core are normally one storey high, so that
the horizontal joints are placed level with the floors. The location of the vertical
joints depends on different considerations, su eh as:

as much as possible equal elements;

influence on the structural behaviour of the entire system;
crane capacity and transport restrietions (fig. 1).

q.
1.1 Horizontal joints t f I IJ I1

The loads cause stresses in the horizontal joints.

When possible, the structure must be designed in
such a manner, th at tensile stresses are avoided.
Because there are already many solutions available
for the connection of the horizontal joints, the
investigations have been concentrated on the
1 hotizonlal joint s
vertical joints, especially on their stiffness
1 ... .,rticol joinlos
properties.
Fig. 1

1.2 Vertical joints

The vertical joints are mainly loaded by shear forces. These forces are carried over by
means of in-situ concrete joints or by welded steel plates, cast in the elements. By
 -43-

these shear forces the connection between the elements deforms, so that the
displacements of these elements on either sides of the joints are not equal (fig. 2).

t L K
6
:u~
- - - ,,
"tI ·',
,
i :
6,
I

6u 6

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

The difference of the displacements depends on the shear-stiffness K of the

connection, defined as the relation of the appearing shear stress , and the accessory
deformation oof the connection, given by: K =i [N/mm 3 ]

This ,-0 relationship can be linear or non-linear (fig. 3).

1.3 Limitations of the value of K @ ® 0 H K= co O<K<D) K =O

For the value of K two

OIIlm
ultimate values can be
distinguished (fig. 4):
which agrees with a
monolithic wall 6
10t'LL
K -> 0, which agrees with
the separa te parts
\J \J
K. O
10

of the wall without

any co-operation. Fig. 4

The value of K of aconnection will always range between these ultimate values.

The joints, as the weakest link within the system, are usually the determining factor in
establishing structural behaviour. Therefore in order to judge the structural behaviour
of the entire system, the behaviour of the joint must be known.
2. TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
~ The monolithic connection (fig. Sa)
The monolithic connection is an imaginary connection, existing of the same material
as the material of the elements.
This connection has been investigated by Mattock and others [1,2].
Typicalload-slip curves for specimens without cracks before testing are shown in Fig.
Sb. No movement can be detected in the initially uncracked specimen until tension
cracks become visible at shear stresses.

The behaviour of the uncracked

3
K1=-200 N/mm
situation can approximately be
Ku=20 . 40 N/mm 3

:~
established by a line from 0 to
the starting point of the curve.
Kl' (the uncracked behaviour)
is approximately -200 3 /
Kl
N/mm 3 o Ku
Ku' (the ultimate shear- o 0.2 OA 0.6 Q~
ij lmml
stiffness) is -20-40 N/mm 3

Fig. 5

2.2 Smooth reinforced connection (fig. 6)

This type is characterized by smooth JP

---PJ -- J
sides of the elements. Loop rein-
_~ a

forcement extends from the elements

into the joint. Between the material -~ -- tp=-
of the joint and the prefabricated --- --,,:-
0

concrete there is hardly attachment r

caused by shrinkage.
By Pommeret [3] the T-Ó relation-
ship has been established.
1:::t]:::1
Fig. 6

2.3 Tooth shaped reinforced connection (fig. 7)

The T-Ó relationship of this connection has been investigated by Schwing [4,5].
To compare the three connections, the T-Ó relationships have been established for a
certain case (fig. 8).
 -45-

:IJ [CEl}
@~}
Fig. 7

ï- - _ .- - '1'

I ,
J
"I I" I
I
I .JlH
I
1. monollllc
I
.r'?~
. I
1,0 2. toolh shapl'd I I
I
~O
j- _ . _- _ .- - + "
IlH I

~O

~O
~ ol
~O

2,0 ~ OMLR =J ol
1,15

~ ~
\0
o~o70.1:-:."-,:': .' -,p- -
" --"-
o Q2 Ol- 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2
6 1"""1
6 !"""J

Fig. 8 Fig. 9

2.4. Welded plate connection (fig. 9)

At the Stevin Laboratory the welded plate connection has been tested [6 , 10]. The
connection consists of steel plates anchored at the concrete panels by bars cjl 8, length
300 mmo A connecting plate 220x70xl0 mm 3 has been welded on the steel plates.
These steel plates are placed in the concrete in three ways:

- cast-in;
- cast-in;
- on site mounted.

For these variants the load-deflection curves have been established. The cast-in plate
(a) gives the best results as shown in fig. 9.
 -46-

2.5 Tube-connection (fig. 10)

The tube-connection has been tested by !BBC-TNO at Rijsw ijk [7 ,11].
The connection consists of two steel tubes, anchored in concrete panels connected
together by electrically welded plates. The strength as weIl as the shear stiffness of
this connection is higher than of the plat e connection.

[kNJ

'000

00'
i '00
_ . ~ -I "
>0,

~
"~',I;-:::-
'.'-:,-:-
,. ""
".'---"
,. -
,.. -
. .. --~ _ _ _ _ .c'

Fig. 10

Numerical simulation of the two last mentioned connections have been made with the
help of the finite element program DIANA.

2.6 Value of K of discrete connections

The value of K is a constant, presenting the shear resistance of a continuous
connection. For non-continuous connections the shear stiffness has to be "smeared
out", in order to use existing design methods, according to:

K
eq

where:
Kdis = shear stiffness of the discrete connection
a center to center distance connections
d wall thickness

The shear stiffness of a discrete connection depends on:

a) The shear stiffness of the connection itself with the stiffness of that part of the
wall, of which the deformations are affected by the connection: kv'
b) The behaviour of the wall in consequence of the concentrated loads: kc'
 -47-

So the shear stiffness of a discrete connection can be established by:

where k 1I.E.d [10]

c
-4l (~)-l 497511
na '
kv = result of test

If the pIate connections as wel! as the tube connections are applied under the
following circumstances:
d=250mm
a = 1500 mm
E = 30000 N/mm 2

The values of K are:

plate connection Keq = 0,34 N/mm 3
tube connection Keq = 1,9 à 2,3 N/mm 3

Some values of different types of connections applied under the same circumstances,
are given below.

type of connection Kl Ku
monolithic 200 25-40
smooth 2,7 2,7
tooth-shaped 15,0 5,0
steel plate 0,35 center to center 1500 mm
steel tube 2,0 center to center 1500 mm

3. INFLUENCE OF THE CONNECTIONS ON THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF

THE ENTIRE SYTEM
If the structural behaviour of the connections is known, the influence of these
connections can be established analyticaBy as weB as numerically.
Parameters were:

shear stiffness K
location and amount of joints
modulus of elasticity of the elements E
 -48-

slenderness of the wall

type of loading
rotational and translational stiffness of the foundation
type of stabilizing structure: wallor core

Some of the results will be discussed.

To indicate the difference between a monolithic wall and a wall with vertical joints
the deflections and stresses of last mentioned wall are related to a monolithic
(uncracked) wal!.

IJenection (fig. 11)

The additional deflection is expressed as:

where: M increase of deflection

deflection prefabricated wall
ó deflection monolithic wall
m

M 66 Il10 .-)00''' "'1== M ''0 j '" l====<;=>

1%1 1%1

100
110

90
80
70
lil
lil
:: ,i \
11

ffil
110
100
90
80
70 TIl]]]@)

-
'0
'0 \\ \ \
JO \\ JO
zo \. "'- 'zo
\'.
'0 "::-":' ::-.:;:;.:::-:-.:::-:-=....-:- -=.. '0

o 0.5 lO lS 2D 2.S lO lS ~O ~S ~O ~S &0 6.5 012J456789tOtlI21J

K (N/mmJI K (N/mmJI

Fig. 11 Fig. 12

For arestraint wall, with one vertical joint, the increase of deflection is shown with
different values of K, Hand E.
It is evident that:

f,ó depends on the ratio KIE;

if E increases, Mincreases with similar value of K
 -49-

116 decreases if the slenderness of the wall increases

in this case: if K > 5 the maximum value of M = - 10%

The location of the joints is one of the main parameters as shown in fig. 12.

M has the lowest value if the joints are located as far as possible of the neutral axis.

Bending stresses
The additional stress can be expressed by:

Ok
110 [0- - 1] 100%
m

where : 110 = increase of stress

ok bending stress at the prefabricated wall
om = bending stress at the monolithic wall

The increase of stress, depending on K, Hand E is shown in fig. 13

60 6ctna. ~ 100 "J.

(%)

110
'00
90
80
70
60
115
50
ilO
40
30
20

'0
QllSb Q2Sb Q37!b Q.'b

o 0.5 1.0 t5 2.0 ~5 30 35 ~O 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 65 b,

J
K (N/mm )

Fig. 13 Fig. 14

lt can be seen that:

Ilo also depends on the ratio KIE;

if the slenderness increases, Ilo decreases.
 -50-

The maximum stress in walls and cores with more joins occur:

at the extreme fibre if K has a high value;

just next to the joint if K has a low value.

Fig. 14 shows that the most unfavourable location of the joint is on one third of the
width of the wal1.

Shear stress (fig. 15)

The shear stress in a monolithic wall can be calculated by:

DS
Tm=~
m

Tm has a maximum for x = O. Ir the wall contains a vertical joint, the shear stress in
the joint is given by the two curved lines.
It can be seen that:

the maximum shear stress in a prefabricated wall is always lower than in a

monolithic wal1;
if the value of K increases, the shear stress in the joint increases too.

Q5H
·[JJl F
INI

7,5
61mml
Fig. 15 Fig. 16

Non-linear behaviour of the joint

Till now starting point was linear behaviour of the joint, which only is right till Tr
With the bi-linear diagram of fig. 16 as a starting point, non-linear calculations are
made with the help of the finite element program DIANA.

The curve of the shear stress has changed. As soon as Tl is reached, T does not
increase at that point (fig. 17).
 -51-

The connection next to that certain point

takes over some stress, so it comes to L
H I = 12 N/mmJ non linror t"la5tk
IQ
redistribution. The comparison with linear 2 KI .12 N/mm lin.ar "losti,
) monoltthic woU
0,75
elastic behaviour of the joint shows
that T is lower and the curve is "smeared 0,50
max
out". 0.25
0,0 1--_~,=.,--=:....2__),,::::_
As a greater length of the joints reaches the 0.0 50 '0.0 15.0 20.0 2';0
. lIq 1_10" IImm I
plastic phase, the joint behaviour is less
rigid. The deflection increases more than Fig. 17
proportional under increasing loads.

Verticalloads and boundary conditions (fig. 18)

I
Foundation

Fig. 18 Fig. 19

Three types of foundation structures can be distinguished:

cellar wall;
individual foundation;
continuous foundation.

The three boundary conditions are schematized as shown in fig. 19.

It is evident that in most cases the continuous foundation can be conceived as acellar
wall, so that the prefabricated wall is of course infinite restraint. This fixing can
rota te and translate as a whoie. If the vertical loads are uniformly distributed, no
shear stresses appear in the joint. The wall can be calculated with analytical methods.

4. DESIGN METHODS
For the determination of the forces in walls and cores with joints some methods have
been used:
 -52-

differential equations; if the amount of joints increases, the formulas become very
complica ted;
fini te element method; a model has been developed, with which the behaviour of
walls and cores can be established. That concerns a linear as weIl as a non-linear
behaviour of the joint;
by deriving an equivalent shear-stiffness of the joint Keq , with which the non-
linear behaviour of the joint can be taken into account. With the help of this
method it is possible to use existing analytical calculation methods;
by means of design charts; the wall with one vertical joint is almost similar to a
wall with lintels. To this problem attention is paid among others by Coull [9]. In
this method the results are shown by means of simple design charts;
if the construction is more complicated, for instance walls and cores with more
than one vertical joint, an other numerical approach has been proposed.

The wall or core can be schematized as a frame, which can be calculated with the help
of computer programs for frames. Fig. 20 shows the deformation of a wall by lateral
loads. The different parts of the wall can be conceived as bars with flexural stiffness
EI and strain stiffness EA. To transmit the shear load rigid bars are necessary.

5. CONCLUSIONS

1) General
Stabilizing structures can be executed as prefabricated structures.
The type of joint and the location of the joint determine the extra deformation,
and stresses in a large measure.
Only with a good design, these extra deformations and stresses can be negligible
smal!.

2) Connections
Continuous connections, as tooth shaped reinforced connections, give good results
with respect of strength and stiffness.
Discrete connections are less stiff. To determine the amount of connections, the
stiffness is the decisive criteria. By applying more connections in the lower floors
than in the upper floors, an economical solution can be reached.
 -53-

3) Design methods
a) Walls and cores with vertical joints can be calculated with the finite element
method with the help of DIANA.

b) Also a simple method has been developed namely by calculating an equivalent

shear stiffness it is possible to calculate walls and cores with vertical joints
with non-linear behaviour with the linear elastic method. Hereby analytical
methods can be used.
c) Complicated structures can be schematized to a frame and accordingly be
calculated.

REFERENCES
[1] HOFBECK, J.A., IBRAHIM, I.O., MATTOCK, A.H., Shear transfer in reinforced
concrete, PCI Journal, 1969, February.

[2] MATTOCK, A.H., HAWKINS, N.M., Shear transfer in reinforced concrete, PCI
Journal, 1972, March/ April.

[3] POMMERET, M., La résistance aux efforts tangents des joints verticaux entre
grands panneaux préfabriqués coplanaires, Service d'étude des structures, 1971, juin.

[4] SCHWING, H., Zur wirklichkeitsnahe Berechnung von Wandscheiben aus

Fertigteilen, Disserta tion D17, Darmstadt, 1975.

[5] MEHLHORN, G., SCHWING, H., BERG, K., Tragverhalten von aus Fertigteilen
zusammengesetzten Schei ben und Versuche zur Schubtragfähigkeit verzahnten Fugen,
Deutscher Ausschuss für Stahlbeton, 1977, Heft 288.

[6] STEKELENBURG, P.J. van, Lasplaatverbinding bij geprefabriceerde wandcon-

structies, Stevinrapport 5-83-20a en 5-83-20b, TU Delft.

[7] MARCELIS, J.F., Gelaste verbindingen bij geprefabriceerde panelen, Verslag

proeven A en B, TNO, Rijswijk.

[8] THIJS, J., SCHRAVENDEEL, P., SCHOT, F., De krachtswerking van stalen
verbindingen tussen dragende betonnen wandelementen. TU Eindhoven, 1986.
 -54-

[9] COULL, A., Stresses and deflections in coupled shear walls, AC! Journal, 1967,
February.

[10] HORDIJK, D.A., De gelaste verbinding bij geprefabriceerde wandconstructies;

deel 1 en 2, Afstudeerverslag TU Delft, 1985.

[11] BOOM, P. van, Gelaste verbinding van geprefabriceerde wandelementen,

Afstudeerverslag TU Delft, 1987.

[12] STRAMAN, J . P., Geprefabriceerde stabiliteitsconstructies, TU-rapport 25-88-16,

juni 1988.
 -55-

SESSION 2

PRECASTCONCRETEFACADES
 -57-

"BUILDING PHYSICS AND FACADE DESIGN"

by C. den Ouden
TU-Delft, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
building science department

O. ABSTRACT
The role of the consultant or advisor in Building Science (or
Building Phy sics advisor) has been changed significantly the
last ten years. Within a larger architectural practice an
architect specialised in Building Physics, or a physicist
familiar with design support to architects played in the past
an important role when discussing about design decisions
related to topics like:
overheating of office spaces;
preventing extra heat losses in thermal bridges;
measures of preventing traffic-noise to enter a building;
minimising of contact noise between rooms;
detailing of moisture barrier within walIs, roofs and
facades.

More and more the detailing of facades and other elements in

prefabricated concrete structures of larger buildings is no
longer an activity carried out in the architects office
alone. Many of these detailing efforts are nowadays performed
in multi-disciplinary design teams in which specialised
experts in bulding physics play an important role.
Not only as a member of the design team, but more and more
the building physicist is active as a participant within a
team of the building company or a sub-contractor to this
company for various parts or components in the building.
Within the paper several examples of detailing facades seen
from the point of view of the building physicist will be
presented. These examples will focus on quality aspects and
measures to improve durability.
 -58-

1. INTRODUCTION
Historically the function of a facade has been to protect the
innerspace and the occupants of these spaces from influences
of the outside climate. During the period of low energy costs
(LI973) most attention was paid to influences of wind, rain,
moisture, sound and sun.
During the period of increasing energy costs (1974-1985 and
very likely > 1990) more and more attention has been paid to
extra thermal insulation of the envelope of the facade of
buildings.
Seen from the eyes of a building scientist or an advisor in
building physics one can look to the quality of a facade from
various points of view.
These points of view are:
ensuring sufficient sound insulation;
proper detailing of thermal bridges and moisture
barriers;
minimising energy costs for heating, cooling and
lighting;
ensuring of the comfort behind the envelope.
The envelope, however, cannot be isolated from the rest of
the building; it has to be considered as an integral part of
the overall design of the building. Within this paper an
overview will be presented of the measures to ensure the
quality for sound insulation; detailing of thermal bridges
and moisture barriers; minimising of energy costs and
ensuring comfort-levels.
Finally this paper will contain some guidelines for future
building design.

2. SOUND INSULATION
Many office buildings are today developed in areas where high
traffic noise exists. A typical noise-level of ..> 70 dB (A) ,
measured 2 meters in front of the facade, is not extreme in
such situations. The sound reduction index of a facade from a
building to be build in high traffic noise areas has to be
 -59-

carefully investigated. Not in every country the norms to be

followed are identical, although the measurement of sound
insulation in buildings and of building elements has been
internationally standarised (see 1). It is, therefore,
essential that producers of facade-elements are aware of the
local rules and norms for the required sound reduction index
and the parameters influencing the overall sound reduction
index of a complete facade, consisting of parts having each
different values of sound reduction. Especially when
ventilation inlets are designed within a facade to ensure
sufficient air quality of the internal environment in
buildings upto 4 stories of height one of ten has to design
special sound attenuating ventilation inlets. Several firms
in Europe are specialised in designing facades with
integrated sound attenuating ventilation inlets. To
illustrate the strong influence of small openings in a facade
on the overall sound reduction index the theoretical effect
of the reduction of sound insulation in a facade having a
measure R-value of 50 dB as shown in tabel 1 and figure 1.

d5

n
dO

35

'"o

~ facaa e ~- 50 oB 25

20

0.1 0.5

- - --=---- - -.
l Ocef'lng

Figure 1: influence of an opening in a facade on the sound

insulation (theoreticai).
 -60-

Table 1 calculated theoretical influence of an opening in

a facade on the sound insulation.

% - opening 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0

R-value (dB) 39.6 36.8 32.9 30 27 23 20

The theoretical example described above is of course not

realistic, therefore, a more practical example is
illustrating this effect. Recently our office was asked to
give advice for solving the following case:

Af ter commissioning of a building having walls with windows,

subdivided into 9 smaller window units there were complaints
about unsufficient sound insulation.

The required sound insulation had to be 31 dB(A). We measured

the sound insulation to be 26 dB(A) (see curve 2 of figure
2). We calculated the sound insulation, supposing that hardly
any sound leaks were there, this resulted in 33 dB(A) (see
curve 1). We then calculated the sound insulation, supposing
that the leak coefficient was larger, see curve 3.

Having se en these three curves, we could simply conclude that

since the sound insulation failed within the higher
frequences there had to be sound leakages and most probably
caused by improper fitting around the small window elements.
By improving the joint grouts around the glazing elements (at
the innerside to minimise maintenance) we were able to solve
this problem.
 -61-

" 9

30 2. 2

.............. ... 126 S

m
c

20

10

125 250 500 IK

freQ !HZ) •

Figure 2: Measured and calculated sound insulation of a wall

with specific window-elements.

3. THERMAL BRIDGES AND MOISTURE CONDENSATION

3.1 Thermal bridges
Facades have also a function to minimise heat losses of the
building and to prevent the amount of surface- and internal
condensation within the structure of the building elements.
When designing prefabricated concrete facades one has to
realise that concrete itself has a relatively high thermal
conductivity (",1-2 W/mK), a factor 20 or more higher than
material for thermal insulation. Therefore, concrete elements
in direct contact with the ambient, without sufficient
additional insulation, should be avoided as much as possible.
During wintertime thermal bridges will amount for large heat
losses to the environment.
The effect of insulation concrete structures from the outside
environment can be simulated with the help of numerical
approaches like the finite element method or finite
differential methods. In figures 3 and 4 two examples of
 -62-

calculated results of the temperatures in complex

configurations within a facade are presented. Designers of
facades can today evaluate the effects of thermal bridge
seperators of various sizes and materials by having a short
study carried out with specific software developed for this
purpose, recently also programmes have been developed to
investigate temperatures in complex three-dimensional
situations. Having calculated the temperatures inside complex
constructions in extreme and average conditions, one can also
see the critical spots where surface condensation will occur.

Ti : IS"C

InnEr -insulation Cavit y + outer in sula tion.

Figure 3 Figure 4
Calculated temperatures in facade- Calculated temperatures in
element with insulation inside facade-element with
a thermal bridge. insulation outside a
thermal bridge.

4. MINIMISING ENERGY COSTS FOR HEATING, COOLING AND LIGHTING

4.1 Heating
When looking into product documentation of supp1iers of
prefab facades, one se1dom finds sufficient technica1 data
about the thermal resistance of complete facades, sometimes
some U-values of facade e1ements are presented. A minimum
amount of information about a certain wa11 is the mean K- or
U-va1ue (in W/m 2 K) of for different ratio's of various
glazing types and the wa1l breast panel used within the
overall facade. Since it is the overall U-value of the facade
-----------~-_._._-----_ ..

-63-

that dominates the heat loss during the winterperiod, one

should to my opinion include the information presented in the
example below within the product information brochures (see
figure 5).

.....--- u glas · 3 3-) . 5 W/m2_K

Example:
facade with "standard" double
glazing (U = 3.3 W/m 2 K, glazing
ratio 40%), a breast panel (52%)
with a U-value of 0.4 and
profiles (8%) with a U-value of
2.0 W/m 2 K.

Overall U-value of facade:

0.4 * 3.3 + 0.52 * 0.4 + 0.08 *
2.0 1.688 W/m 2 K.

Figure 5: Overall U- value

of facade (include also
R-value of framing
structures) •

Of ten one forgets to include framing structures to fit the

glass and other wall elements. One should not forget the heat
losses through the framing structures within the facade, they
could account to about 10% of the overall heat losses.

4.2 Cooling and lighting

Many office buildings have been equipped with airconditioning
during the last 20 years. This resulted of ten in a situation
that the envelope of the building no longer has to perform
the function of exchanging air with the outside. Very of ten
this resulted into a deep plan building with artificial
lighting with high internal loads to be compensated by
precooled air. The last few years we have been confronted
with the so-called "sick building syndrom" within such
 -64-

building types. The air quality within such buildings was

found to be not sufficient and several complaints from
occupants were noticed like:
eye, nose and throat irritation;
sensation of dry mucous membranes and skin;
meptal fatigue and unspecified hypersensitivity.
Those buildings are of ten airtight, i.e. windows cannot be
opende The lack of daylight also has a fundamental influence
on both psychological and physiological health.

4.2.1 Effects of facade design on the energy consumption of

the building
An important factor influencing the energy consumed per m2
floor area within a building is the glazing ratio in a
facade. This is illustrated in figure 6. In this figure the
combined effects of heating, lighting and cooling is shown on
the annual primary energy consumption for an office building
as a function of (south- : 20

facing) glazing ratio.

It shows one of a set of 1 00

graphs from the LT-method

(= Lighting and Thermal
energy value of glazing),
a design tool developed in
the EC Archisol project,
which helps designers
understand the basic design
parameters with respect to
the energy significance,
see for more details (2).
10 20 30 d(l 50 60 70
This figure illustrates the
importance of daylight. giaJlr'\ÇI rat!o \

Figure 6: Annual primary

energy consumption per
square meter of office
building as a function of
(south-facing) glazing
ratio.
 -65-

Note the dramatic decrease in lighting energy and total

energy as the glazing ratio of the facade increases from zero
= from no daylighting, to about 30%. These curves are drawn
for spaces upto 6 m from the window wall, assuming that the
lights will be off when the daylighting level is above 300
lux. Ensuring that daylight is used and not overrruled by
artificial light when not needed, is another problem. Not all
expericences with automatic photo-electrically controlled
lighting systems have been successfull. But current research
is now yielding results and we are beginning to understand
that a weIl daylit room improves the quality and has an
important effect on the attitude and weIl being of the
occupant.

5. THE COMFORT BEHIND THE ENVELOPE

Comfort criteria can be defined for a number of parameters
that influence the feeling of human beings. Within buildings
the comfort criteria are mostly restricted to limitations
with respect to: - temperature; - humidity and more recently
to air quality. But, as has been shown before, also comfort
criteria for noise and daylight have to be taken into account
as weIl.
In this chapter the comfort criteria that can be influenced
by the design of the facade are briefly surnrnarised. These
comfort criteria are presented in the form of a checklist
showing the measures to be applied to forfil the comfort
criteria involved and the most important parameters to
improve the comfort conditions as weIl as some rules of thumb
to achieve the proper comfort conditions.

Checklist
for judging comfort conditions within working spaces in
office-buildings and measures to be taken within facades
to achief sufficient comfort conditions on the working
site within an office building.
 -66-

5.1 Acoustical comfort

In offices during working hours an additional noise level
from traffic noise of 40 dB(A) is accepted in norms of most
CEC- countries. Since simple facades having only single glased
windows seldom have a noise reduction inde x over 25 dB(A) one
must detail facades in office buildings planned for locations
in areas where traffic noise over 65 dB(A) on the facades is
to be expected. When also natural ventilation inlets in
facades are projected e xpert advice in detailing the overall
facade has to be involved .

5.2 Thermal comfort

Since a person's feeling of warmth depends on air
temperature, radiant temperature, air movement and humidity,
together with personal factors such as clothing and activity,
many attempts have been made to devise indices which combine
these variables. Prof. Fanger's research work on thermal
comfort has shown that more than 95 % persons feeling
themselves comfortable is not possible.
The need for fully airconditioned buildings having
temperatures of 22°C + IOC during the whole year and
relative humidities of 50-60 % is, therefore, questionable. A
building ~ ithout airconditioning has to be designed in such a
way that a temperature of 25°C will not be surpassed for
more than 100 hours per year and a tempera tu re of 28°C may
not occur more than 15 hours during the working hours. This
is the accepted design guideline in the Netherlands. This can
be realised by having sufficient thermal mass in the building
in combination with proper sunshade devices. During most of
these hours the outside temperature will be a few degrees
higher and the people entering such building will notice a
better comfort entering such a building compared with a
building having a temperature of 22°C. A sudden shock in
temperature is on average not weIl accepted. When working in
a building with temperatures over 25°C the occupants in
general prefer to adapt their clothing and prefer to increase
cross-ventilation when possible.
 -67-

5.3 Ventilation
With respect to ventilation it can be stated that there are
two different approaches. On the one hand the control of the
ventilation is at present possible by using e.g. variable air
volume (VAV) systems and by installing air quality sensors in
various parts of the building. This so-called demand
controlled ventilation (DCV) is thoroughly studied in the
framework of IEA-ECBCS annex 18 11 Demand controlled
ventilation" (3). On the other hand there is a tendency that
buildings can opera te with natural ventilation and only be
helped with top-cooling in extreme summer conditions,
preferably with so-called night-ventilation. This technique
to provide cooling by continuous ventilation into the
nighttime period, in order to cool the building structure
with cool night air, looks very promising. A good overview of
the developments with respect to ventilation is given in (4).
For designers and manufacturers of facades or facade elements
an interesting wall component functioning as air inlet aiming
to eliminate draught problems seems to be a novel concept for
buildings with natural ventilation, see (5).

5.4 Visual comfort

Maximising the use of daylight without danger for glare by
using movable shading devices and preventing of overglazing
to avoid overheating is a design challenge for the architect
and the building scientist. Many good examples have recently
been designed and some are already built, see (6).
The manufacturers of facades can profit from these recent
designs by offering more flexibility in locating windows
within the facades that can be opened and easily visually
closed with manual and/or mechanically movable shading
devices.
6. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
There seems to be a trend to more natural ventilated
buildings. Within such buildings there is a need for
 -68-

individually opening of windows by the occupants themselves.

This asks for a more flexible facade design to give occupants
the choice of influencing the indoor climate conditions
according to the comfort conditions required. The expected
increase in energy costs af ter 1990 will result in a request
for more insulated facades and integration within these
facades of Transparent Insulation Materials (TIM) , both in
window concepts as in other elements of the facade, like
breast panels. The U-values of windows with integrated TIM
can become lower than 0.5 W/m 2 K
and the overall U-value of
facades can, therefore, become extremely low, see (7).

References:
(1) Publication ISO 140/V of the International Standard
Organisation
(2) BAKER, N.V., "Experiences with simplified design . tools
for daylighting and thermal design", Proceedings of 2nd
European Conference on Architecture, 4-8 December 1989,
Paris, pp 161-164, K1uwer Academic Publishers.
(3) "Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems", state of the art
review IEA-ECBCS Annex 18, 1989.
(4) WOUTERS, P., New ventilation concepts with respect to
indoor air quality and energy conservation", Proceedings
of 2nd European Conference on Architecture, 4-8 December
1989, Paris, pp 119-125, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
(5) WERNER, G., "Outlet air inlet without draught problem",
10th A.I.T.C. conference, Dipoli, Finland, 25-28
September 1989.
(6) DEN OUDEN, C., "Building 2000", Proceedings of the 2nd
European Conference on Architecture, Paris, 4-8 December
1989, pp 665-668.
(7) Various papers in "Proceedings of 2nd European Conference
on Architecture, Paris, 4-8 December 1989, pp 234-253,
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
 -69-

DOUBLE SKIN FACADES

Prof.ir. A.J. Hogeslag

Delft University of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, Concrete Structures
Corsmit Consulting Engineers, Rijswijk, The Netherlands

1. INTRODUCTION
Prefabricated concrete facade-elements have been applied as cladding for buildings
for some decades.
With precast concrete elements the architect has the opportunity to bring out the full
sculptural potential of the material and to freely express his design-concept for the
building. The architects have used this opportunity to a large extend: as weU as the
external form as the exterior finish and colour is concerned. Some examples are shown
in the slides. The result is highly based on the personal taste and preference of the
architect and on the freedom given by the fut ure proprietor.

Fig. 1

Prior to the design of elements the architect should visit one or more manufacturing
plants to become familiar with the manufacturing process, including the fabrication of
the moulds, the problems in casting and finishing, connections, job site handling etc.
Of ten the facade existed of an external concrete element and an internal filling wall
of brickwork.
 -70-

Beside it, the solid pre cast concrete wall panel exists, see the figure.

Fig. 2

With the need to conserve energy it is important for the owner to give attention to
this aspect; he will endeavour to minimize the capitalized value of the building-
investments and the control of energy. Besides he wishes a good sound-insulation.
The shape of the building, the size and location of the glazed parts of the cladding
establish the level of insulation of the building. This is already discussed in the
preceeding Ie ct ure.

2. COMPOSITION OF A FACADE ELEMENT

For the design of concrete facade elements the attention to the building physics
quality means especially: attention to the composition of the cross-section of the
element.
As already mentioned, fa ca de elements especially load-bearing fa ca de elements have
been executed as solid panels for a long time. Apart from the influence of the choice
of the shape, the manufacturing of these elements is comparatively simpie. A
disadvantage is the poor building physics quality. To apply insulation at the inside of
the facade-elements give some improvement, but is not sufficient. Restraint of
therm al expansion causes high stresses, connection problems and a chance of damage
(i.e. cracking).
 -71-

1
j: . . . . ' .. '. '

..... :: ": '.

archilec1ural
'finish -
insulalion

Fig. 3

Improvement of the composition of the element can be reached by placing the thermal
insulation inside of the element: creating the sandwich panel in this way. Special
attention has to be paid to solid concrete edges (box-construct ion) which means the

crack
-,----------------,

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

existance of thermal bridges. Besides, the difference of temperature movement has to

be carried by these edges. The stresses in big sized elements will rise and soon the
strength of the concrete is exceeded, the concrete cracks. Extensive cases of damage
are known.
By separating the inside from the outside skin, that is by placing the insulation up to
the outside exterior of the element, the mentioned disadvantages can be omitted. This
sol ut ion is well- known and of ten applied.
 -72-

\ /
/ :o~
/ \ "

Fig. 6 Fig. 7

However, even this solution has disadvantages. Different temperature changes (day to
day thermal expansion) between the inner and outer leaf cause different changes in
volume. Depending on the way of attachment of the skins with connectors through the
insulation layer, the elements will warp or bow, and stresses occur by restraint change
in volume of the concrete, of ten resulting in crack ing.
A further development is the application of a ventilated air cavity between the outer
layer and the insulation layer, see the figures.

Fig. 8

With respect to an insulation layer without an air cavity there are the following
advantages:
in average the external leaf stays dryer, the chance and the extend of pollution of
the concrete surface decreases; more surface finishings are possible with less risks;
in respect to building physics a (slightly) better behaviour.
but especially: a simple joint construction is possible. This will be discussed later.
 -73-

there is a possibility to replace the outer leaf. The details of the mutual
connections have to be adopted to it. To this subject I will return too.

The different parts of the elements with the last discussed composition have all their
own function.
in side

infernol teal

vertical joint
·PRINCIPLE TRAN$LATION TO T WO·$I<IN El E MH
T WO STAGE JOINT CONSTRUCTIQN

It:rt21mn=tnL__
oirpressure release
drainin
u tet ic:
cJltif=l='-"-''''-'"'''''''''"",er oorr ie r(-roircoo''')

i
horizonlal joint _ .

{
Fig. 9 Fig. 10

The internal leaf can be load bearing, has thermal accumulation and sound reduction
functions and takes care of the air-tightness.
The insulation layer takes care of the therm al insulation. The cavity serves for
settlement of the air-pressure with the outside air and takes care of draining. The
external leaf is only a "raincoat", it stops the rain and of course has an estetic
function.
The composition of the element is, as a matter of course, suitable for the two-stage-
joint-construction of which the principle is shown in the figure. This joint-system
exists of two sealing-screens: the inner screen assures the air-tightness; the outer
screen assures the water-tightness. In the space between both the sealing-screens a
release space is found, which serves for the release of the air pressure and for the
draining-off of eventually penetrated moisture.
The inside part of the joint at the internal leaf can be sealed by means of mast ie,
foamtape, rubber- or synthetic profiles. This part of the joint can be checked and
maintained rather easily.
 -74-

By a direct connection to the open air the atmospheric pressure and the vapour
pressure in the cavity and outside close to the facade front are equal.

3. PENETRATION OF RAIN
It is interesting, as an intermezzo, to pay attention now to the mechanism of the
penetration of the rain into a facade. The rain-water can be transported by:
a. cappillarity;
b. attached water (adhesion) carried along by an air current;
c. pumping-acti~n, pulsating-action;
d. kinetic energy of the rain-drop; for the rain-drop has a component of move ment
perpendicular to the facade.

rOlndrop

Fig. 11

The causes a and c are simply to avoid by a sufficient joint- width. Thereby is cause c
decicive; a width of eight mm will do.
Cause b can be taken care of by execution the faces of the joint draining off outwards
and by avoiding an air current directed inwards.
By the equal air pressure in the air cavity and close before the front surface, the air
current will not exist. However, close to the edges of the building in the cavity air
currents can be caused by underpressure by Karmann whirls. For the puropose to avoid
these air currents the cavity had to be closed near the building edges in vertical c.q.
horizontal way.
Only by kinetic energy of the rain-drop, water can penetrate into the cavity, via the
vertical joints. The amount is small by the small measure of the joint so that it is
acceptable.
However, if possible, it is sensible that the insulation layer behind the joints at a
certain width will have water-tight cover, e.g. in the shape of a tape.
 -75-

DC lapped joint
I unnece$Qry complicatedJ

80 open joint

HOR IZONTAL VERTICAL

Fig. 12

If it is not acceptable, the application in the external leaf of a simple baffle is

sufficient.
So it is possible, if a cavity is applied, except the other advantages, to apply a simple
and still effective joint-structure, which hardly needs any maintenance. The example,
shown in the figure, is simplified to some degree.

4. CONNECTIONS
Much attention has to be paid to the connections of the externalleaf to the internal
one. These connections must be able to withstand the loads, placed on the outside skin
(i.e. due to own weight, stripping, plant handling, transportation, erection and in-situ
loadings) while difference in movements between external and internal leaf must be
possible.

connedor
PRINCIPLE

"""} ..... / \(
..... I . '

-1- --~ :>(.:,-_- -- - ~m-,,-,et-=al sheet

{H
./
/
'/ ,

/' )\-' ' I ...

t heoretical minÎmu m more usu al solution

Fig. 13
 -76-

For a concrete externalleaf there are in principle two solutions:

1. The outside skin is rigidly connected to the inside skin in the centre of the
elements. The forces parallel to the plane are carried by this connection.
Flexible ties fix the distance between the two leaves and carry over the forces
perpendicular to the facade to the structural inside skin.
2. At some distance from the centre of the element flexible metal sheets are
applied with the plane perpendicular to the connecting-line to the centre of the
element. In principle three plates will do, on condition that they have not a
common intersecting linea However, for reasons of symmetry of ten four plates
are applied; sometimes, in cases of heavy loads six or even eight plates can be
necessary.

Combinations of these solutions are possible.

If t he placing of the rigid connection exactly in the centre is not possible, larger
movements have to be taken into account, for instance in relation with the connection
to the window frames. To my opinion, the fixed point must been placed as far as
possible on the bottom of the element, to introduce compression forces in stead of
tensile forces.

-- -t- - - --.:;' ----- - -"'j.- ---- --.r--- - ---; ------ -...- -- - -- -+--
r~= === = =,,, ~ = .==~~====----===_=J

~j i!
~

I ·••
I
~ ,•
~ - - ----- - -
+ +
Lf+-- t"lxi ng

4=-,°1,_"___

Fig. 14
 -77-

The flexible and non-flexible fixings must be durable. Metal to be used has to be at
least protected hot-dip galvanized steel, or better, austenitic stainless steel, indicated
as ASTMI 316.
Some designers do not trust these materials used in a cavity and choose for concrete,
thereby introducing and accepting thermal bridges.

condens~ ttm<ml'~

Fig. 15

5. MANUFACTURING
For the manufacturing of the double skin concrete elements are two methods:
1. First the outside leaf is cast in the mould, then synthetic elements (egg-box-
shaped) are placed, af ter that the insulation layer is installed and the inner skin is
cast.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--3""surface in fac!ory finis.hEd

in ternal leef 4

thermal insulation 3
eg9 box shap ed space r 2
external leaf
I J!j 1IIII11 1111111111111111 mouid
sequence of casting

Fig. 16

By this method of manufacturing the exposed side of the internal leaf becomes
the side to be finished in the factory. Mostly this surface will not be accepted by
the architect or principal, which means an architectural finish wil! be necessary
afterwards. The exposed, mould side of the external skin can have all the various
surface textures and finishings, used with precast concrete as discussed by Mr.
van Acker.
2. The inside and outside skine are cast in separate moulds. The inside leaf is cast on
 -78-

demoulding
lurning over
p lac i ng in fr esh-ca sI exlernal leaf

faslenings r-"
~ 2 :- - - - - - - - - - - - --:

::: P!:::~
I I
insulalion
inlernal leaf Cf: :::::~-r p~ -- - - - ,~,,~ - -c ~,~ ~;
exlernal leaf
DAY 1 DAY 2

Fig. 17

day 1, provided with insulation layer and connecting devices.

On day 2 the outside leaf is cast, af ter which the hardened inside layer is placed
upside down on the still non-hardened outside layer, in such a way that the
connectors reach up in the outside layer.
This method of manufacturing needs more moulds and more man-hours and is by
that more expensive.
Opposite to that, the internal and external side of the element to be exposed, are
in contact with the mould and can be treated in the way Mr. van Acker will
discuss.
As incidentally has been noticed, of course it is not a matter that the outside skin
is made of concrete.
The structural internal leaf can be provided with framework or otherwise a
connection construction, in which a desired cladding can be placed. Possible
claddings are: Palazzo, PGRC or CRC, but also a metal cladding or glass.
In the following lectures the stony claddings will be discussed.

Fig. 18
 -79-

6. LOAD-BEARING OR NON-LOAD-BEARING
The double-skin elements can be applied as load-bearing or non-Ioad-bearing elements.
Usually the structural leaf is placed on the inside. For what I wanted to say about the
double-skin elements, the difference in function does not matter.
I have not paid attention to variation in dimension and sizes, to fitting, to horizontal
joints and to connections to the bearing structure or the floor slab, although there is
much to teIl about these subjects. Perhaps next time.
 -31-

PRESTRESSED THIN WALLED CONCRETE FACADES

Arto Suikka
Development Manager
M. Sc. Eng.
Partek Concrete Industry
Finland

1. GENERAL

When thin walled concrete units are used as facades, we

normally want to get ligth and durable structures and stone-
based surfaces.

Thin walled concrete units can be reinforced with fibres or

prestressing tendons. By prestressing we can improve long-
term resistance and eliminate cracking caused by differences
in temperature. Prestressing can also create bigger panel
sizes, help in production automation and give cheaper
reinforcement.

Thinner structures have smaller restraint forces and an

economical material consumption, which is essential e.g. for
coloured or white concrete.

This presentation is based on the experiences of Partek

Concrete of some thin walled products.

At the moment all the following products are in the product ion
programme, and they are briefly explained here.
 -82-

2. ERGODAL WALL PANELS

Ergodal are thermally insulated sandwich panels, up to 9 m

long and 600 or 1200 mm wide.

Their thickness is 150-190 mm, consisting of

60 mm thick outer concrete layer
40 - 80 mm polystyrene or polyurethane
50 mm thick inner concrete layer.

The panel has centralized steel connectors and hairpins between

outer and inner layers, and it belongs to the fire
classification A 120. Both concrete layers are prestressed
with wires. Panels are mainly used vertically as non-load-
bearing structures in industrial buildings. The product ion
takes place on 80 m long casting pallets both in the
Netherlands and in Belgium.

L..J

Bevestiging boven
r Bevestiging onder

Fig. 1. Ergodal wall panels

 -83-

3. VARIAX-SANDWICH

In the early 1980's, long-span sandwich panels based on Variax

hollow-core technology were developed in Finland. These panels
are up to 12 m long, 1200 mm wide and 230-310 mm thick
depending on the thickness of the thermal insulation. The
outer concrete layer is 30 mm thick and prestressed with 6 pcs
~ 4 mm wires. The thermal insulation layer is of 50-125 mm
polystyrene. The weight of the panel is 2.9 kN/m 2 . Because of
the fire classification (A 30 - A 120), the polystyrene has
to be nonflammable and on the sides of the openings, rock waal
must be used instead of polystyrene.

The panel has passed many moisture and long-term resistance

tests. Up to A 60 na hairpins are needed between the outer
and inner layers but three separate layers are glued together
with a cement based material.

The panels are made on the same 90-110 m long casting lines
as hollow-core slabs, the inner layer being 150 mm thick
prestressed hollow-core.

It has been calculated that dilatation joints of the outer

layer can be omitted when the insulation layer is thick enough
and the length max. 12 m. Panels can be used bath vertically
and horizontally.

Fig. 2. Variax-sandwich facade of a glass factory

 -84-

1200

Fig. 3. Variax wall panel

4. MONEX WALL PANELS

An example of a new type process product is the Monex wall

panel. These panels can be single-skin cladding or sandwich
panels. In sandwich panels the non-prestressed outer layer is
50 mm, the insulation layer 100-150 mm rock wool or polystyrene
and the prestressed inner layer 80 mmo Maximum size of the
panel is 9 m x 3.4 mand the weight 3.2 kNim 2 .

The process is based on 40 m long tilting tables, on automated

brick tile laying and on semiautomated casting stage.

These panels are used as cladding panels in industrial

buildings and as load-bearing wall panels in 1-2-storey
apartment buildings.
 -85-

Fig. 4. An automated brick laying machine of Monex-produktion.

Nastola, Finland

5. PALAZZO THIN PLATES

Palazzo plates are 20 mm thick prestressed concrete plates

cast on 30 m long and 1200 mm wide casting pallets. The
recommended maximum size of the panel is 1.2 x 2 . 4 m. Palazzo
can be used as cladding panels fixed onto a steel or timber
frame, or it can be used as a surface in sandwich panels
production. Typical surface treatments are polished, fine
exposed aggregate or Patina treatment.

The basic idea of the product is a centric, in two directions

diagonal prestressing with 2 mm thick stainless steel wires.
Fixing of these plates is made with same kind of methods as
of natural stone plates.
 -86-

Fig. 5. Fixing of Palazzo plates onto a steel truss .

Palazzo plates have such advantages as lightness, good

durability, different colours and different surfaces. When used
as surfaces of other claddings on sandwich panels, it is
possible to combine different colours and surface treatments.

A previous vers ion of Palazzo is a 30-40 mm concrete cladding

plate produced by IB-Morin, France. That plate is made with
normal or fibre reinforcement and was used e.g. in the facades
of the Opera of Bastille, Paris.
 -87-

6. PALAZZO APPLICATIONS

In many cases Palazzo plates can be used togehter with other

cladding materials like brick ti Ie panels (in Partek called
RATI elements), glass, metal sheets or natura I stone. RATI
elements are 600 x 1200 mm wide and 26-38 mm thick concrete
panels with the surface of brick or ceramic tiles. These
panels are non-prestressed and reinforeed with a steel mesh.

Thin wal led concrete panels make it possible to deliver

concrete wall structures which are lighter than 1 kN/m 2 . The
Partek solution is Pa rock rock wool / metal sheet panel and
Palazzo plates fixed on it. These panels can take wind loads
with spans up to 6 m because of the stiffness of the rock
wool - sandwich structure without having any other structural
frame structure in it.

Fig. 6. Palazzo plates fixed on Paroc rock wool units

 -88-

7. CONCLUSION

When new thin walled concrete units are developed, durability

and good behaviour of the structure on certain climate
conditions are the most important factors.

Prestressing of concrete panels eliminates cracking caused by

differences in temperature or other restraint forces.

with weIl designed solutions the total costs can be lowered and
simultaneously freedom of architectural design, e.g. such as
combinations of materiaIs, colours and surfaces, can be added.
 -89-

THIN-WALLED FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE FACADES

Proposals for design rules for GRC.

Arie Gerritse
Hollandsche Beton Groep; R&D Department
Rijswijk The Netherlands

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
Fibre reinforced cement (or concrete) indicates a range of very versati-
Ie materiais, which do enable us to produce th in (although strong),
relative light (although large), shaped elements. A vast range of high
strength fibres is available (fig. 1). Cost arguments and ease of
handling (spray technique) led to chopped glass fibres as being commonly
used. This is clearly expressed by the vast developments in nice and
representative facade elements manufactured with one of the GRC (Glass
Reinforeed Cement) variants. Prefabricated glass-reinforced cement
elements have given a remarkable impulse to today's architecture.
Since new developments inherently bring about some cases of less
adequate behaviour due to insufficient experience or insufficiently
(r~garded) knowledge a Dutch Stupré-committee*) presented in 1988 a
report on Design rules for architectural panels in GRC [1].
This paperwill mainly report on the study that carried out by the
Stupré-committee 30 "Glass fibre reinforeed cement". The recommendations
and practical advices differ from the existing guides on the issue:
- In addition to strength and stiffness, the ultimate strain of the
material is introduced as being a critical design parameter.
The report itself is also intended to act as a basic guide for FIP
recommendations, to be prepared in the near future by the FIP Commission
on Prefabrication (working group on Thin Walled Units).

*) Stupré is a Dutch organisation studying developments in Prefabricated

Concrete structures.
 -90-

1.2Aims
Suitable and economical application of prefabricated architectural GRC
elements will largely depend up on the designers knowledge of the
material properties, manufacture and erection techniques as weIl as the
time related behaviour of the elements.
Since the material properties are time dependent (ageing), it is
important to know how design values are to be determined. The Stupré
recommendations are intended to provide the designer, in a practical
way, with the basic data necessary and the information about relevant
properties of various systems of GRC.

1.3Field of application
These recommendations concern the application of GRC in prefabricated
elements, utilized inside as weIl as outside a building. The recommen-
dations apply to single skin elements (provided or not with stiffening
ribs or a steelframe), to sandwich elements and also to so called
composite elements. In order to achieve sufficient durability in a
cement matrix, use can be made of alkali resistant glass fibre (AR GRC)
or E-glass with polymer admixtures, thus polymer glass fibre reinforced
cement (PGRC) or alternatively a combination of these materiais.
The recommendations only apply in so far as manufacture is carried out
by means of a spray procedure.
The current version of the Stupré report does not contain subjects like
manufacture procedures or erection. For the time being it was assumed
that these items are sufficiently discussed in other literature, e.g.
SBR publication nr. 168 - April 1988 - "Gevelelementen van Glasvezel-
versterkt cement" [2]. (In Dutch).

l.4Strain capacity a design parameter

Unlike the design in other materials commonly used in the building
industry, the design in GRC should also be based upon the ultimate
strain, especially upon the long term ultimate strain.
This necessity becomes evident by comparing the long term flexural
tensile strength with the short term flexural tensile strength (factor
 -91-

l)n_HS I I I SI
3000 ' _ , _ _ .rc0rbo~ _ _ /9\055_
I
.
oromid / oromidI
HM ARh stondo rd

~h
prestressing s~~

2 3 I. 5
strain(%) -

figure 1: Stress-strain diagrams of reinforcing materials

20
/'

relt I
I
1 1.5
Direct tension
M.a.n.
3U 3U fibres in vol. %
M.a.H. 28 days
2U

AR glas Eglas aged

reil roll
0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1
GRC 4 %Cem Fil Forton 5 %Eglas
(PGHCI
Bending
Figure 2: Stress-strain diagrams in flexure and in tension [3].
 -92-

401--l-____-=I=32~%~A~rn~mêid·=FGO~'C~.~N.Wg;.==4==:'"'_ _ _+-
o
MOR ~~~~==~-SAr~•.!l!.~I! .: .:.0.0%60 +2O C

30
...
E
~201-+--------~--~~~~--~~==~~---
z .........
10

1 2 10 20 50 years
2 5 lQ 20 50 100 200 500 10 104 days
Percentage in vol. %
Forton with E glass
Long term behaviour of individual cement composites

10

2 10 20 50 years
2 5 10 20 5U 100 200 500 lOl 10 4 days

N.W . Natural Weathering (UK average 12°C)

extrapolation from accelerated tests (in water)
Cemfil 4 vol. % a 5 weight %
LONG TERM GRC BEHAVIOUR

Figure 3 : Developments of MOR values with time,based on

accelerated ageing, taken from (3). See also (9).

equal to 2.5 for GRC, respectively 1.5 for PGRC) and the long term
ultimate strain capacity with the short term ultimate strain capacity
(factor 2511 for GRC, resp. factor 2 . 5 for PGRC) See fig. 2 and table 1.
This substantially greater decline of ultimate strain capacity of an
ageing material has appeared in practice - when not properly looked at -
to cause various damages.
It i s therefore of essential importance to design the elements taking
long term ultimate strain into account (7), (9).
 -93-

Tabel la Indicative mechanical properties of commonly produced GRC

AR-GRC P-GRC (mix 2)

young aged young aged

Bending tensile
strength 26 ± 5 13 ± 2 22 ± 3 18 ± 2 N/mmZ
LOP in bending 9 ± 1,5 10 ± 2 13 ± 2 17 ± 2 N/mmZ
Breakage strain
in bending 10 ± 2 0,7±0,1 4 ± 1 2 ± 0,5 0/00
Tensile strength 9,5± 1,5 5,5±0,5 10± 1 9 ± 1 N/mmZ
LOP in tension 6 ± 1 5,5±0,5 6 ± 1 8 ± 1 N/mmZ
Breakage strain
in tension 10 ± 2 0,4±0,1 3 ± 1 1 ± 0,5 0/00
Modulus of
elasticity 15 ± 5 25±3 13± 1 16± 2 kN/mmz
Density 2 ± 0.1 2±0.1 2.0 2.0 kg/dm3

2. BACKGROUND
2.1Glass fibres in cementitious matrix
The lower strain , capacity af ter ageing, and thus the consequently lower
ductility of aged GRC elements, has caused several cases of less
adequate behaviour (7). The decrease in strain capacity is mainly due to
2 main causes:
a)- Glass itself is vulnerable to alkaline attack -> loss of strength
b)- Continued hydration of cement will induce a strong bond between a
slightly etched fibre surface and the matrix.
The Stupré report does not enter this in detail, however the author
wishes to express his view that cause b) is more relevant.
ad a) The stresses in the fibres up to cracking of concrete are
negligable and SEM photographs show, also af ter prolonged
exposition, nearly never serious harm to the fibres.
ad b) A reinforcement can only take force (be stressed) if it is
given the necessary elongation. Any transfer of force (also in
the well known steel reinforced concrete) from matrix to
reinforcement requires some lenght of slip to accomodate for
some free length to reach the elongation, which belongs to the
stress. Compare the stress-strain curve. But if, due to high
bond (no slip) this elongtion (at cracking) is made impossible ',
than brittle failure will occur (fig. 4 and 5)
Basic advantage of fibre reinforcement in the post-cracking behaviour.
 -94-

..
hold slip I ol slip • I
ol
hold

elongation possible

figure 4: Basic stress-strain figure 5: neccessity of

diagram in tension fpr reinforced "free length" to elongate.
material

3.DESIGN CRITERIA
3.1 General .
For architectural panels made of GRC a number of design criteria are of
particular importance:
1. strength (in bending andfor direct tension)
2. deformation f flexure
3. freedom of movement
4. durability and fracture strain
5. resistance to pollution
6. watertightness
7. behaviour in fire
8. thermal resistance
9. dimensions f tolerances
10. resistance to impact
In this paper special attention is given to the criteria about strength,
deflection. freedom of movement and durability. The latter expressed as
strain at failure.
 -95-

3.2Strength
A GRC component must, exactly like other structures, be designed accor-
ding to the valid national recommendations.
Account must be taken of stresses in relation to prevented deformations
for example in connection with variations in the temperature and
moisture movement in an element. According to this criterion, it can be
established under what conditions no fracture or collapse of the element
should occur or what conditions any possible cracking behaviour must
satisfy.

Three strength categories are distinguished:

Class Stro 1:
The strength of the element is verified from the properties of both the
young and the fully aged material. (Bending and direct tension).
Moreover the aged material should present a "plastic" behaviour at
failure (warning behaviour). According to present opinions the GRC
applied . nowadays does not yet reach quality Stro 1 without additional
structural provisions. Incorporating stainless steel reinforcement may
be envisaged in this context.

Class Stro 2:
Strength requirement is equal to class Stro 1; however plastic behaviour
at fai1ure at the aged stage is not required.

C1ass Stro 3:
The requirement is simi1ar to that in Stro 1, it applies however only
for the young materia1.

3.3 Deformation/Deflection
For the time being the limit to deformations due to the combined effects
of the design values of external loading and thermal and hygric influen-
ces are restricted by a standards requirement of l/300.
 -96-

3.4Freedom of movement
The elements must be designed in such a way, that movements due to
variations of temperature and moisture can take place as freely as
possible (inner restraints includedl).
This induces some restrictions to the design of especially sandwich ele-
ments and composite elements, but also of single skin elements having a
deep relief because of their stiffness. Connections must be designed in
such a way, that possible movements of the bearing construction are not
transmitted to the GRC element.

3.5Durability and ultimate strain

This criterion determines the conditions under which no cracking may
occur.
Two classes are distinguished:
- class BI: the design value of the ultimate strain (see 4.2) of the
aged material must be greater than the strain, occurring under the
worst possible combination of loadings and hygric and thermal related
deformations (restrained or not).
- class B2: the characteristic value of the ultimate strain of the aged
material must be greater than the strain, occurring under the worst
possible combination of leadings and moisture and thermal related
deformations (restrained or not).

3.6Classification
Table 2 specifies the required classes for field of applications
frequentlyoccurring.
Table 2: Classification
- --,---- -
field of use Strenght Deformation Durability

Lost moulding Str 3 Standard B2

Cladding elements
single-shell Str 2 Standard BI
sandwich-element Str 2 Standard BI
Facade-sealing elements Str 2 Standard BI
sandwich element Str 2 Standard BI
composite elements Str 2 Standard BI
Internal element Str 3 Standard B2
Building elements less
than 2 metres above
ground level Str 2 Standard BI
 -97-

4. CALCULATION
4 . 1General
The most critical loadings for designing of GRC elements are tension and
flexure, due to external loadings andjor restrained movements . Table 3
shows some indicative characteristic values of the parameters relevant
to this types of material and loading.
These values determined for young and aged material -where in the table
3 the lowest value of the two is shown- provide some indications as to
the properties. The bending properties are determined by test at four
points.
Other load cases such as compressive strength and inplane, interlaminar
and punching shear are usually less limitating. If design calculations
show, that one of these load conditions does really become limitating,
additional information will then be necessary.

Table 31 Indicative Characteristic values

AR-GRC PGRC PGRC Producer
__._ --_._-- - - - -- --_. _--- - -
.. - - ---_ .- - - -- mix1
--- _ .mix2 X
BOP(tensile) (N/mm Z ) 5 5 5 ......
UTS (N/mm Z ) 5 9 7 ......
(uk (tensile) %0 0,2 1,5 0,7 ......
LOP (bending) (N/mm Z ) 10 12 12 ......
MOR (N/mm Z ) 10 20 14 ......
(uk (bending) %0 0,4 2,5 1 ......
E-modulus kN/mm z 18 10 13 ......
It is supposed that measuring is done 6 times.

If only the strength of young materials is of importance (for example

lost moulding) then this value has to be given.
The characteristic values shown in the table are intended to enable a
feasibility analysis to be carried out: no guarantees may be obtained
from it. The final design should be based up on data to be provided by
the manufacturer, with re gard to the GRC manufactured by him.
It is clear, that, given a total strain capacity of aged GRC of about
0.3 to 0.5 promille, restraint of movement caused by shrinkage and
moisture (say 30% of 1.5 promille see 4 . 3) may al ready give rise to
cracking.
 -98-

4.2Partial coefficients
In more recent structural codes (Eurocode), the following relation has
tobe satisfied in the ultimate limit states to be considered:

S being the representative (or characteristic) loading

1r load factor
Sd design value for loadings
R representative strength
1m material factor
Rd design value for (material) strength
The following limit states must be verified:
ultimate limit state (with respect to strength)
serviceability limit state (deformation/cracking)

Basically for transport, erection and for applications such as a

permanent formwork a calculation may be carried out for "young" material
(cla5s Stro 3), the ductility (deformation capacity) then still being
very high. In doing 50 optimal use can then be made of the strength and
impact resistance at an early stage.
Loadings occurring at later stages must be based upon strength and
deformation capacity (ultimate strain) of the aged material.
In design a serviceability limit state with 1t = 1. = 1 can usually be
considered to be a criterion with respect to deformations. In the case
of GRC however, the available characteristic strain af ter ageing may be
unsufficient) and because of increasing brittleness induce such crac-
king, that a calculation based upon strength virtually looses its
significance. Therefore in this case 1. = 1 will no longer be acceptable
(serviceability = failure).

Design for aged GRC should therefore be based for practical reasons upon
the following design rules:

Failure: 'Yr = 1. 5 and 1. = 1. 2

 -99-

This applies for:

Str.1, however additional plastic behaviour at fracture is required
af ter aging
Str.2 young and aged
Str.3 only early stage GRC material

Ultimate strain: 1r = 1,0 and 1. = 1.8

This implies:
for BI: 1. 1.8 and for B2: 1m 1 (see 3.4)
EUk
The latter equation imp1ying : Etot S 1.8
in which
E~t - the strain to be calculated due to external loads and res-
trained deformations.
EUk = the characteristic strain (capacity) of the material

The latter value can be taken from values measured on the aged material.
This may imply, that GRC (and especially AR-GRC) may find their applica-
tion in elements, with very slight restraint of deformations. PGRC
presents a bit more favourable behaviour thanks to its greater strain
capacity.

4.3Design for ultimate strain

Aging tests have shown, that ultimate strain in direct tension of GRC
af ter ageing varies between 0.25 promille (no polymer) and 2.0 promille
(15% polymer). In bending this is about twice as much.
Stresses in the element due to movements of the bearing construction
have to be reduced to a minimum by keeping the GRC element free from the
influence of the bearing construction as much as possible.
This may be done as follows:
Keep sufficient clearance between the elements. In normal cases 3
mm/m (main dimension of the element) will be sufficient.
 -100-

Provide flexible connections; this implies, that account should be

taken of a possibility of movement of at least 3 mm per running
meter of the element.
The following strain contributions can be taken into account for
complying to the criterion of ultimate strain (see 3.4)
strain due to external loading
amax

variation in length due to variations of temperature

Et .. 16 . 10-6 • AT

in which AT is the difference in temperature with regard to the

temperature during erection (this may be assumed to be 40 0 e to 50 0 e
depending on the colour of the element).
variations in length (expansion/contraction) due to changes in
moisture ((v) varies from 0.6 promille (sand/cement ratio = 1,
polymer contents 10%) to 1.5 promille (sand/cement ratio = 0,5, na
polymer) .

In the case of sandwich elements additional due allowance must be made

for influence of the core material.
The variations in shrinkage, temperature and moisture can, for sandwich
elements with a stiff care lead to stresses which can be compared with
the influence of 30% of the total movement being restrained at these
variations of shrinkage, temperature and moisture. In other words: at
least 30% of the strains due to these restraint movements will either
reduce the permissable bending stress or are to be added to the require-
ments concerning min. ultimate strain. There is no reason, on account of
theoretic investigations which are still being carried out,to assume,
that lower values may be used for de ep relief single skin elements. For
entirely flat elements however, a somewhat lower value would be realis-
tic. Needless to say, only strain contributions which induce stresses,
may give rise to cracking in the element.
For single skin elements, which are continuous as far as the skin
 -'0' -
is concerned for a thermic and hygric gradient, it may be assumed
that:
dT ~ IOoC; reversible shrinkage smaller than or equal to the shrinkage
amax
€tot = 1.0 [ - - E - + 0.3 (0.16) 10- 3+ 0.3 (0.6 to 1.5)10- 3 )
a
max
1.0 [--E- + (0.15 à 0.3) promille) ~
1,8
By means of the mentioned verifications and calculations minimal
requirements can be determined so that the ultimate strain of the aged
material is not exceed. Based upon practical experiences sandwich and
composite elements need particular attention .

4.4 Sandwich elements

The application of sandwich elements characterised by the inner and
outer skin being connected to each other by means of an intermediate
insulation material (core) is not a preferred solution because of their
critical behaviour with regard to the temperature gradient.
For those, who would like to estimate the stress-inducing deformation in
the GRC skin of these sandwich elements due to differential skin moments
with regard to the core, indicative formula are given in [9) .
Since the GRC skins are very thin, (they warm-up and wet/dry faster) the
mutual dimensional differences may be substantially greater than in the
case of sandwich elements made of precast concrete. It is therefore
strongly advised, just like in the case of sandwich elements made of
precast concrete, to connect the inner and the outer skin one to another
in such a way, that such deformations can take place mutually unrestrai-
ned and independently.

4.5Composite elements
Such elements have one skin made of GRC and the other bearing skin of
prefabricated concrete.
As air space, insulation or both air space and insulation are usually
placed between these two skins.
For this type of elements the same recommendations apply as indicated
above for sandwich elements.
 -102-

5. CONCLUDING REHARKS
Glass-fibres are extensively used producing attractive thin-walled
(light weight) prefabricated facade relements. The specific consequences
of glass-fibres in connection with a cement matrix are to be considered
carefully in design, e.g. by imposing restrictions to the required
strain capacity. The FIP-commission on Prefabrication (working group on
Thin-Walled Unites) will welcome any comment.

REPERENCES
1. STRUPRE-report studie groep 30.
Glass fibre reinforced cement (GRC).
Design rules for . architectural panels.
Dutch edition 1988;
English translation avai1ab1e from Dutch Concrete Society at Gouda

2. Gevelelementen van Glasvezelversterkt cement.

SBR-rapport No. 168. In Dutch (1988).
Stichting Bouwresearch, Rotterdam.

3. GERRITSE, A.
Typen en eigenschappen van vezelversterkte cement composieten.
Cement; 1982 No. 8 (In Dutch).

4. STUPRE-report.
Bevestigingsconstructies van geprefabriceerde gevelelementen.
(Connections of precast facade elements)
Only in Dutch; Dutch Concrete Society at Gouda (1975).

5. Pilkington Design Guide. St. Helens 1979.

6. JACOBS, J.N.; BIJEN, J.

Durability of Forton po1ymer modified GFRC.
Proceedings of conference on Durabi1ity of GFRC (Chicago Nov. 1985).

7. MOORE, J.F.A.
The use of glass-fibre-reinforced cement in cladding panels.
BRE report- BRE lP 5/84.

8. JACOBS, J.N.
Strain Capacity as a design criterium.
Proceedings of Symposium on GRC Darmstadt Oct. 1985.

9. VAMBERSKY, J.N.A.J.
Bemessungsregeln fUr architectonische elementen am Glasfaser beton
Beton + Fertigteiltechnik Heft 7, 1989
 -103-

SURFACES AND SURFACE TREATMENTS

Ir. A. VAN ACKER

Development Manager Part ek Concrete International, Belgium

The use of concrete as a facade material dates back from the

twenties, at the appearance of Modernism under the impulse of
great architects as Le Corbusier, Gropius, Aalto and others.
A that time concrete was a new material, already fully in use
in civil engineering works, opening new possibilities for
housing construction. Not only the structural properties, but
also the rough appearance of the concrete especially appealed
to the architects at th at time. Rationalism and expressivity
were in fact the guiding motives in the architecture of facade
structures. The new trend was callIed "Brutalism". A lot of
people still associate this phenomenon with todays concrete.
In the following I hope to demonstrate the opposite.

In Western Europe the introduction of architectural concrete

for facades of large administrative buildings came only in the
fifties and the early sixties. One of the forerunners in this
new technique was the Dutch company Schokbeton. They became
world-famous through their invention of the shocking process
for concrete compaction and the many marvellous realizations
of high standard concrete facades in different countries : The
Netherlands, Belgium, France, USA, Canada, etc ...

Architectural concrete came at the right moment. It was a

reaction against the monotony of the all glaze plain box
buildings of that time.
 -104-

There was a search for more expressive facade design and the
enormous possibilities of concrete in design, colour and
texture were discovered. A not to be despized detail was that
quality was payed, partially because hard competition didn't
exist. It was the time of the goose that laid the golden egg.

Architects started to design facades composed of large precast

elements in architectural concrete and, many precast companies
went into this business.

Typically for the first flourishing period was that all

attention was spent on the design of a basic element. It was
dimensioned for one story, with a width of 1,50 to 7,20 m. and
modulated at 300 mmo

For each building the facing elements were designed

differently, and numerous examples exist of masterworks from
this period. However the complete facade still remained
fairly flat and also the box-shape of the building as a whole
was mostly kept because of the search for r~petition at
manufacture.

Let us look to the latest evolutions in the field of

architectural concrete facades.

A number of phenomenon of the early eighties have greatfully

influenced todays architecture.

The first is the genera I increase of the standard of living.

In most Western European countries the present-day standard
of living satisfies all basic needs. Therefore further
evolution will be directed towards higher quality of life.
 -105-

We see an opposition against monotonous buildings and an

evolution towards more attractive and human scale
architecture. Design will be more and more governed by
aesthetics.

A second phenomenon from the beginning of the eighties, is

the general nostalgy for the past and the back to nature
movement. Ecologists and "Green" political parties have
contributed a lot.
Exposed concrete is frequently blamed by these people to be a
polluting material, especially in the context of new large
motorways disfiguring to natura I environment of small
countries.

In any case the resulting retro movement brought ab out a

revaluation of natural and traditional materiaIs, such as
natura I stone and brick masonry, and architectural concrete
had to follow this trend. Instead of exposing the internal
concrete structure by water washing, sandblasting or other
techniques used in the past, on offer now are finishing types
such as polished concrete, simulated white stone, smooth as
cast concrete and brick or stone veneering.

To sum up, key words for the new trends in precast

architectural facade design are thus: human scale, aesthetics,
natura I or traditional linked materials and flexibility.

The precasting industry has anticipated this trend, not only

by giving more flexibility to the manufacturing processes, but
also by introducing new finishing techniques for architectural
concrete.
 -106-

The product ion of Architectural concrete units can be

compared, to a certain extend to an "high fidelity chain": all
intermediate steps have to be perfect, otherwise you get
noise.

In the same way, to get a high quality concrete surface, all

production steps have to be faultless : moulds, reinforcement
and concrete cover, mix design, placing, compaction and curing
of concrete, finishing, storage and erection.

Formwork

Different materials can be used for the construction of

formwork for architectural concrete :
- Wood formwork, eminently suited for medium number of reuses,
for simple and smooth contact surfaces.
- Steel formwork for many reuses.
- Plastic forms, suitable for moulding complex and curved
components.
- Rubber forms, used for hard to demould components.

The most important aspects of formwork in respect of the

concrete surface to be formed are a tightness, stability, the
form facing material, and dimensional tolerances.

Tightness and stability are standard requirements that are

taken for granted but are, in fact, not so easily attainable,
particularly where the formwork is to be used 50 or even 100
times over, and a product of uniform quality produced.
Therefore the following suggestions:
- use rigid formwork materials wherever possible
- provide lateral mould faces with sufficient slope
- arrange joints between fixed and mouvable formwork
components on optimal spots.
 -107-

At present Partek Finland is developing a system enabling to

produce automatically moulds for architectural concrete units.
Design data are transmitted to a computer controlled
product i on cent re in the factory. A digitally controlled
robot makes the mould to exact dimensions automatically. The
freely shaped three dimensional forms are cut into recyclable
mould matrix materials. Flexibility is ensured by providing
the possibility of producing short series.

Surfaces and surface treatments

A first technique which finds its place in the new trend is

the smooth as cast concrete in which the surface principally
doesn't receive any additional finishing, but from the start
comes out of the mould perfectly.

For smooth concrete surfaces, practically only white cement

is used. Though aggregates are not visible on the surface it
is recommended to avoid darker aggregates and use lighter
coloured ones such as flint instead. Otherwise one cannot be
sure that a uniform surface is attained. As for the rest, the
concrete mix should be of traditional composition whereby
attent ion should be paid that it is dense.

Smooth concrete surfaces are both the least expensive and the
most difficult to produce finishes.
The aim during demoulding is to obtain a best possible
concrete surface,
without air-bubbles, which means an adapted mix
composition, and an optimal compaction
- prevention of al&y possible damages, e.g. through sufficient
slope (8 to 10%), of vertically aligned adjoining formwork
components and by rounding all corners and edges.
- obtain a surface with uniform glosse
 -108-

A second technique is the simulated stone finishing.

Especially for facades in post modernist ic style, this
solution offers possibilities that never more could be thougt
of in natura I stone.

Two Spanish architects have gained prominence in this post

modernist ic style : architect Bofill and architect Nunez.
They designed two subsidized housing projects near Paris for
medium-income families. The distinguishing feature of these
buildings is their highly individualistic style.

Another remarkable realization in simulated stone finishing is

demonstrated by the following project.
The building is the office of the International Bankers
Association SWIFT near Brussels.
The facade is composed of 2 concrete leaves, with athermal
insulation inbetween. It concerns in fact a so-called
sandwich facade, but the ingenuity of the solution lies in the
execution technique. The two concrete leaves were cast
seperately, and were also separately erected at the site yard.
In a first step the complete inner loadbearing wall panels,
together with the floor elements, we re erected. Then the
insulation layer was put around the building. Finally the
outer facade elements were placed.

This concept gave the architect the possibility, not only to

use a different colour and texture for the inside and outside
of the facade, but also to design a completely different
architectural outlook, inside and outside. The internal
components in white smooth concrete were designed to be
loadbearing. The rectangular storey height elements were
placed with their finished mould face inwards and they support
the floor components of which also the underside was executed
in smooth white architectural concrete.
 -109-

By this way a complete architectural concrete finish was

obtained throughout the inside of the rooms.

The ceiling consists of prestressed double-T units. The ribs

have been arranged in reverse order and serve at the same time
as support for the double-shell floor of the next story.
ventilation ducts and electric installations have been
arranged inbetween. A free space of 1,20 m was left between
the reversed TT units to receive plaster domes for indirect
lighting and ventilation accesses.

The exterior facade components are in a simulated stone

finish. They have different forms and sizes, some of them
covering at once three stories, thus giving to the building an
imposing outlook. The design freedom of the system thus
enables a change to the architectural concept of the facade
for different parts of the same building.

The joints between the external facade elements were arranged

in such a way that they became mostly invisible from the
outside. This was obtained by slanting element angles,
canti levering facades, large glass surfaces covering up to
three stories etc.

Here you see an office building in London, constructed last

year. The facade cladding is in brown archi tectural concrete,
and special attent ion was paid to the design of the concrete
surface. Some elements are curved, and the window frames and
glas were al ready put at the plant before shipping to London.
 -110-

A third innovation concerns the polishing of the concrete

surface. Due to automation and robot techniques of polishing,
architectural concrete has become economically accessible and
a serious competitor to natural stone facings. Moreover it
offers far wider possibilities than natural stone, not only
for the cost rating but also where special design is
concerned.

The next slides show a few examples of recent buildings with

facades in polished architectural concrete.

The facade of this psychopedagogic institute, built in the

neoclassic style has been model led af ter the Greek example.
The architects are Nunez and Guchez. The facade is
characterized by its rounded shape, its colour - a warm brown
tint - and the concrete surface finish attained by grinding
and polishing.

Also in paris there are remarkable new buildings in polished

architectural concrete, for example the new opera "La
Bastille" and the new Ministry of Finances. At both projects
architectural concrete was used in combination with natural
stone.

For polished concrete surfaces, the hardness is of vital

importance in addition to the concrete mix and colour of the
aggregates, especially with regard to the appearance and also
to the cost. The harder the aggregates, the better the
result.

The polishing method has long been applied for tooling natural
stone. In the sixties it was in rare instances used to obtain
archi tectural concrete and is now ga~n~ng increasing
popularity. Use of automated processing techniques have made
the method less costly.
 -111-

Water and special type grindstones, which are interchanged

during the grinding operation, are used for this purpose.
During the first phase, the surface is ground until all
aggregates are completely exposed.

When working with lighter colour, this is all that is needed.

Rough grindstones leave scratches behind which are, however,
less noticeable on lighter surfaces . The surface finishing is
dull.

When a stronger shine is desired, and in genera I in the case

of darker surfaces, several grinding steps are required.
Here, the scratches left by the previously used stone are
smoothed out by the next finer one. Af ter the first grinding
step, the fine air bubbles at the surface are filled up with
a special mix. A stronger shine is however only possible by
using hard aggregates such as granite, quartz, bazalt etc.

To obtain a nice lively colour, one will mostly proceed from

a mixture with different light colour shades and seldom from
monocolour aggregate, which are moreover not so easy to find.
The shades in colour make natural stone so attractive. A nice
example is granito. The same applies to architectural
concrete. This requires of course extensive experience in the
field. Polishing of concrete surfaces requires, as one can
understand and appropriate equipment and highly skilled
workers , which can 't be obtained overnight. The result
however is splendid.

The manufacturing technique of architectural facade elements

is not only restricted to mono-colour units, but also
combinations of colour and textures are possible.
 -112-

This is a new office building in Brussels of which the

spandrell slabs of the frame units are in polished concrete
and the columns in very fine exposed aggregates.

Up to now we have seen the new trends in the finishing of the

concrete surface smooth concrete of perfect quality,
simulated stone quality, and polished concrete. It is also
possible to realise concrete facade elements covered with
another material, for example ceramic tiles, natural stone,
clay bricks etc.

A technique which is frequently used in France and in Holland

is the tile finishing of the concrete surface. By means of an
ingenious moulding technique the small tiles are vacuum suck
to the mould, so they stay put during the pouring and
compaction of the concrete, and needn't to be pointed
afterwards, which of course reduces costs considerably.

Here you see examples of natural stone veneered elements. We

use a special technique for the fixation of the stones in the
concrete during the casting of the elements so that
differential thermal movements are still possible afterwards.

In our factory in Belgium we are now producing stone veneered

facing elements for an office building at Bishopsgate in
London. The concrete elements are cladded with different
types of stones : white stone from France and granite from
Italy.

At Partek Finland, a new simulated stone panel has been

developed recently. The commercial name is Palazzo. It
concerns thin bi-axial prestressed concrete leaves of 20 mm
thickness, manufactured in a full automatic process.
 -113-

The surface texture of the panels is a simulation of either

white French stone or granite. The maximum size of the panels
is 2,40 x 1,20 m. They are used in the same way as natura I
stone panels. However, due to the prestressing, the thickness
of the Palazzo can be kept much smaller than natural stone and
henceforth the dead weight. It is also possible to cast
fixing devices in the back side of the panels.

Brick facades are still very popular in Western Europe. They

are very much used for housing, but from time to time also for
facades of larger buildings. The normal product ion technique
for brick facings in precast facade components is to put small
brick tiles into the bottom of the mould and to cast the
concrete on top of it.
This year we have produced brick cladded panels for a large
project at Canary Wharf in the London Docklands.

Partek has also developed an alternative method to produce

brick faced panels, using a special concrete mix; the concrete
is cast on a rubber mould, reproducing a clay brick masonry
wall.
Immediately af ter demoulding the concrete surface is slightly
brushed and the joints between the bricks are pointed in a
traditionnal way.

Finally during the last years, we see a trend in facade design

towards increasingly profiled elements with a lot of surface
ornaments. stone elements which in the ancient Greek and
Roman epoque were carved by hand, are now made again in
architectural concrete thanks to the modern industrial
manufacturing processes and advanced concrete technology.
 -114-

This is not only suitable for facings in nee classical style,

but also for other styles.

A good example is the facade of the FC2 building at Canary

Wharf in the London Docklands, now under construction. The
facade was designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill from
Chicago. The elements are embellished by numerous stylized
sculptural details.
Although this type of design is not always easy to realize, we
are convinced that it should be encouraged. In this way one
uses the mouldability of concrete to a maximum. It gives the
architect a larger freedom in the design of facades than most
other materiais. The only limits are imagination and
creativity.

Conclusion

The aim of this conference is to show you the enormous and

merely unknown possibilities of architectural concrete as a
new facade material. You have seen a panoply of forms,
colours, surface finishings and architectural design on which
you may agree or disagree.

The era in which concrete was known only as a rough material

is long over. Technological innovations in the field of
concrete composition, moulds and finishings have increased the
quality in such a way that it can now compete with the most
exclusive facade claddings.
Also the myth that precasting leads to little flexibility in
facade design does no longer hold true. On the contrary,
thanks to the inherent properties and varieties in shape,
architectural concrete belongs to the most flexible
contemporary solutions for building facades.
 -115-

SESSION 3

CODES AND CALCULATION PRINCIPLES

 -117-

PREFABRICATION AND EUROCODE 1992

Ir. A. VAN ACKER

Development Manager Partek Concrete International

Building regulations in the European Common Market

Before going into detail about the coming European

regulations with respect to precast concrete, it is
important to have a clear insight into the complex world of
standardization and code drafting bodies in Europe.

There are 3 levels of codes:

a. International Model Codes, edited by CEB-FIP.

There objective is to prepare the future: they follow
the most recent evolutions in the field of design and
execution of concrete structures, and elaborate codes
which are intended to serve as models for ulterior
regional codes.
b. National Codes and Standards
These documents are drafted by National Standard
Institutes and are obligatory in the country.
c. International Standards
There exist, as far as Europe concerns, two
international organizations: ISO (International Standard
organization) and CEN (European Committee for
Standardization). Both are federations of National
Standard Organizations (member Committees), ISO on a
world scale, CEN for Europe. They deal with all fields
of the industry, and their main purpose is 'to harmonize
standards.

The European Government has voted in December 1988 a

Directive aiming at free circulation of construction
 -118-

products in the Common Market , entering into force by the

end of June 1991. The main provisions of the oirective are
free circulation of construction products throughout the
Common Market. Indeed, at the moment a lot of technical
barriers to trade still exist because of differing
requirements and procedures in the EC Member countries.
Consequently, the application of the above mentioned
oirective implies the need for common European Standards. In
this respect, already in 1978 the EC Government has
instalIed panels of experts to elaborate Eurocodes for
construction matters in the Common Market. These codes are
dealing with design and calculation requirements for
concrete, steel, composite construction, timber, masonry and
foundations. "Eurocode 2" applies to the design of buildings
and civil engineering works in plain, reinforced and
prestressed concrete. The first draft was published for
enquire in 1984, and the final dra ft is ready now.
The first draft didn't contain any chapter on
prefabrication. We have spend a lot of efforts to remedy
this lacuna, and in 1987, under our impulse, a subcommittee
was formed to draft EC2 Part 1B "Precast Concrete Elements
and Structures". A detailed report of the work will be given
further on. The document is likely to be published for
enquire in the beginning of next year.

The Eurocodes are intended to replace as soon as possible

the existing national codes in the EC.

The European Standard Organization CEN

National Codes are elaborated by the Standard Institutes of

the different countries. In the same way, European Standards
are regularly published by CEN. The work is done by
permanent CEN Technical Committees.
CEN Standards are extremely important since they are
obligatory for the 12 EC countries and the 6 EFTA ones.
 -119-

Earlier this year, the EC has made an agreement with CEN to

publish the already existing Eurocode drafts . At the same
time al the ongoing drafting work has been transferred to a
new CEN Technical Committee, CEN TC 250. This means that,
from now on, also the EFTA countries will intervene in the
elaboration of the Eurocodes.
CEN publishes 2 types of standards:

- EN Standards: obligation of CEN members to withdraw con-

flicting national Standards and to replace them by the new
CEN standard.
- ENV Prestandards: facultative standards for CEN member
countries with provisional application during a period of
3 years, af ter which they become an EN standard, or they
have to be withdrawn. Eurocode 2: Concrete Structures:
Part 1 and Eurocode 3: Steel Structures: Part 1 are now
likely to be issued as ENV documents early in 1991.

standards for the design of cast in situ and precast

constructions are made by 3 CEN TC's, each of them dealing
with a specific domain:

CEN TC 250 "Eurocodes": General basis, (principles and

Application Rules), for the design of buildings and building
components.
CEN TC 104 "Concrete": Characteristics and requirements of
fresh and hardened concrete as a material. Recently, a
prestandard ENV 206 was published by CEN, entitled IIConcrete
- Performance, Production, Placing and Compliance Criteria ll •
CEN TC 229 "Precast Concrete Products": Product standards
which are not covered by the two other TC's, for example
minimum sectional dimensions, tolerances, complementary
design rules for specific products etc.
 -120-

Eurocode 2 Part lB Precast Concrete Elements and Structures

In the following, the most important items of EC2 Part 1B,

as written down in the 12th Working Draft, will be
explained.
For easy of reference, the material of EC2 Part 1B is laid
out in the same section order as that used in EC2 Part 1.
The section numbers used hereafter refer to the
corresponding chapters in both documents.

1. INTRODUCTION
The recommended ru1es of design for insitu cast concrete
structures apply also to precast and composite
construction as modified or supplemented by EC2 Part lB.
Particular areas of design which require special
consideration not usually carried out in the design of
cast insitu structures are:
- bearings
- joints
- multi stage construct ion
These and other element types and design areas are
considered in EC2 Part lB.

2. BASIS OF DESIGN

2.3.3.2. Partial safety factors for materials

Generally speaking, the quality and correspondence to
design data of precast concrete is better than insi tu
concrete, for reasons of better working
conditions,
repetitive work, quality control and plant certification.
Logically, this should be reflected in the material
safety factors. The following boxed values are proposed:

concrete steel reinforcement

Normal situations 'tc = 11.31 i!s = 11.101
Construct i on situations ~c =11.31 Xs = 11. 051
 -121-

Conditions for the use of these factors are given in the

document and in ENV 206, e.g. quality control system,
plant certification etc.

2.5.2.1. Structural models for overall analysis

Prefabrication is not a variant execution technique to
cast insitu constructions, but has its own specific
design philosophy. In order to stress this fact, the
commonly used structural systems to ensure the overall
stability of precast structures are given:
- Frame structures, composed of linear precast elements
Bearing wall structures
- Skeletal structures in which the beams and columns may
have hinged joints
- Floor or roof diaphragms

A I FRAMe STRUCTURe'

BI LOAOBEARING WALLS

1 transV~H
L longitud ....
V vertieal
~Ipa<tl
P per ipheral
 -122-

Cl SKELETAL STRUCTURE

/
-r- - ,,
/
/

/
,,
/ ,
Ol FLOOR OR ROOF OIAFHRAOIol

FIO 2 . 1 OIFFaIENT TYPES OF STRUCTURE

2.5.3.5. Analysis of slabs

The following items are dealt with:
a) Support arrangements: simple or continuous supports.
b) Longitudinal joints: transfer of vertical and longitu-
dinal shear forces.
c) Transverse load distribution: shall be ensured by
appropriate shear transferring connections.
The reinforcement can be distributed across the
longitudinal joints or concentrated in the transverse
joints at the end.
d) Diaphragm action: conditions to pree ast floors for
transferring horizontal forces to the bracing vertical
elements.
 -123-

2.5.3.7. Corbels and half joints

Half joint design should be based on the following
modeIs, Fig 2.2 A and B. In many cases it is appropriate
to combine the two models.

TH

J
'bnet
W H Ibne:t

FIG A' VERllCAI. SUSPENSION REINFtJRCeENl FIG 9' INCl.INED SUSPEHSION REIHRlRCEMEHT

~ HALF JOINTS - CAlOJlA11ON MOCe..s

When model B is used alone an additional force TH nominal

of value O.2F must be provided in addition to the
requirement of O.2F from EC2, Part 1, 2.5.3.7.2. (rule 4)

3. MATERIALS

The concrete strength classes of EC2 Part 1 are widened

to grade 60/70. Also the possibility to use high strength
concrete is open.
with respect to connection materiaIs, and especially
metal fastening, rules concerning the use of hot-dip
gal vani zed steel, austeni tic stainless steel and copper
and copper alloys are given.
 -124-

4. SECTION AND MEMBER DESIGN

4.1.3.3.Concrete cover
The minimum value of cover is determined taking into
account specific parameters of precasting such as:
quali ty control, use of pretensioned tendons , concrete
grade, corrosion resistant reinforcement etc.

4.2.3. Prestressed concrete

- Relaxation loss: Loss is accelerated during the appli-
cation of thermal curing and the re1axation rate is re-
duced at the end of the treatrnent.
- When hot fresh concrete is used, additiona1 10ss of
prestress may occur.
- Anchorage zones of prestressed members: The build up of
prestress in the anchorage zone may be considered to be
parabolic. For prestressed hol1ow core units, require-
ments to check anchorage fai1ure are given.

4.3.2.2. Design for shear

The shear capacity of pretensioned members in those areas
which are not cracked in flexure can be calculated from
the equation:

For prestressed hollow core members, because of the

special conditions at supports, allowing a check to be
made of the quality of the anchorage, the following more
precise equation may be used:
 -125-

4.5 Design of connections

Connections are of course very important in precast
structures, and a lot of design rules are dealt with in
this chapter. Af ter some general design principles, more
detailed requirements are given about the different types
of connections.

4.5.2. Joints transmitting compression

The strength of mortar joint material shall not be less
than 70% of the adjacent precast concrete strength, if
the mortar is not transversely confined. Joints can
produce significant bursting forces in the joined
members. If the joint has a hard pack, Fig. 4.3.A, then
forces may be calculated using the clauses of EC2, Part
1, 4.2.3.5.7.

A SPLI TTING FORCE FROt-4 ~ Sf'LITlING FORCE FROM SOFT

- CONCENTRATED BeARING PADDING MATERlAL

~ TRANSVeRSE RlACES IN .l)INTS TRANSl<ITTING OOMPRESSION

If the joint has a filling material which has a much

lower E value than the surrounding concrete, weak mortar
or soft pack, then splitting forces are also produced and
this may require reinforcement to be provide into the
joint mortar or in the ends of the jointed members.
Fig. 4.3 B.
For the calculation of the compression strength of a
mortar joint, different methads are available in
literature, sa that only principles are given here.
NM,,' . ,-- - .np1DllI11Ulm C

-126-

4.5.3. Shear joints

Distinction is made between smooth, rough and toothed
construct ion joints, and conditions are set forth wi th
respect to the geometrical parameters of the different
surfaces.
Formula are given for the calculation of the design shear
resistance, taking into account the state of the
interface surf ace , and the effect of normal forces N~ or
possible shear reinforcement.

4.5.4. Flexural and tensile joints

Flexural joints refer to joints capable to transmi t a
bending moment. Continuity may be obtained by:
- lapping or welding of bars
- reinforcement grouted into apertures
- overlapping reinforcement loops
- sleeving
- threaded couplings
or any other type of connection that can be shown to be
capable of performing adequately.

4.5.5 Bearings
The integrity of bearings for precast members shall be
ensured by effectiveness of reinforcement in the element
below and above the bearing, by arestraint against loss
of bearing through movement and by suitable limitation of
the bearing stress.
The different parameters intervening in the design of
bearings are treated in a step by step way in which
allowances for various effects are added to a basic net
bearing surface.
 -127-

5. DETAILING PROVISIONS

In this section, design rules are given with respect to:

- Anchorage methods of reinforcement bars, tie bars,
anchor details etc.
- Reduced bearing width for restrained floor supports
- Shear re i nforcement for composite plates
- Minimum thickness for cast insitu toppings
- Reinforcement of walls
- Sandwich panels
- Foundation pockets
- Minimum tie forces with respect to structural integrity
a) Peripheral and internal ties
b) Vertical ties which are required in buildings of
five or more stories
c) Column or wall ties

6. CONSTRUCT ION AND WORKMANSHIP

This section gives some general principles with respect

to tolerances for precast products, manufacture,
handling, storage and transportation , and finally
erection and assembly.
 -129-

BOND AND ANCHORAGE OF STRANDS

JA den Vijl
Delft University of Technology
Stevin Laboratory

1.SUMMARY

For pre-tensioned strands the transmission length as weU as the anchorage capacity
shall be verified. For tensile actions in the transmission zone the lower bound value
of the transmission length is decisive, whereas the resistance against moment or shear
failure is estimated by its upper bound limit. Since the bond strength is influenced by
the transverse deformations of the strand, distinction is made between the anchorage
capacity within and beyond the transmission length. To prevent bond deterioration
due to concrete splitting, a minimum concrete cover is required. A proposal for the
new CEB-FIP Model Code, in which these aspects are included, is discussed.

2. BOND MECHANISM OF SMOOTH STRANDS

2.1 Strand actions

At first, bond between strands and surrounding concrete is due to adhesion and
mechanica I interlocking between cement stone and strand surface, but after a small
relative displacement this initia I bond is broken and another mechanism is activated.
Like for plain bars this is rather based on dry friction than on shear, which plays a
decisive part with rib bed bars; viz. a strand that is displaced through the concrete does
not shear off the concrete ribs moulded by the strand, but it follows the spiral channel.

Dry friction involves compressive stress es perpendicular to the interface, further

denoted as radial stresses ar, and a coefficient of friction Cf, which lays between 0,3
and 0,4 [10]. The radial stress es are due to shrinkage of the concrete, clamping of the
strand by crushed cement stone particles and the response of the concrete to actions
exerted by the strand, such as:

lack aftit
Between the six outer wires of a strand some space is left because of the larger
diameter of the center wire; see Fig. 1. The distribution of this free space along the
perimeter of the strand differs in subsequent cross-sections. Hence, the shape of those
cross-sections is not similar and, therefore, a relative displacement (slip 0) of a strand
 -130-

has a wedging action on the concrete. The magnitude of th is "lack of fit" effect is
proportional to the slip.

Fig 1 - lrregular strand cross-sectian causing "lack affit"

Poisson effect
The transverse deformations connected to changes of the longitudinal steel stress ö.ap
have a significant influence on the bond resistance. This is clearly demonstrated by
the different results of a pull-out test and a push-in test, as is discussed hereafter.

Pitch effect
Just like with a curved prestressing tendon, the frictional resistance may be increased
by the contact stress es at the bent; see Fig. 2. As this effect occurs both under
compression and tension, it wil! be proportional to the absolute value of the longitudi-
nal steel stress change.

dPx + cfPxdlj) =0

x= 0 - Px =Po

Px= Po· e- cfIP

lIP= Po - Px = Po (l _e - cfIP )

Fig. 2 - High friction due to radial stresses in the bent

The effect of steel stress changes on the bond resistance of strands was investigated
with the help of pull-out and push-in tests [12]; see Fig. 3. With the latter one the
conditions along the transmission length during release are simulated: the decreasing
steel stress is connected to an increase of the strand diameter. The pull-out test reflects
the situation when the steel stress is increased and, connected to that, the strand
diameter becomes smaller. As both tests were performed with a relatively short
embedment length, additional forces we re superimposed to obtain the required steel
 -131-

stress changes. The results of these tests are outlined in Fig. 4. It is c\early shown th at
the bond stress is not defined by the slip alone, but that the steel stress change
corresponding to a specific loading case has to be taken into account.
t,vp.A p

T! i i i
tb·n;·r/l·lb t t,vp·Ap

pull-out ~ t,vp.Ap push in

Fig. 3 - Principles of pull-out and push-in tests

tb [MPol
8~-----,-------'-----'

t,vp - - 1200MPo

6r-------+------=~~----~

t,vp_+ 1200MPo
2r-------+-------4-------~

fee = 50MPo
o 2 3
5[mml
Fig. 4 - Bond resistance as a function of slip and
steel stress change

22 Concrete response to wedging action

The response of the surrounding concrete to the wedging action of a strand, being a
combination of the afore-mentioned lack of fit effect and the Poisson effect, was
studied by means of a two-dimensional numeri cal analysis of the stresses and strains
around an expanding bar [13], taking into account the non-linear behaviour of
concrete loaded in tension, which is characterized by a softening branche after having
reached the tensile strength; see Fig. 5. Although this study was primarily meant to
 -132-

estimate the concrete cover required to prevent splitting, it also gave a better insight
in the magnitude of the radial stress es and, connected to th at, in the distribution of
the bond stresses along the embedment length.

2D-model

//"'.",.------ ............. ,
/
/ ,,

.+.__ /'
\
\
~
.~._-_.+.
~Vt
~
'\

I
j
·- x

\, .--/
/
/
'...... -///

c I <IJ c

X ~llWlill4===~llilllliilmw X

o
Er
Fig. 5a - Model for the analysis of stresses and strains around an expanding bar
and stress distribution for linear elastic material properties.

Fig. 6 shows the radial stress as a function

of the radial deformation for three differ-
ent concrete covers and two different
fiditious crack width cross-sections: along one free border and
measuring length in a corner, respectively. From this diag-
ram the folowing conclusions can de
drawn:

i - until the maximum radial stress

o is reached the behaviour is almost
EC
Fig. 5b - Non-linear stress-strain diagram linear, after that the radial stress is
for concrete in tension reduced with increasing deforma-
tion. This reduction is more pronounced as the cover is larger, but over a rela-
tivly large stage a considerable radial stress is maintained, and sa wil! be the
bond stress;
 o 2 3
E[%o)
Fig. 6 - Average radial stress as a function of the radial strain

ii - from the Poisson effect alone the maximum radial deformation along the
transmission length can be estimated t~:

Cr = fA- • ;:"'c p= 0,3 . 6,5 10 -3 = 2 10- 3

Hence, for practical cases a considerable part of the concrete along the trans-
mission length is in the non-linear stage, and this explains why the bond stress
distribution is rather uniform than linear; see Fig. 7;

Fig. 7 - Steel strain distribution along the Fig. 8 - Maximum radial stress in thick wal!
transmission length cilinder with uniform tensile stress

iii - when compared with the response of an internally loaded thick wall cilin-
der with a uniform tensile stress distribution across the wall (ar/fel = 2c/cp ;
see Fig.8), the investigated cases appear to have at least the same resistance.
This means th at the thick wall cilinder approach is conservative because a
larger portion of the surrounding concrete is contributing; see also Section 4.
 -134-

It is remarked tb at the aforesaid is only a rough approach of the real situation. On the
one hand not all actions such as "lack of fit" and clamping of crushed cement stone
particles were considered and on the other hand the effect of the "soft" mortar layer
just around tbe strand was neglected. The composition and compaction of tbe latter
is supposed to have a considerable effect on tbe bond resistance, which is also shown
by tbe increase of the transmission length as the distance from the strand to tbe bottom
of the member is larger during casting

The bond of strands is susceptible to varia ti ons of the different parameters involved,
as appears from the scatter th at is connected with e.g. the transmission length. The
characteristic lower and upper bound differ a factor two, in genera1[3].

3. TRANSMISSION LENGTH AND ANCHORAGE CAPACITY

On the basis of the description of the bond mechanism of strands given in the
preceding chapter, a proposal for the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 [15] was derived.
This proposal takes into account the following aspects:
- a uniform bond stress distribution;
11 - the effect of the load case (pull-out or push-in);

iii - the scatter with which bond of strands is connected;

iv - the followed approach is similar to that for ribbed bars.

First the design bond strength is defined:

(1) fbpd = 17p!-17p2.fctd
17pl - tendon type
17pl = 1,2 for 7-wire strands (smooth)
TJp2 - position during casting (1,0 or 0,7)
fctd = fctkO,Os!Ym
with Ym = 1,5
Then the basic anchorage length, which is the the length required to anchor the fuH
tensile capacity of a non-pretensioned strand (pull-out), follows from:
(2) lbp = (Ap/qm).(fpdlfbpd)

In the next step the transmission length is found with:

(3) lbpt = a8 . a9 . alO . lbp . apJfpd
a8 - way of release (1,0 or 1,25 , gradual or sudden, respectively)
a9 - effect to be verified
a9 = 1,0 moment and shear
a9 = 0,5 tensi1e stresses in the transmission zone
alO - effect of loading case (push-in)
alO = 0,5 for strands
 - 135-

Finally, the design anchorage length is calculated with:

(4) lbpd = lbpt + lbp (apd - apoo)/fpd
This design anchorage length defines the anchorage capacity of a pretensioned strand.
It is based on the supposition that within the transmission length the strand starts to
slip wh en the steel stress becomes higher than the existing prestress and th is first slip
is taken as failure criterion. Beyond the transmission length the anchorage capacity
of the strand is supposed to be equal to that of a non-pretensioned one. Hence, the
second branche of the bi-linear relation for the anchorage capacity of a pretensioned

2000Gp [MPa)
fpd - - +

1 500 ~----~-----+----~~----~~~-+----~

~~~~--~~~------~
o- trans miss ion leng th

CD - design anchorage length

40 80 120 240
\ Iq,

Fig. 9 - Anchorage capacity of untensioned and pretensioned strand and

upper and lower bound of transmission length (fe = 30 MPa)

Gp [MPa)
2400

1800
0
0 -,
•
o'
=
••
/
~
o .t. •
<Sf .t.
o 00

1200
its Anderso n 151
v - slip

600
'/
(b
T - pull-out
Walraven IBI
• - pull - out. strand !raet.
Te'eni 191
o - pull - oul

~,'''I,,"' • pull- out. strand !raet.

van der Morelll/·1
,,",ol .t. pull · out

o 1.0 80 120 160 200

IN

Fig. 10 - Anchorage capacity ofpretensioned strands in hollow core slabs

 -136-

strand, see Fig. 9, is parallel to the line that represents the anchorage capacity of a
non-pretensioned one.

It is remarked th at for the calculation of the transfer length the steel stress just after
release is taken into account, but for the anchorage capacity the effective steel stress,
thus including all prestress losses, is used. It is supposed, however, that the trans-
mission length remains constant in the course of time.

Op [MPol
2400r------.-------.-------.------~----~

1200 I--------+'~Hrl_...::y.""-"~__l

IN>
Fig. 11 - Anchorage capacity ofpretensioned strands in beams and beam-ends

For the verification of the proposed design rule for the anchorage capacity of strands,
results of tests on hollow-core slabs and tests on beams and beam-ends were used; see
Fig. 10 and Fig. 11, respectively. It is shown that the proposed rule represents a lower
boundary except for beam tests with large embedment length. Since those results
contradiet the results·with shorter embedment length out of the same test series, this
anomaly is accepted.

4. CONCRETE COVER AND STRAND SPACING

The radial compressive stresses connected to bond generate circumferential tensile

stresses which may cause splitting of the concrete cover. To guarantee good bond
quality, the width of those splitting cracks shall be limited by means of adequate
confinement reinforcement, or they shall be prevented wh en no transverse reinforce-
ment is applied. It should be realized, however, that the bond of strands is inevitably
connected to the formation of micro-cracks around the strands.

The magnitude of the circumferential tensile stresses can be estimated with the
aforesaid thick wall cilinder approach. The internalloading of the cilinder consists of
 -137-

the radial stresses, which are related to the

Or bond stress by means of the angle 8 between

l{ t
ribbed bars e. 30°_45.
e strands e" 72·
their resultant and the tendon axis. For
ribbed bars 8 varies from 30° to 45°, but for
strands holds 8 = 12°, as follows from the
assumed coefficient of friction
Cf = 0,32 (8 = 90° - bgtan 0,32); see Fig. 12.
Fig. 12 - Relation bet ween bond stress Tests with ribbed bars we re evaluated with
and radial stress the help of this model, considering different
distributions of the circumferential tensile
stresses across the cover and under the assumption of 8 = 45° [7]. From Fig. 13 foIIows
that the cracked-elastic distribution yields a safe lower bound and th at the plastic one
covers the upper bound of the results. At first sight, the latter seems to contradict the
findings mentioned in section 2.2, where it was stated th at the thick waII cilinder
approach yields conservative results. The difference is, however, that in section 2.2
only the maximum radial stress was considered, whereas in the present case the
ave rage radial stress along the embedded length should be taken into account. In the
foIIowing analysis the latter is done by deriving the radial stress from the average
transmission length.
°r/fc!
6r-~--~---r--,,--.---.

1
"\
D. ordinary concrete
o tightweight conrete

5 6
cl</>

1- elastic 2 - partly cracked 3 - plastic

elastic
Fig.13 - Radial stress at splitting as a function of the concrete cover: test results
compared with different stress distribution models
 -138-

Applied to strands, the plastic stress model can be used to find an expression for the
concrete cover required to prevent splitting. The model assumes that splitting occurs
wh en the ave rage circumferential tensile stress equals the tensile strength:

(1) at = fctj
with:
(2) at = cp/2c . ar
(3) ar = rblCf, with Cf = 0,32 [10]
(4) rb = PJ(nq; lt)
(5) ltm = 10 q; (ap Jfccj)O,5 [3]
(6) fctj = 0,46(fccj)O,5 [4]
(7) Ap = 7136 n q;2 , for strands this yields:
(8) c/q; = 0,066 (ap i)O,5

[:1 [-I
Or Ifct
6

~.J t~l
c/rfJ = 2
s/rfJ = 1 I
5
---~ __ .....1

TI [gl [Zl E~9+

-_.~ ._-~
-J--d-
m [;-~l
o ' ~~~ ~~
-0 ,
-_.~ ___ -.1
__ .-.J

0
ril [og: Eip! 8J
.__ -.J ---~
9 -

2 3
"
Er [%01
Er=1%0 2%0 3%0

Fig. 14 - Effect of strand configuration on splitting action

It is remarked th at according to expression (8) the required cover only depends on

the steel stress just after release and, thus, not on the concrete quality. For a practical
value of api = 1200 MPa the cover found with (8) amounts to c/cp = 2,3.

Until now only the situation around a single strand was considered, but the spacing
between strands may be so smal! that the splitting action is increased. This is illustrated
in Fig. 14, where the ave rage radial stress around the tendon nearest to the edge of
the model, is given as a function of the radial deformation of th at tendon. It can be
concluded that both the maximum radial stress and the course after the top are
 -139-

cover cl'" cover cN

1.5 2.3 3.1 3.9

1.4 111 J" J"

~
lil ,..
....lil
Ol
c 2.2 111 liJ
'ü Ol
0 c
a.
lil
'ü
3.0 JIJ JIJ 0
a.
. 1(>

ta

(i/j - i splitting cracks in j tests) b---

Fig. 15 - Occurrence of splitting cracks as a function of concrete cover and clear strand
spacing observed in pretensioned members with 3 strands (a) and 1 or 2 strands (b)

influenced by the number of tendons and their configuration with respect to the edge.
However, there is no model available that adequately describes this interaction and
for that reason design rules can only be based on the limited experimental evidence
available.

Tests to estimate the possibility of splitting cracks as a function of the concrete cover
and the strand spacing are described in [10] and [16] and the results are summarized
in Fig. 15. Fig. 15a displays the resuIts of tests on pretensioned beam-ends with three
strands q; 12,5 mrn and an average cu be strength at release of 44,5 MPa. The results of
tests on beams with one or two strands q;9,3 mm or q;12,5 mm are shown in Fig. 15b.
Release took place after one or after two days at an average cube strength of 33 MPa
and 44 MPa, respectively. This different cube strength at release did not noticeably
influence the occurrence of splitting cracks. Except for cover c/ifJ = 3 and spacing
slq; = 2, both series show similar results. On the basis of these experiments a proposal
for the minimum cover as a function of the clear spacing - for members without
confining reinforcement - was formulated [15].

clear spacing cover

? 3q; >3q;
<3q; >4q;
 -140-

5. INDENTED STRANDS AND WIRES

The foregoing sections focussed on the bond behaviour of smooth seven- wire strands,
and two aspects, th at were mentioned, are found back in a new code proposal: the
effect of the loading case on the average bond resistance (pull-out versus push-in) and
the large scatter with which bond of strands is connected. Now the question may be
raised whether these aspects hold to the same extent for other types of tendons, su eh
as indented wires and indented seven-wire strands.

tm/fee
0.5
~o number of lesls
fee: L2, 55MPa
0.4 r/J :.6mm
/
/
0.3 auolable ronge
/..-;
0.2
rV,.,j
0.1 -I '""-

o
cr~
4 8
~12 ~16 20
profile factor x 10 3 [mml
Fig. 16 - Average bond resÎstance of indented wires
as a function of the profile factor

Because experimental data in this respect are lacking, this question can only roughly
be answered. As the deformations at the steel surface become larger, the part of the
bond delivered by shear increases. Compared to the friction me eh ani sm, the shear
mechanism seems to be less sensible to the loading case (pull-out versus push-in) and
the quality of the th in mortar layer just around the tendon. On the other hand, the
scatter in bond resistance due to the allowable dimensional variations of indented
wires is considerable [11]. Fig. 16 shows th at within the allowable range of profile
depth the bond stress may vary with a factor 2 Cr mis the average of the bond stress at
a relative displacement of 0,01 , 0,1 and 1,0 mm, respectively). Because of these
considerations the effect of the loading case on the average bond stress of indented
wires is estimated lower than in the case of smooth strands, whereas the effect of the
scatter is taken equal in both cases, see [15] .
 -141-

REFERENCES

1. HANS ON, N.W., P.H. KAAR, Flexural bond tests of pretensioned prestressed beams,
ACI Journal, Vol. 30, No. 7, Jan. 1959.
2. KAAR, P.H., N.W. HANSON, Bond fatigue tests of beams simulating pretensioned concrete
crossties, PCI Journal, Vol. 20, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1975.
3. OLESNIEWICZ, A, Statistical evaluation of transmission length of strands, Bistyp, Warsaw 1975.
4. ACI Standard 318-77.
5. ANDERSON, AR., R.G. ANDERSON, An assurance criterion for flexural bond in pretensioned
hollw core units, ACI Journal, August 1976
6. DEN VIJL, J.A, Force transfer between concrete and prestressing strands (in Dutch),
TV Delft, Stevin Laboratory, Report 5-78-6.
7. TEPFERS, R., Lapped tensile reinforcement splices, J. Struc. Div. AS CE, Vol. 108, No. sn,
January 1982, pp. 283-301.
8. WALRAVEN J.C., W.P.M. MERKS, The bearing capacity of prestressed hollow core siabs,
Heron, Vol. 28, No. 3.
9. Te'eni, M., Flexural bond and face end slip in hollow core units, Spancrete of Israel, Technical
Report, August 1984.
10. DEN VIJL, J.A., Bond proper ties of strands in connection with transmission zone cracks,
Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik, Heft 1/1985, pp. 28-36.
11. DEN VIJL, J.A, Comparative study of bond properties of different types of indented wire,
TU Delft, Stevin Laboratory, Report 5-85-10.
12. DEN VIJL, J.A, Transmission length of strands in lightweight concrete (in Dutch), TV Delft,
Stevin Laboratory, Report 5-86-17.
13. DANTVMA, W.F., J.A DEN VIJL, Stresses and crack formation around an expanding bar
(in Dutch), Cement 1988 nr.2, pp. 56-59.
14. VAN DER MAREL, AP.,The shear capacity of pretensioned hollow-core si abs (in Dutch),
TV Delft, Stevin Laboratory, Report 25-88-10, June 1988.
15. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. First draft. CEB Bulletin nrs. 195 and 196, March 1990.
16. DEN VIJL, J.A, Effect of concrete cover and strand spacing on bond splitting in a pretensioned
member, TU Delft, Stevin Laboratory, Report in preparation.
LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND FAILURE BEHAVIOUR OF PRESTRESSED HOLLOW
CORE SLABS

Prof.Dr.lr. J.C. Walraven

Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Concrete Structures

INTRODUCTION
Prestressed hollow core slabs are nowadays extensively used in prefabricated
buildings. The units can quickly be assembIed to form slab fields, by simply filling
the joints between them. The slab units can be manufactured by various methods:
the most popular methods nowadays are extrusion and slip forming.

Fig. 1. Hollow core slab fjelds under construct ion

The manufacturing process starts with prestressing of the strands on a long line
casting bed. Af ter prestressing, the concrete is cast. As soon as the concrete has
reached a sufficient strength, the prestress is applied and the continuous bed is
sawn-cut to slab units of the desired length. The slab units are special in this
respect that they do not contain either shear reinforcement, nor transverse rein-
forcement, so that weU defined procedures for design and quality control are
necessary. This paper discusses the bearing capacity of slab elements and its con-
trol, and the behaviour of slabs assembIed in larger slab fields.
 -144-

2. BEHAVIOUR AND CALCULATION OF SINGLE SLABS

Research on the bearing capacity of hollow core slabs has intensively been carried
out during the last 15 years. Results of investigations carried out at the Delft
University of Technology have a.o. been pubIished in [1,2]. Design recommenda-
tions, based on these results, are published in [3].
The design starts with selecting a cross-section and a degree of prestressing,
which ensures a sufficient flexural bearing capacity for the span and the loads
considered. SUbsequently the anchorage capacity is controlled. This control is
necessary since the strands are anchored by direct bond, so that the anchorage
capacity is smaller than in de case of post-tensioned prestressing steel. To be able
to verify, whether the anchorage capacity is sufficient, it is calculated which part
of the member remains uncracked in bending under the design load. The limit
between the cracked and the uncracked area (x in Fig. 2) is the section in which
the flexural tensile strength, resulting from the prestressing and bending moment,
reaches the tensile strength of the concrete. To take possible scatter into account
a conservative value of the tensile strength should be used. lf the length xr of the
uncracked area is known, the tensile strength in the prestressing steel 0 can be
p
calculated from

M
o = A ( _x + V ) (1)
px p z x

where
stress in the prestressing steel at a distance x from the support
= cross-sectional area of the prestressing steel
inner lever arm
= moment and shear in section x

The formulation (1) takes account of the fact that inclined flexural cracks may
occur.
The stress 0 ,obtained in (1), may not exceed a certain critical value. This value
px
can be obtained by using the limit envelope for anchorage failure. Such a limit
envelope consists of a number of parts (Fig. 3):
- the transmission length g,t ' over which the prestressing force is transmitted
into the memberj
- the development length g,d ' beyond which full anchorage capacity is obtained.
For detailed information on the phenomenon of bond and anchorage, reference is
made to [4].
 -145-

}a~x = x,~
: I

- p

Fig. 2. Support area at ultimate Fig. 3. Limit envelope for strand

limit state pull-out

As a next step the shear capacity is controlled. Also here the areas cracked and
uncracked in flexure are considered separately.
In the region cracked in flexure the bending shear failure mode is governing: shear
failure occurs af ter a critical propagation of an inclined bending crack. The shear
flexure capacity is formulated in practically all building codes. The proposal for
the new Eurocode is

(2)

where
'Rd = 0.25 fctk/Y c

In prestressed hollow co re slabs such a failure type seldomly occurs.

In the area uncracked in flexure, the so-called shear-tension type of failure is
governing (Fig. 4).
This failure mode occurs, when in the part of the member uncracked in flexure,
the principal tensile stress in the web reaches its critical value. The shear tension
capacity can be calculated from

Ib Is I (3)
w
 -146-

where
moment of inertia
bw web thickness
S static moment
cr average prestress in concrete (fully developed)
cp
fctd design tensile strength of the concrete
a reduction factor, taking into account that the prestressing
force in the direct vicinity of the support is not yet
fully developed and is defined as

a =

where i. t is the transm ission length and i. s is the

distance from the unit end to the inner edge of the bearing.

Fig. 4. Shear tension failure Fig. 5. Control of shear tension capacity

3. DEFINITION OF A STANDARD TEST TO CONTROL THE QUALITY OF THE

SLAB
Because the slabs are produced in a special way (extrusion, slip-form) an appro-
priate strength control procedure is necessary. Control specimens like cubes or
cylinders, cast separately, will give an indication of the strength, but not a fully
reliable value, because they are not compacted and vibrated in the same way as
the concrete of the slab. Drilling of cores and/or non-destructive tests with a
rebound ham mer are an alternative, but have the disadvantage of larger scatter in
results.
 -147-

In order to control the production and simultaneously get areliabie value for the
tensile strength of the concrete, a standard shear test has been defined, details of
which are represented in Fig. 5. The test should be carried out regularly,
depending on the production and the requirements of the local control authorities.
The standard shear test is carried out on a fulI width slab with a length of at least
4 m.

LOADING BEAM B

0000
PASSIVE SUPPORT C

0000 _ . tHlb.am

~~~ ' \ polntb.orl,,,j1

Fig. 6. Standard shear test on holIow-core slab

The standard shear test gives directly reliable information on the shear tension
capacity, which is the most important failure mode for hollow core sI abs.
Furthermore a decrease of the product ion quality in time is discovered in an early
stage. Experience with this control procedure up to now is quite positive, since it
appeared that the shear tension capacity has a relatively low scatter. Fig. 7 shows
a number of results for slabs of different types and origin, size and prestress.
A complete paper with all details of the standard test will be published elsewhere
[5].
 -148-

500 Vu (kN)

400
'l:;'
~~
e:.

.
300 qp
ot,
è~
200
~
°
100

o 100 200 300 1.00 500

h(mm)

Fig. 7. Results of standard shear tests on various slab types

4. BEHAVIOUR OF SLAB FIELDS

4.1. Transverse local distribution
If on a slab, which is a part of a slab system, a line load or a point load is applied,
a number of neighbouring slabs will be involved in the transmission of the load t o
the supports.
In slabs without a topping, the shear joints will be able to transmit certain shear
forces by virtue of their profilation (shear keys), if a horizontal confining force is
available to provide equilibrium with the inclined strut in the joint (Fig. 8).
The distribution of line loads over neighbouring sI abs can be calculated, assuming
that the joints between the slabs act as linear hinges. Fig. 9 shows a load distribu-
tion diagram for hollow core slabs with a width of 1.20 m [3].
 -149-

I--
I h_c_ slab
---,
h.c. slab I
I i
"-============::j}
f- . re in forced
edge beam
I

confining
act ion by
edge beam

Fig. 8. Mechanism of verticalload transfer across a joint between

hollow core slabs

percen t age loading

80
lineor loadi~g I v v ..

0, °2 °3 °2 0,
70 ,Ii~ear I~adjng, -
\
I

(3, (32 (33

60 ",
" "-
'
50 \
\
....
--- --- --- ~3

40

"'--" ---
~2
30 I'-
f--
- a:;--=
,,/ .- f--- ----~I
20
.-- °z
°l
" ,"/
f,..--
10
f'
oo A3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314
span: m

Fig. 9. Load distribution factors for linear loadings in hollow core slab floors
without a topping [3]
 -150-

Of course those calculations are only valid if the shear capacity of the joint is suf-
ficient.
This was recently investigated in a research program at the Delft University of
Technology [6]. Tests were carried out in a way as shown in Fig. 10.

hydraulic ja ck

lood cell

bali bearing
o

bali bearing
lood cell (2x)

Fig. 10. Test arrangement for a shear test on the longitudinal joint between
two hollow core slabs [6]

Hollow core slabs with a width of 1.20 m we re sawn in units with a length of 0.80
m. Those units were placed parallel to one another and the joint between them
was filled with a mortar with Dmax = 8 mm and a cube compressive strength of 20
N/mm 2• The slab units were at their ends connected with ties, consisting of free
steel bars I> 24 mm, to simulate the confining action of an edge beam. It can be
shown that a steel bar I> 24 mm, with a free length of 2400 m, as used in the test,
gives, per 'm length, the same confining force as an edge beam, reinforced with 21>
12 mm, around a slab assembly with a span of 14 m.
The shear loads were applied at both sides of the joints, in inverse direction, at
the second web from the joint (Fig. 10). Before applying those shear loads, the
joints were cracked, in order to simulate the unfavourable practical situation with
a shrinkage crack.
 -151-

Altogether 9 tests were carried out, on slabs with cross-sectional depths of 260
mm and 400 mmo The failure mode observed, was in all the tests the same: failure
always occurred by shearing off of the slab sides (Fig. 11).

preformed crack

Fig 11. Typical"joint failure"

The joint mortar was, in spite of its relatively low strength, nev'e r governing for
failure, which can be explained from the multiaxial state of stress occurring
during shear loading.
The shear capacity of the joint region, as found in the tests, varied between 65
and 82 kN/m', which is considerably higher than will occur in practice.
The inclination of , the compression strut (Fig. 8), was calculated from the shear
load and the force in the tie bar. The inclination at failure varied between 42° and
75°.
A safe procedure for design is to dimension each slab, which carries a line - or a
point load, in such a way that it can carry the load on its own. The part which is
transmitted over the joint to the neighbouring slabs, is, additionally, taken into
account for the dimensioning of those slabs.

4.2. Diafragm act ion

If slab fjelds are not supplied with a topping, diafragm action is only possible if
the longitudinal joints have a sufficient capacity to transmit in-plane shear. To
study the in-plane shear capacity of joints between prefabricated hollow core
slabs, tests have been carried out at the Delft University of Technology [7], Fig.
12. The figure shows the results of tests with repeated loading (n = number of load
repetitions) and constant width of the crack between slab edge and joint mortar.
 -152-

Af ter 1000 to 2000 cycles the coefficient of friction appeared to stabilize, Fig.
12b.
The tests showed that the coefficient of friction, up to a shear stress of 0.20
N/mm 2, is at least equal to 1.0.

coeff. of friction
2.0
!!! I
joi nt
1.5 ~O.t_ .l
w=O.30 r-n=4000-
/.. IW=O.3d~:3000
[;""
1.0. n=2000

0.5

a 0.5 la 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0.

shear displacement (mm)

Fig. 12 a. Experimental set-up

b. Coefficients of friction for various values of the shear displacement
in tests with constant crack width and repeated loading [7]

The shear force, which can actually be transmitted across the joints in a slab
field, depends - for a given coefficient of friction - on the normal force on the
joint. This normal force depends on the bending moment, which is exerted on the
slab field (Fig. 13).
As a result of "arch-action" and "wedging-action" of the joints, the distribution of
the normal force on the joints can be schematically represented as shown in Fig.
13.b. This representation is based on strain measurements on the tensile ties in a
large scale experiment (Research Project "Demountable Building").
For IJ = 1 the shear capacity of the joint is equal to the normal force, transmitted
across the joint.
For an inner lever arm of 0,8 H, the maximum normal force on the joint is
 -153-

with

and

It is found that the normal force at midspan is

Nmax = 0,313 À Vmax (4)
and at the edge of the slab field
N = 0,5 Nmax = 0,156 À Vmax (5)
with À = L/H.

wind lood qw

arch action

O.5N max

design shear force. Vd = Y. V

Fig. 13 a. Slab field

b. Normal force on joints
c. Shear and shear capacity distribution [7]
 -154-

Since IJ =1 the expressions (4) and (5) also represent the shear capacity of the
joints considered.
Fig. 13.c shows the shear capacity for various values of the slenderness ratio À , in
comparison with the shear force distribution. The diagram shows, in which area
the shear capacity of the joint is sufficient and in which area additional shear
resistance is needed.
The additional shear capacity of the edge beam, which has not yet been taken into
account, mostly reaches out to guarantee a sufficient total shear resistance.
Otherwise shear coupiers across the joints are necessary.

LITERATURE

1. Walraven, J.C., Mercx, W.P.M., "The bearing capacity of prestressed hollow

core slabs", Heron, vol. 28, 1983, no. 3.
2. Walraven, J.C., "Shear design for hollow core slabs", Proceedings of the FIP-
Congress, Calgary, Canada, 1984.
3. FIP-Recommendation "Precast prestressed hollow core floors", Thomas Telford
Ltd, London, 1988.
4. Uijl, J.A. den, "Bond and anchorage of strands", Proceedings of the seminar
"Prefabrication of concrete structures", 25-26 October 1990, Delft, The
Netherlands.
5. Walraven, J.C., "Recommendations for standard testing of prestressed hollow
core si abs", to be published by RILEM.
6. Uijl, J.A. den, "Resistance against vertical shear loading of longitudinal joints
between prestressed hollow co re slabs", Report 25.5.90-8/YFC, TU-Delft, July
1990.
7. CUR-Report 136, "Joints in prefabricated floors", August 1988.
 -155-

COMPOSITE ACTION OF FLOOR ELEMENTS

Prof.Dr.Ir. J.C. Walraven

Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Concrete Structures

1. INTRODUCTION
The idea of combining prefabricated concrete with in-situ concrete offers many
possibilities for structural engineering, especially in the area of multistory
buildings and bridges.
In buildings, f.i., structural concrete toppings on prefabricated slabs can be func-
tional for a number of reasons [I}:
increase of the bearing capacity;
increase of the stiffness;
assemblation of deck elements to partially or fully continuing structures;
improvement of diafragm action;
improvement of water tightness and sound isolation;
hidden placement of pipes and ducts;
avoidance of differential deflections between neighbouring slabs.
In order to guarantee composite action between prefabricated sJabs and in-situ
toppings, it should be controlled whether the shear stresses in the contact area
exceed the shear capacity of the interface. In the past many tests have been
carried out in order to define the interface shear capacity. Those tests resulted in
various formuJations, of ten of empirical nature.
In this paper the interface shear capacity is discussed based on recent investiga-
tions.

2. BASIC EQUATIONS FOR COMPOSITE MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO

BENDING AND SHEAR
2.1. Centroid of the composite section
The position of the centroid of the composite section is found by the equation

YlAlEl + y 2A2E2
(1)
AlEl + A2E2
 -156-

Y~~--
2
. -- . --
Yc Y
I
.
t i ·
. .
1

Fig. 1

2.2. Axial stresses due to bending

If y is the di stance from a certain fibre to the centroid of the composite cross-
section, the stress in that fibre, under the action of a bending moment M, is equal
to

(2)

2.3. Horizontal shear stress

The horizontal shear stress '( at an arbitrary di stance y from the centroid of the
composite section is

Y
Yf
max E . dA (3)
lY

where E may vary over the distance y to Ymax.

To control the shear stress at the interface, the integration is carried out from Ys
to Ymax (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
 -157-

3. SHEAR CAPACITY OF THE INTERFACE BETWEEN PRECAST AND IN-

SITU CONCRETE
3.1. Basic considera tions
The basic mechanism of the transfer of shear stresses across rough interfaces can
be explained in a way as shown in fig. 3. In this mechanism the crack dilatancy
plays an important role. If the undulations of the interface are considered to be
rigid and frictionless, the mechanism can be described by the relation

cr tan 4> (4)

o
Fig. 3

Comparison of this equation with the results of tests on a number of different

interfaces led to the conclusion that a better formulation is obtained with

T = C + cr tan 4> (5a)

where cr is the stress perpendicular to the interface. The basic idea behind this
formula is that there is a general roughness and alocal roughness (Fig. 4). The
cohesion term c refers to the micro-roughness.

Fig. 4
 -158-

If the interface is perpendicularly intersected by reinforcement, this reinforce-

ment will develop a tensile stress during sliding, as a result of the dilatancy of the
interface. If the roughness of the interface is sufficiently large, the reinforcement
will reach the yield stress, so that Eq. 5a is extended to

T = C + (0 + pf
sy
) tan ~ (5b)

where p is the ratio of the reinforcement crossing the crack and fsy is its yielding
strength. Dowel action of the reinforcement can be neglected, because the devel-
opment of the full dowel capacity requires a large shear displacement.

Not only the roughness of the interface, but also the surface treatment plays an
important role with regard to the transfer of shear stresses across interfaces
between pree ast and in situ-concrete, because:
Laitance skin, dust, etc. are concentrated at the bottom zones of the surface,
whereas the tops tend to be less affected (Fig 5): the rougher the surface, the
less susceptible it is to the quality of the workmanship in cleaning and prepara-
tion. Furthermore, pollution can reduce the frictional properties of the sur-
face, so that all the terms involved in Eq. 5b are reduced.
If the surface of the precast member, before casting, is very dry, this member
will absorb water from the in-situ concrete, so that the quality adjacent to the
interface is governing for the capacity of the interface.

Fig. 5

A very detailed classification of surface roughnesses is found in [2]. The following

possibilities are distinguished:
a smooth surface, as obtained by casting the unit against a steel or timber
shutterj
II a surface which has been trowelled or floated to a degree where it is effec-
tively as smooth as Ij
 -159-

III a surface which has been trowelled or tamped, so that the fines have been
brought to the top, but where some small ridges, indentations or undula-
tions have been leftj
IV a surface which has been achieved by slip-forming and vibro-beam
screeding;
V a surface obtained in a precast unit produced by some form of extrusion
techniquej
VI a surface which has been deliberately textured by brushing the concrete
when wet ideally to a specified depth of ridgej
VII as for (VI), but where the texturing is more pronounced, obtained typically
by brushing, by a transverse screeder, by combing with a steel rake or by
tamping with a former faced with a suitable expanded metal;
VIII a surface where the concrete has been thoroughly compacted but no
attempt has been made to smooth, tamp or texture the surface in any way
leaving a rough surface with coarse aggregate protruding (but firmly fixed
in the matrix)j
IX where the concrete has been sprayed when wet, to expose the coarse
aggregate without disturbing it;
X a surface which has been provided with mechanical shear keys.
The roughness increases from I to X. land II rarely occur in practice. III is com-
monly the most frequently observed type of "smooth" surface, found in practice.
All other surfaces exhibit a certain roughness. Extruded concrete mostly reaches
the roughness level as described under VI. VII can lead to very rough surfaces, but
it should be taken care that the concrete at the top is weil compacted. The figs.
6-9 [2] show some examples.

Fig. 6 Rougness category lIl: Fig. 7 Roughness category V:

troweled extruded concrete
 -160-

Fig. 8 Roughness category VII: Fig. 9 Roughness category VIII:

screeded naturally rough

3.2. Design equations according to FIP [2]

The most difficult task in the design and calculation of interfaces loaded in shear,
is to distinguish between "smooth" and "rough".
The FIP-Recommendation defines two main design categories. This distinction
presumes, however, that all requirements with regard to strength, clearliness,
compaction and treatment are met. The main design categories are:
Category 1: Those surfaces which occur naturally during prefabrication. Basically
this concerns t he surface categories I-VI, with a roughness not larger than shown
in Fig. 7.
Category 2: Intentionally roughened surfaces, with a roughness larger than
category 1. Visionally the level of roughness should at least be equal to that shown
in the figures 8 and 9.
The FIP-Recommendation uses a formulation of the type, basically given by Eq.
5b.
For medium and high shear stresses, the equation is:

T
v
d =c + (pf d +
y
0) tan ~ < 0,25 f k
= c
(6)

where
p ratio of the reinforcement (perpendicuIarly) intersecting the inter-
face ~ 0 ,001
 -161-

fyd == design strength of this reinforcement

f ck characteristic concrete compressive strength measured on 150 mm
cubes
The values for c and tan 4> are given in table I.

Table I: Coefficients for Eq. 6, for different design categories

c tan 4>

design category 1 O,2f: d 0,6

design ca tegory 2 O,4f td 0,9

where ftd is the design concrete tensile strength, defined as

ftd = 0,25 I f ek
For smooth surfaces land 11, it is recommended to use a value c == 0,1 ftd.
For situations with very low shear, no reinforcement is required. In this case the
shear strength is defined as

'vd 0,1 f td for surf aces 1 and II

== 0,2 ftd for surfaces lIl-VI (7)
== 0,4 ftd for surfaces VII-X
The design equations are shown in the diagram of fig. 10.

Lvd (N/mm 2 )
L..O..---..---,--,-~.,

3.01--+---f--r--t----t
fsy .400N/mm 2
2
2.01---+ fee = 30N/mm

l,OI--/-----+.,,..c....-+---t------j

o
min ~

Fig. 10 Design diagram according to FIP-Recommendation [2]

 -162-

3.3. Evaluation of the FIP-Recommendation on the basis of recent experiments

The FIP-Recommendations was published in 1982. Since then many experiments
have been carried out, because a lot of countries had their own design rules, which
were of ten conflicting. A very elucidating series of tests was carried out by
Daschner (3). He carried out more than two hundred tests on specimens with wide-
ly varying interface qualities. In Table II those qualities are listed and classified
into one of the surface roughness classes I-X, discussed in section 3.1, and in one
of the main design categories 1 (smooth) or 2 (intentionally roughened).

Table II Classification of Daschners (3) experi ments

surf ace treatment surface roughness design class

trowelling III 1
beam-screeding IV 1
nail-scra tching VII 2
naturally rough VIII 2
shear keys X 3

Apart from the surface treatment also the yield stress of the steel was varied.
Two steel types were used, one with a yield stress of fsy = 450 N/mm 2 and one
with fsy = 1200 N/mm 2• In this way the ratio yield stress/roughness was also
varied. This is the more interesting, because it might be possible that for the com-
bination of high strength steel and low roughness the yield stress is not reached.
Fig. 11 shows the results for design category 2 (intentionally roughened) in com-
parison with Eq. 6, with c = 0,4 fct and tan <jl = 0,9.
Four of the five combinations considered give results which lie at the safe side.
Only for the combination "naturally rough + high strength steel" a part of the
values give unsafe results.
On the basis of the diagram a number of conclusions can be drawn:
- The design equation is generally not valid for steel with a high yield stress.
- All results for the surf ace categories VII-X are, for fsy = 450 N/mm 2, at the
safe side. Since category VII is the lowest roughness of design category 2, the
validity of the equation for th is category is confirmed.
- The tests on interfaces, roughened by nail-scratching show that a confining
reinforcement is less effective than a compressive stress normal to the inter-
face (the points for pf are nearer to the design line than the points with 0 ).
sy
 -163-

This is obvious, since the maximum confining stress generated by the rein-
forcement is only reached at a certain crack opening, whereas 0 is already fully
available in a closed interface: for w = 0 the contact area is therefore larger
than for w > o.

0 Not. rough f sy = 1200 N / mm 2 Roughness - cot. VlII

•o .. .. . fsy = '50
Noil screlched (u n I
.
..
..
..
.
..
.. VlII
.. 'lZII
0.30 - ..
t:;. Keyed (uni
.. .. fsy = 500 ..
..
..
..
..
.. ..~~

-~
t:;.
D~
/:)t:;.
8 0 0

l low~r
0
B:J-
t::i.
limil occording
0.20 10 FI P -

0.10 ~-
t~r
tJ
- I

o 020 0.1.0 0.60 0.80 lOO

Fig. 11 FIP-Recommendation for "rough interfaces", design category 2,

in comparison with Daschners tests (3)

Fig. 12 shows some values for the design category 1 (not roughened). Also here it
is evident that the high strength steel leads to unconservative results.
The tests for the other categories confirm the validity of Eq. 6, also for design
category 1, with respectively tan Ij> = 0,6 and c = 0,2 fct resp. 0,1 fct.
 -164-

o Troweled fsy = 1200N/mm 2 Roughness - cat. n

• ..
• Screeded U
fsy = 450
n =1J" .
..
.
..
n
.. III
.. .
6. Timber (un} .. I .. .
0.30 o Trowe led (un}
6.
. .
n f----- ..

0.20
• / 0

(8 0 0
0
6. 0 0 0
6.

0.10
~)
~

o
're
0
c2= Q2fct
... ~ C2=0.1fct (cat . I.n }

0.20 0.1.0 0.60 0.80 lOO

Fig. 12 FIP-Recommendation for "smooth interfaces", design category 1,

in comparison with Daschners tests [3]

4. CONCLUSIONS
- The resistance of the interface between pree ast and in situ concrete can be
described by a friction equation, containing a cohesion term and a term which
refers to the clamping effect.
- The roughness of the contact surface can be divided into ten possibilities. For
the design and calculation of the interfaces loaded in shear two main design
categories can be distinguished.
- For the contact surfaces between prefabricated elements and in situ concrete,
the roughness as weIl as the surface treatment play an important role. The
classification into surface roughnesses does only make since if all other
requirements concerning curing, cleanliness and consistence of the young
concrete are dealt with.
 -165-

5. LITERATURE
[1] FIP Commission 1I,"Horizontal composite structures composite slabs and
beams", Draft for new FIP Recommendation, 1990.
[2] FIP Commission 11, "Shear at the interface of precast and in situ concrete",
Recommendation 1982.
[3] Daschner, F., "Versuche zur notwendigen Schubbewehrung zwischen Beton-
fertigteilen und Ortbeton", Deutscher Ausschuss für Stahlbeton, Heft 372,
Berlin 1986.
 -167-

MORTAR JOINTS LOADED IN COMPRESSION

Prof.dipl.-ing J.N.J.A. Vambersky, Delft University of Technology / Corsmit

Consuiting Engineers The Netherlands

1. INTRODUCTION
The simplest and most frequently used type of connection between two precast
concrete members loaded in compression is the unreinforced mortar joint.
Almost all precast concrete columns, wa lis and load bearing pre cast concrete facade
elements are placed on each other with an intermediate layer of mortar. Also
horizontal pre cast concrete members such as floor slabs, beams, spandrels are very
of ten placed in a mortar bed at the bearings. The bearing capacity of these mortar
joints forms here a very i mportant aspect.
In the precast concrete industry high strength concrete qualities can be realized,
which enable the fabrication of rather slender columns and walls with relatively low
percentages of reinforcement. In practice, ho wever, It appears very of ten that the
bearlng capacity of these precast high concrete quality columns and walls can not be
fully utiIized, due to the limiting influence of the intermediate mortar joint.
Nevertheless the mortar joint is quite popular, because it is cheep and easy to make.
To what extent a mortar joint limits the capacity of the members adjacent to it
depends on a number of influencing factors, such as the ratio between the strength of
the mortar in the joint and the concrete of the precast members at both si des of it,
and the dimensions of the joint.
Fallure of the joint can occur by crushing of the mortar or by splitting of the concrete
in the precast members adjacent to it. SpIitting is caused by an unequal stress
distribution in the joint af ter spalling off of the mortar at the edges of the joint.
The quality of the joint mortar, which directly influences the behaviour, depends on
the quality of execution at the building site. Bad workmanship may lead to air
retainments in the joint, reducing the effective load bearing joint area.
In the early seventies the DutchBuiIding Research Foundation (SBR) carried out an
investigation into the behaviour of unreinforced mortar joints, with the aim to
formulate design recommendations, which consider the influencing factors mentioned
previously. Those recommendations (1) have been adopted in the Dutch Code of
Structural Concrete, VB'74. Those recommendations were of ten decisive for the cross-
sectional dimensions of the precast members, and had in this way a considerable
impact on the overall costs (material, transport).
This on its turn resulted of ten in rather extreme actions, such as counting the number
 -168-

of air bubbles in the joint surfaces, even using a microscope to include the smallest
ones, in order to find an "accurate" estimation of the effective joint area. In a
number of cases thick steel plates were applied to the end faces of the columns alming
at avoiding unequal stress-distributions in order to prevent splitting of the precast
concrete, so that the bearing capacity did not need to be reduced.
Now, more than fifteen years af ter the introduction of the recommendations, much
more experience has been gai ned.
Furthermore the quality of the mortar used has been signiflcantly improved.
Since the actual feeling was that some of the influencing factors have been estimated
too conservatively with regard to modern practice, the Dutch Study Commission on
Prefabrication (Stupré) took the initiative to study the new developments and insights,
in order to formulate an updated version of the recommendations. The results are
glven In this paper together with the experience from the past years.
The article is subdivided into two parts. The first part deals with the bearing capacity
of unreinforced mortar joints, loaded in compression by centrical and excentrical
forces. The second part analyses the efficiency of steel plates at both si des of the
mortar joint on the bearing capacity of this joint.

2. THE BEARING CAPACITY OF UNREINFORCED MORTAR JOINTS, LOADED IN

CENTRICAL OR EXCENTRICAL COMPRESSION.
The bearing capacity of a mortar joint can be formulated as (1), (2):

(1)

Where
Sp = the lowest prism-compressive strength of the concrete in the member,
adjacent to the joint
no = a reduction factor for the joint area, defining the effective part of this
area.
a the joint effectivity factor, defined as the ratio between the bearing
capacity of a column with a joint to a similar column without a joint

According to experiments (1), (2) the joint effectivity factor a can be formulated as

2
5(1-K) ... 1i
a = K .::...:..::.......:.:.!.-_=----=- (2)
2
5(1-10 ... K • li

where
 -169-

cS = the ratio between the smallest width of the compressed joint area and the
joint thickness b/v or xlv (fig. 1)
K = the ratio between the compressive strength of the joint mortar and the
lowest compressive strength of the precast members adjacent to the joint.
K is formulated as

where
n a reduction factor, by which the difference in quality of mortars prepared
m
under site conditions and mortars prepared under laboratory conditions is
taken into account.
aM the compresslve strength of the joint mortar.

In the diagram of fig. 2, the joint effectivity factor is shown as a function of K

and cS.
The expression for aF can be used as wel for the calculation of the loadbearing
capacity of centrically loaded joints.
In the case of excentrical loading the formula applies to the maximum compression
stress acting along one of the edges of the joint area (fig. 1)
The actual questions concern predominantly the reduction factors no and n • The
m
factor no' defining the effective joint area, is not clearly defined, and it seems that
the reduction factor n has been chosen too conservatively if compared with the
m
mortars which are nowadays available.
r
-170-

(entrico[ Looding Excentrico[ LoodJng

--t- -+- I

I
>1
+ >±

-t- -1--

x
Honzontol sechon
of the Jomt iI
I

J
11111111111114 : Aill ~
fig. 1. Stress distribution in a centrically and in an excentrically loaded joint.

2. 1 The reductlon factor no indicating the filling grade of the mortar joint
In lito (1), (2) the reduction factor no is defined as
no = 0,7 ror fluid colloidal mortars or dry packed mortars, poured or packed in
the joint space af ter the precast members have been erected.
no = 0,3 for the case of precast members placed in a mortar bed.
 -171-

In the first case values higher than 0,7 are aUowcd, if these values are confirmed by
tests, carried out at the building site at regular intervals. However, no criteria have
been given tor those tests, which have resulted in the extremities mentioned before.
Stress concentrations which are able to genera te splitting cracks in the adjacent
pre cast concrete members can only occur due to large, irregularly spaced air
enclosures. Sm aU solitary air bubbles, which are regularly spread over the joint area,
can be disregarded.
The research commission therefore gives the folJowing recommendation:
"When establishing n by regular tests on the building site, solitary air enclosures
o
smaller than 0, 01 b, respectively 0,01 x, but not larger than 5 mm can be disregarded.
Air enclosures between 0,01 b, respectivily 0,01 x, and 0,1 b respectivily 0,1 x, have to
be taken into account. Air enclosures larger than 0,1 band 0,1 x are not allowed.
Furthermore, the last ten years of experience have proven that colloidal pouring
mortars have a more constant qualitly than other types of mortars, independently of
the way of application. Also the quality control of this type of mortars can be carried
out in an casier way.
Based on this experience, the commission recommends the following values for no to
be used if no regular tests on the building site are made.
no 0,9 for a colloidal pouring mortar
no = 0,7 for a dry packed mortar
no = 0,3 if the precast member is placed in a mortar bed.
,
-172-

0,

Bb

Sm -:.-p:cI.l..L.l~ ~Y
Bb

Ct
SI1-KI+ Ó 2
= K '::":"':"":":":-'--'''-;:--
S(1-KI+ Kó 2

o . JL..<~.LJhL--l---~-+--+----r---r-~r-1

O.l~:::""----I----+----t--+----1-_-l......_-t---t---j
-·!!...
Ó -y
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

nIO.21-:....--+-I-------,.,L-I-'"7"'c::::....h-,.....,:::=---:!:-.c:::::::::;::::+-=::::~1"':::::::::::_::t=::::::-_::::5===1
I
:1~-4--+---f-t-----t---r--i
:e ci.31--j~~~~q,,-L.:;.....f;....:;;;::±;;:;:::::::::;;;t::::::;;:=-"=:::==--_t_--T_j

~ ~ '~~I:f~jj
Vl.:o o.. ~
o ILI

-'"
QJ'"
I

Fig. 2. Joint-effictivity factor Cl as a function of K and 6

2.2 Reduction value I)m for the joint mortar quaiity

Also here higher values can be allowed. The positive experience with this type of
joints and the fact that the process is completely controlled justifies the following
values.
I)m = 0,75 if the mortar quality is established by means of control cu bes, prepared
on the building site and tested in a laboratory af ter having being stored for
 -173-

28 days under controlled conditions.

n = 1,0 if the mortar quality is established by means of cores, sawn or drilled
m
out of the joints. These cores have to be kept for -28 days under the same
conditions as the joints themselves.

3. MORTAR JOINTS BETWEEN TWO PRECAST MEMBERS REINFORCED WITH

STEEL PLATES AT THEIR END FACES
In most practical cases the bearing capacity of unreinforced mortar joints is not
governed by the crushing strength of the mortar, but by splitting of the precast
members adjacent to the joint. Splitting stresses occur as a result of two mechanisms:
- since the mortar has a lower quality than the precast concrete at both sides of it, it
is "pressed out", thus generating frictional forces at the contact areas between joint
and column (fig. 3a). These frictional forces cause tensile stresses in the column .

......................
.......................
.......................

a. b.

fig. 3. Frictional forces caused by pressing out of the joint material (a) and non-
uniform stress distribution in the joint areas.

- due to the mechanism described previously, the mortar at the outer part of the joint
Iocally crushes, so that a redistribution of the stresses occurs, resulting in higher
stresses in the middle part of the joint (fig. 3 b). This unequal distribution of
stresses in the joint causes splitting stresses in the column. The stress trajectories
for this case are shown in fig. 4a.
 - 174-

k--+-+-(ompression
Tension

a. b.
fig. 4. Stress trajectories in precast concrete columns due to a non-uniform stress
distribution in the joint (a) and joint between steel plates, aiming at reducing the
tensile and splitting tensile stresses in the precast column ends.

To prevent that the li mited bearing capacity of the joint requires a larger joint area
which, as a consequence, leads to unnecessary large column dimensions (material and
transport costs) of ten steel plates have been ap[)lied (fig. 4b). The basic philosophy
behind such a solution is clear: the steel plate has not only to take over the frictional
forces at the contact area but should also create a more uniform distributIon of the
normal stresses, so that the tensile- and splitting stresses are reduced to a harmiess
level. The steel plates, used for this purpose in pra\!tice, had thicknesses up to 50 mmo
The frequent use of such plates asked for a more detailled analysis of this solution.

3.1 Numerical modelling of the joint region.

To be ab Ie to analyze the behaviour of the joint region, a numerical analysis has been
carrled out, using the finite element method. In order to keep the calculation simple
enough, the analysis has been carried out on a smal! strip of the column, assuming a
plane stress condition and linear elastic behaviour.
 -175-

Fig. 5. shows a cross section of the column, which was chosen for the analysis. The
strip, shade in fig. 5., had a width of 66 mmo
The reinforcement percentage was assumed to be 496. The reinforcement which was
equally distributed along the circumference of the column cross section, was
simplified to a !ine with an equivalent thickness.

Calculated strip

VI
N

Idealised reinforcement

446

fig. 5. Cross section of p.'ecast concrete column.

Furthermore the following data have been assumed:

- Axial compression force in the column: N = 3000 kN
- Concrete of prefabricated members: 845, with Ec = 35000 N/mm 2
- Joint mortar: 8 22,5, with Ec = 25000 N/mm 2
- Joint width: v = 30 mmo

This resulted in a steel stress of 74.7 N/mm 2 in the longitudinal reinforcement and a
stress of 12.1 N/mm 2 in the precast concrete. The fini te element mesh, chosen for the
calculation, is shown in fig. 6. All elements contain 4 integration points, in which the
stresses and the strains are calculated. The element size is 66 x 132 mmo For reasons
of symmetry only one half of the column is considered: in the axis of symmetry the
elements are assumed to be supported by roller bearings. The load at the upper edge
agrees with the stress distribution in the undisturbed area of the column.
 -176-

3.2 Variables
Calculations have been carried out for various values of the steel plate thickness and
for various values of the effective joint area. The plate thichnesses we re chosen to be
d = 40,25, 10, 3, 1, and 0.1 mmo
The effective joint wldths were 396 mm (joint fully fIlled, concrete cover neglected)
and 264 mm (joint filled to 2/3 of the width, shaded area in fig. 6). By choosing the
last value a joint is simulated, in which the mortar has been partially pressed out from
the outer area, or has partially become ineffective by crushing. This can be considered
as an extreme case.

VI
·x
"'
êl
.31
0,
W

125 1
66 66 66 !
~
z z z z
I
-"" -"" -"" -""
co r-
a-. 0
a- a- -""I.
..,.
a- :Q '" '"
N
VI
N
VI ""
",'
N
lAl
...

E
E

Reinforcement -I-

~I
"

t:S§~§§~§~~~1 Steelplate
1 :1 P'd4P4Y4W4 Joint thickness

fig. 6. Finite element mesh (half column width, half joint width)
 -177-

3.3 Results of the calculations

Fig. 7. shows the stresses calculated for the following cases:

Fig. Effective joint Thickness of the steel

width (mm) plate (mm)

7a 396 40
7b 396 10
7c 264 40
7d 264 10

For a correct interpretation of the stress diagrams it should be realised, that the scale
of the stresses in the vertical and the horizontal direction is different (in the
horizontal direction a factor 10 targer than in the vertical direction).
'l'he drawings show that in the concrete at the column side of the steel plate, parallel
to this plate, always compressive stresses are acting. 'l'his can be explained by the
fact, that the stress trajectories concentrate on the middie part of the joint (fig. 4a.),
wh ere the stresses in the joint are larger. The smaller the effective width of the joint,
the larger are those compressive stresses. On the other hand, the stronger the
curvature of the compressive stress trajectories, the larger are also the splitting
tenslle stresses in the inner part of the column (compare fig. 7c with 7a and 7d wlth
7b).
Comparing the figures 7a with 7b, and 7c with 7d, where the thickness of the steel
plates is the only variabie, a surprising phenomenon is observed:
The splitting tensile stresses have nearly the same value, independent of the thickness
of the stel plates. 'l'his observation was confirmed by the calculations with other plate
thicknesses. This leads to the conclusion, that steel plates, applied in this way, do not
have the effect they have aiways been supposed to have.

Concentrating on the case with the smaller effective joint area, this behaviour can be
explained as follows:

a thin plate has hardIy any influence on the distribution of the stresses, which are
transmitted from the joint to the column. An unequal distrlbution of the stresses In
the joint will therefore lead to splitting tensile stresses in the column.
A thick plate smoothens out an unequal distribution of the stresses, so that the
stresses transmittted to the column are more uniformly distributed. As a secondary
 -178-

Steelplate thickness Steelplate ttiickness

Stress notation

Compression Tension
a. b.

Scale
r 10 N/mm 2
~ 1 N/mm 2

c. d.
I Joint width Joint width

Fig. 7. Vertical and horizontal stresses for different steelplate thickness and joint
width
 -179-

effect, however, a thick plate restrains the lateral deformation of the concrete in
the joint area. Due to this mechanism splitting tensile stresses occur in the
column, which eliminate the positive effect of the plates, mentioned before.

It could be wondered if the alternative of a heavy stirrup reinforcement or a spiral

reinforcement, applied in the end regions of the columns, as a substitute for the steel
plate, would have a positive effect on the bearing capacity. Tests on spi rally confined
concrete cylinders (3) showed however, that such a reinforcement hardly increases the
bearing capacity. The restraining effect of the recinforcement is only activated af ter
a considerable transverse deformation of the material: at such a deformation the
integrity of the material has already been partially lost.
The test results, which show that the bearing capacity is hardly influenced,
demonstrate also that the maximum resistance is maintained over a very large range
of deformation. Such types of reinforcement are therefore useful in cases that large
ductility is required, like in earthquake regions.

Leteral
Compression Deformation

Compression

Tension

a. b.

fig. 8. Stress trajectories for (a) column with thin steel plate and (b) column with thick
steel plate.
 -180-

4. CONCLUSION
In most cases the bearing capacity of an unrelnforced mortar joint is not governed by
the mortar crushing strength, but by splitting of the adjacent column region .
Using the design recommendations for unreinforced mortar joints, which we re used up
till now, the limitation of the mortar joint capacity lead of ten to uneconomically large
column dimensions.
The application of steel plates at the end races of the columns, or splitting tensile
reinforcement inside the column, does not result in a significant increase of the
bearing capacity of the joint region.
The fluid colloidal mortar types which are now available and the improved application
procedures aHow, however, higher values for the design values than have been used up
till now.
The most effective way to increase the bearing capacity of an unreinforced mortar
joint is therefore to use a stronger mortar for the joint and a stronger concrete for the
precast member adjacent to it.

REFERENCES
1. SBR bericht nr. 34, " mortelvoegen in de montagebouw", Samson uitgeverij Alphen
a.d. Rijn/ Brussel 1973
2. Dutch code of Practice VB 1974/1984
3. AHMAD, S.H. and SHAH S.P., "Stress-strain curves of concrete confined by spiral
reinforcement" ACI journal nov.-dec. 1982 pag. 484-490
 -181-

SESSION 4

PRODUCTION
 -183-

THE PRODUCTION OF WALL ELEMENTS

Ir. H.W. Bennenk

Technical Director Schokbeton BV

One can compare a lecture only concerning the product ion itself as a story
without a begin and an end. It is not that important to pay attention. to the pro-
duction itself, when all aspects determining:
how an element can be produced
the possibility to do so and to reach
the product quality level and cost level
are neglected.

This lecture is not only concerning structural wall elements but also facade ele-
ments.

The quality of design, details, workshop drawings, time available to prepare the
production, serie coefficient are more or less of main importance for the success
of the production, quality- and costwise spoken.
There are so many small details which seem to be not so important to our clients,
but of importance to us.

One has to look to our precast business as an industry.

Depending on the business idea to split up into suppliers and system deliverers.
The supplier is delivering elements, the latest more or less complete packages,
from predesign until periodical inspection af ter erection and completion.

As a start it is interesting to think about the question:

what does the customer expect from us, the precast industry?
The brief answer can be:
a product meeting the requirements,
delivered just in time and
on a acceptable price level.
 -184-

An expert advice, from the precaster, is not on the list, but it should, to be sure
that the other mentioned items can be fulfilled, also in the customer's interest.
In one way of another we have to transfer our specific know-how of product and
product ion to designers.
Planning, dealing with every stage of the project, is becoming more and more of
importance to meet the required time of delivery.

But what about the clients part in the play?

Is he aware of the necessity to have:
full information available according to the planning,
just in time return of completely corrected drawings,
details developed from prefab point of view,
weil specified requirements, so measurable,
wel! chosen tolerances,
from the very beginning areliabie erection schedule.
To put the question is already an answer in itself.

In practice all activities preceding the start of production preparations take more
time than planned on forehand and because we have to deliver in time there is
always a lot of pressure on the people involved.

To plan the following order in production it should be logical to do so according to

the use of the available mould. Especially when it concerns a timer mould it is
logical to produce the largest element first. When the mould will be transformed
to a smaller size it can be done invisible. But as usual in facades the element on
roof level is higher than the other ones. But it is needed on the site as the last
one. With more moulds the time lack can be avoided, but that costs money. Erec-
tion need versus quality.

To show you what is going on and what different production possibilities there are
available for walis, I take you with me on a side-trip along several segments of
building practice and different production facilities.

The first segment is family housing.

Special attention is paid to design, developments in the past years and production
equipment.
 -185-

The next one is apart ment buildings, in which the same type of product ion
methods can be seen.
Then office buiJdings, with the application of load bearing and non-Ioad bearing
walls. Attention to design, details, connections and reinforcement.
An extrapolation can be found in high-rise buiJdings.
Elements then have to meet severe requirements.

Finally we come to facade elements of different kind.

Single skin elements, with or without concrete in the front side. Finished with
ceramic tiJes or coloured concrete.
Special attention wil! be paid to mould techniques and the important criteria for
design.
Then, sandwich elements, with and without concrete in the front side. Finally we
look to possibilities to produce elements with an airspace between front and rear
skin, especially how to build them together.
 -187-

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

Prof.dr.ir. J.C. Walraven

Delft University of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, Concrete Structures

1. INTRODUCTION
The definition of "high strength", with regard to the material concrete, shows an
ongoing shift to higher and higher values. For instance, the CEB-FIP Recommenda-
tions of 1970 did not yet give an upper limit. In 1978 the Model Code for concrete
structures took, as a highest quality, the class C50 into account (cube strength" 62,5
N/mm 2 ). The concept of the new CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, recently discussed in
Paris, indicates C80 as the highest quality-class, which implies that the cube
compressive strength is about 100 N/mm 2 • In this respect the new CEB-FIP Model
Code is in front of nearly all national building codes. Only the Norwegian Code NS
3473 defines a maximum characteristic cube strength of 105 N/mm 2. The American
Code ACI 318-83, which appeared in 1983, does not give any upper limit. Nearly all
material properties, necessary for design, like compressive- and tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity, creep- and shrinkage values, are simply given as functions of the
uniaxial cylinder strength. Records for the concrete strength are nowadays regularly
reported from the USA. In 1989 a concrete quality of 130 N/mm 2 was mentioned, used
for the construction of the Two-Union Square Building in Seattle [1].

It is not remarkable that special1y in Norway and in the USA great interest exists in
the application of concrete in the higher strength classes.
In the North-Sea, since Ekofisk 1 (1973), 21 offshore platforms were pIaced. The
specified 28-days characteristic cube strength increased in the meantime from 45 to
70 N/mm 2 (Gullfaks C, 1989, Fig. 1, Lit. 2.3). In the case of those platforms, the
quality requirements did not only concern the strength, but also the durability, the
workability and the speed of erection. To meet those requirements special attention
was given to the development of appropriate mixes. Experiments were carried out
with finer cement types, puzzolanes, finer sand fractions, super-plasticizers and other
chemical ad mixtures. A favourable circumstance in Norway is the availability of a
sufficient amount of silica-fume. Silica-fume is a by-product, which is obtained during
the fabrication of ferro-silicum and silicum metals. With 5-10% silica-fume, related to
the cement weight, concrete strength values between 70 and 100 N/mm 2 are obtained.
During the last years, however, not the streng th but the workability seems to obtain
 -11)3-

Fig. 1 The Gullfaks condeep platform, total height 262 m

the highest priority. Application of large amounts of silica-fume results of ten in bad
workability and a sticky concrete, which requires additional effort for cleaning the
formwork, etc. By the addition of low amounts of silica-fume (1 to 3% of the cement
weight) however, the pumpability and the stability of the mixtures increases and
excellent workability is obtained. This is an important advantage, because of ten the
densityof the reinforcement is very large (to 1000 kg/m 3 ).
In the USA, concrete with high strength is predominantly applied in high-rise buildings.
Fig. 3 shows the plan of the Two-Union Square Building in Seattle [1]. The co re of this
220 m high building consists of 4 round steel-concrete columns: these are steel ,pipes
with a diameter of 3 m, filled with high strength concrete. The most important reason
to use high strength concrete in buildings is the wish to build higher, but in the
meantime to keep the effective area as large as possible. Furthermore economie
advantages are mentioned. In [4] it is calculated that concrete with a strength of 96
N/mm 2 is 3,1 times as expensive as concrete with a strength of 21 N/mm 2 • Therefore,
however, one gets a strength which is 4,7 times higher.
 -189-

Fig. 2 Bottom part of Gullfaks C during construction

steellacade columns

/ / /
concrete - ti lied steel pipe
steel beams
/ ~~ /// steel- concrete tloor
/ Ff'>., /
/ / ./ '~

~
/
f1
Iy,x,xlx,x
IX IXI.XIX
1
H-n
f.I::
I'

P I,

\ J 1/
ti II

Fig . 3 Plan of Two-Union Square Building [1]

 -190-

With regard to the Two-Union Square Building, a comparison was made with an alter-
native solution, with a bearing steel structure. The volume of the steel, necessary for
the chosen composite structure, was about 5096 lower than for the pure steel variant.
Therefore the building costs were 3096 lower.
What the concrete strength means for the ratio "lost" surface area - total area, was
calculated by den Boer and Mans [5] for various reinforcement ratios of the column.
The results of these calculation are shown in Fig. 4.

"lost surfoce /totol surfoce (%) P C20 C35 C50

C20.poO%

C3S. poO% 0%
D 0 D
CSO.poO%

1"----+--:;;;-"9---+-c::?""""--t--C20.Po8%.
I 8%
0.. 0 0
Iy SOON/mrJ 0

"--~4-~-4---,:b--""--+-
C3S. po12%.
Iy: SOONlmm'
CSO. po2S%.
12% [IJ rn [IJ

25% 0 0 0
°so 75 100 125 150 175 200
building height {mI

Fig. 4 ll)fluence of concrete strength on lost surface [5]

2. MIX COMPOSITION AND STRENGTH

As reported in the literature, high strength concretes contain of ten high amounts of
cement. Aitcin and Metha [6] report strength-values of 130 N/mm 2 obtained with 495
kg Portland cement, 79 kg Fly-ash, 44 kg silica-fume, 120 kg water, 1120 kg coarse
aggregate, 620 kg fine aggregate, wcf = 0.19 P m3 •
However, also with lower cement content relatively high strength values can be
obtained. In the Stevin-Laboratory recently 28-days strength va lues of 95 N/mm 2
were obtained with 350 kg/m 3 cement, 1096 silica-fume, wcf = 0.39, 496 superplas-
ticizer. However, also without silica-fume high strength values can be obtained. In [4]
it is reported that strengh values of 96 N/mm 2 were obtained by optimum use of
cement, fly-ash and an optimum aggregate grading, without silica-fume.
In prefabrication, relatively high strengths are usual (" C 60). Higher strengths could
be obtained by the use of special mixing machines and mixing procedures.
 -191-

3. PROPERTJES OF YOUNG AND HARDENING CONCRETE

3.1 Workability
Concrete with silica-fume of ten contains large amounts of fine particles, which
increase the cohesion. If large concentrations of reinforcement are necessary,
norma!ly a large slump (200 - 260 mm) is specified. Here it has to be remarked, that
the slump, due to the large cohesion, does not predict the workability and the
compactability in the usual way. Gjorv [7] pointed out, that measurements of the
plastic viscosity and the shear strength provide a better basis for the description of
the properties of young concrete than the old, empirica! methods.

400 kg/C

Fig. 5 Influence of the substitution of cement by silica-fume on the properties of

young concrete [7]
 -192-

Fig. 5 shows, that addition of silica-fume, up to a certain limit, results in a significant

reduction of the viscosity, whereas the shear strength remains uninfluenced. This limit
value depends on the cement content, and amounts to 2, 4 and 696 for 200, 300 and 400
kg/m 3 respective!y. For sil ica-fume concentrations Iarger than those limit values, a
significant increase of the shear strength is obtained, whereas the viscosity increases
sim uI taneously.
This shows, that the effect of silica-fume on the properties of young concrete depends
predominanUy on the cement content.

3.2 Strength-development and temperature influence

Fig. 6 shows the strength development for a number of concrete mixes with the same
w/c-, respectively w(c+s) va lues, according to Manns [8].

compressive strength (N/mm2 )

---
100 I
wit h out silic ofum e
0--0 with silica fume

80
I c:s =0.50

V-- c~s =0.60

60
V ..0--:::::: t:::::=-: -- wlc .0.50

/
/ '~ w/c. O.60

40
~? ~

20
~ ------ ------- cem en t conten t: 270kg/m 3 -
c ement: PC45F
og greg ote: gr ovel/so nd S/C32
silica fu me: 10% o f cement weigh t

o 50 100 200 500

1 2 5 10 20
age in da ys

Fig. 6 Strength development of concrete without, and with silica-fume [8]

The mixes contain 270 kg/m 3 cement and 20 mI superplasticizer. Af ter 2 days the
compression strengths are nearly equal, but af ter 7 days the strength of the concrete
with cement + silica-fume is already 7 - 12 N/mm 2 higher than that of the reference-
concrete. Af ter 28 days the differences are 10 - 17 N/mm 2 .
Comparing tests, carried out by Gjorv [7], also at normal temperatures, showed
 -193-

differences only af ter 5 - 7 days. Interesting is also the effect of the temperature.
Mijnsbergen [9] studied the strength-development at 10, 20 and 30°C. The basic mix
contained 375 kg/m 3 blast furnace cement A, with 0, 5 and 8% silica-fume respec-
tively. The results are shown in the diagrams of fig. 7 and 8.
It turns out that, at a hardening temperature of 30°C (the C-lines), an addition of 5
and 8% silica-fume gives a contribution to the 1-day's strength of 42 and 59%. If the
concrete hardens at 20°C (the B-lines) the influence of silica-fume after 1 day is much
smaller: values of 3 and 12% are found for 5 and 8% silica-fume addition. Af ter 2
days, those percentages incease to 14 and 30%, whereas after 28 days values of 7 and
21 % are reached. Hardening at 10°C shows another development. The curves intersect
over another. Addition of silica-fume only contributes to the strength af ter two days.

relative fccm (-)

4

,....,/ /
7'___
3 -- -
1~/~
-
-/'/ 8%

----- 20°C ..... 0% / "

temperot ure 30 e C silica furn e

serie 1 stevin lob.

ABC
tempe ra\ure('C) 10 20 30 1
silico fum e
serie 1
0% • 0 0
t= 28 days
5 % • 0 ...
lL-____~__~~8~%~.~~~~4~~~V~
1 2 3 28
o
silica fume(%). temperature("C)
time (days)

Fig. 7 Average cube crushing strength Fig. 8 Influence of silica-fume

of concrete with silica-fume for on the compressive strength
various hardening temperatures [9] af ter 28 days [9]

The strength af ter 1 day is even smaller than that of the concrete without silica-fume.
Af ter 3 days addition of 5 and 8% silica-fume shows an increase of the strength of 14
and 63%. This shows that the addition of silica-fume can lead to an increase of the
strength of young concrete, if the hardening temperature is higher than 20°C.
In fig. 8 the results af ter 28 days are presented. This figure shows, that a higher
strength of the young concrete has to be paid with a lower strength at 28-days, if the
hardening temperature is used to increase the young concrete's strength.
 -194-

4. MECHANICAL PROPERTJES
Jn the figures 9 - 12 a number of basic properties has been represented. Fig. 9 shows
the behaviour under uniaxial compressive 10ading. Concrete with higher strength
exhibits
a linear O-E behaviour to a relatively high percentage of the maximum stress;
a higher strain at maximum stress;
a steeper falling branche af ter reaching the maximum stress, which is synonymous
to more brittle behaviour.
For conventional concrete distinction is made between short-term and long-term
strength. For normal concrete the long-term strength is about 80% of the short-term
strength. According to [10], this is also valid for high strength concrete.

100~~---+--~F-++--+-~
fct (N/mm2)
8
/ [ 12)
6
~[ 11]

4
~/
." ~
\ Eg .1 [13)

2 ~
o
0.2 0.4
t:
0.6
(%.)
o 20 40 60 80 100
fee (N/mm2)

Fig. 9 Stress-strain relations for high Fig. 10 Relation tensile strength to

strength concrete in comparison compressive strength accor-
to 10wer strength concrete, ding to various sources
measured at cylinders 150 x 300 mm [11 , 12 , 13]
[16]

With re gard to the uniaxial tensile strength of concrete, most investigations state
that the ratio tensile-compressive strength, found in the past fornormal strength
concrete, is also valid for high-strength concrete. Fig. 10 shows the relations proposed
by Carrasquillo [11] and Pliskin [12] for high-strength concrete in comparison with the
relation
 -195-

f 1 + 0,05 fee (1)

et

which was principally derived for normal strength concrete [13]. It is seen that the
differences are smal!.

Practically the same eonelusion holds true for the E-modulus. Fig. 11 compares
formulations aceording to four sources [11 , 13 , 14, 15].

(Jc Ifc
1. 6r--,---,----,----,---...
40
1131 ~~
.---
~
..-::-:-:-::
~
~
1.2t--i--r-+--+--+---l
30 ' ~,.;-
~ ~,;:-
~

20 --- O. Bt---tJf-t----"t---I---I----I

10

o
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
2
80 2 3 4 5
f cc (N/mm ) Cc Ic co

Fig. 11 E-modulus as a funetion of Fig. 12 Effect of confining reinfor-

concrete strength, aecording to cement on strength and
[11 , 13 , 14 , 15] ductility of HSC circular
columns [17]

Fig. 12 shows the behaviour of confined concrete under compression. Results are
shown for high strength (95 N/mm 2) concrete cylinders with different confinement
ratio's [17]. It is shown that an inereasing amount of eonfining reinforcement will
in ere ase the ultimate stresses and eorresponding strains and reduee the slope of the
descending part of the stress strain curve.

Tests on shear resistanee of cracks in reinforced concrete are described in [18]. In [19]
it is shown that a lower bound expression for the shear strength is obtained by

~
fe
= 0.5 I p f
sy
ff
e
< 0,25 (2)
 -196-

wh ere fc =the cylinder compressive streng th of the concrete, p =reinforcement ratio

of bars intersecting the crack (perpendicularly) and fsy is the yield stress of the steel.
Fig. 13 shows that the relative shear streng th decreases with increasing concrete
strength.
It should be noted that the results, on which Eq.2 is based,. are obtained for concretes
with strengths up to 80 N/mm 2 , with high-strength aggregates. In all the tests, the
cracks generally propagated the aggregate particles, so that rough crack interfaces
we re obtained. For strengths higher than 80 N/mm 2 the cracks will more likely
intersect the particles, so that smooth crack planes may occur, with a severe
reduction of the shear resistance. Tests will have to be carried out to investigate this
phenomenon.

'l9- u/fc
0.4

0.3
-
0.2 ~

o. 1 ~ I--- Isy = 500

cross-section A-A

0.0 I
o 20 40 60 80 100
fc(N/mm 2 )

Fig. 13 Shear resistance of cracks in reinforced concrete

0.5 0 ...

0.01--~-5~0-~~~-~1~00
-~~~-~~15~0~-~....J

26 days compressive s treng th (MPo)

Fig. 14 Relation between abrasion resistance and concrete strength according to [20]
 -197-

The abrasion resistance of concrete strongly decreases if the concrete strength

increases. Fig. 14 [20] shows the influence of the concrete strength on the abrasion of
road surfaces, which are exposed to heavy traffic.
In Nordic countries, where in winter many cars drive with tyres having small steel
studs to improve the friction, this property of high strength concrete is already
prosperously exploited.
About shrinkage only limited information is available. Preliminary tests leaded to the
conclusion that the differences with normal strength concrete wil! not be large, and
that extrapolation of available equations into the higher strength classes is allowed.
Also with regard to creep the information is limited. Preliminary tests show a
reduction of creep with about 25%.

5. UTILIZATION OF HSC FOR COLUMNS

The most advantageous application of high strength concrete is to be found there,
where large compressive forces have to be transmitted. A systematic investigation of
the effect of high strength columns was recently carried out in [21]. The investigations
distinguished between columns wh ere strength, and columns where stability (buckling)
is critical for design. Fig. 15.a shows the necessary reinforcement in a short column
400 x 400 mm, with a constant normal force and a varying bending moment, for
difference concrete qualities. Fig. 15.b shows the reinforcement, which is necessary in
longer columns, as a function of the buckling length and the concrete strength. Finally
Fig. 15.c shows the material costs for a column of 4 m, with a constant normal force
and a variabie bending moment, also as a function of the concrete strength. It was
assumed that there is a linear relation between concrete strength and cost.
The authors come to some interesting conclusions [21].
"The benefits of a higher concrete strength are maximum when a high normal load
occurs in combination with a smal! excentricity.
If the excentricity (bending moment), or the buckling length of the column
increases, the benefits of higher concrete strength decrease.
A certain combination of normal force and bending moment exists, above which it
is hardly attractive to further increase the concrete strength. However, below
these limit, the application of high strength concrete can lead to significant
material cost reductions".
 -198-

reinforcement as a reinforcement as a
function of concrete strength
funtion of buckling length
13000 M =61;OkNm N' d=3200 kN , Md='1or. 13000
12000~--.----.----r-~.----r--~ N' d=3200 kN . Md=320 kN m
11000 12000
10000
11000
10000 /

-- V
9000
8000~~~~~---r---r---+--~
9000
8000
~
//
7000
6000~~rt-~~~~~--+----r--~
7000
6000
825
/ /
5000
4000~~~~-+~~~~+----r--~
5000
4000
:/ / /'
3000
2000
100gL-~~~~~~=±~=t==~
10 30 50 70 90 110 130
3000
2000
1000
o
o
855

2
---
885/ 8115
..-/'

4
.-/ /
6
/

8
~
10 12
concrete streng th (N/mm2) buckling length (m)

Fig. 15.a Reinforcement necessary in a Fig. 15.b Reinforcement necessary in

short column as a function of slender columns as a func-
Nd, Md and concrete tion of Nd, Md' buckling
strength [21] length and concrete
strength [21]

material costs
800~--.----.--~r---.----r---.

200~--~~~---+--~----r-~

30 50 70 90 110 130
concrete strength

Fig. 15.c Material for a column of 4 mas a function of Nd, Md

and concrete strength [21]
 -199-

LITERATURE
[1] RALSTON, M., KORMAN, R., "Put that in your pipe and cure it", ENR, 16.2.89,
pp.44- 53
[2] RONNEBERG, H., SANDVIK, M., 'High strength concrete for North Sea
platforms", Concrete Internationsl, January 1990, pp. 29-34
[3] MOKSNES, J., 'North Sea oilgas production platforms - Reflections on 15 years'
experience, with special emphasis on post-tensioning and quality assurance
aspects", FIP-Notes, 1989/3, pp. 22-25
[4] MORENO, J., "225 W. Wacker Drive", Concrete International, January 1990, pp.
25-39
[5] DEN BOER, P., MANS, D.G., "Aspects of high-rise buildings in relation to the
structural design", Cement 1988, Nr. 4, pp. 13-20 (in Dutch)
[6] AITCIN, P., METHA, P., "Selecting materials and proportions for high strength

I concretes", Conference "Utilization of high strength concrete", Berkeley, May

1990.
[7] GJORV, 0., "Erfahrungen mit micro silica haltigem Beton in Norwegen",
BOdensee-Symposium, 28-29 September 1989
[8] MANNS, W., "Microsilica, ein neuer Betonzusatzstoff nach DIN 1045",
Bodensee -Symposium, 29-29 September 1989
[9] MIJNSBERGEN, J., MEIJS, M.E., BOGERS, A., ZWARTJES, G., "Strength
development of concrete with silica-fume", Cement 1988, Nr. 5, pp. 18-21 (in
Dutch)
[10] SMADI, SLATE, NILDON, "High, medium and low strength concrete subjected
to sustained overload-strains, strength and failure mechanisms", ACI-Journal,
September-October 1985
[11] CARRASQUiLO, SLATE, NILSON, "Properties of high strength concret
subjected to short-term loading", ACI-Journal, May-June 1981
[12] PLISKIN, K., "High strength concrete and cracking", FIP-Notes, 1989/2, pp. 22
[13] VB '74, Dutch Code for Concrete Structures, 1974
[14] Revised Norwegian Standard NS 3473, 1985
[15] CEB/FIP Model Code 1990
[16] HELLAND, S., "Hoifast Beton", Norwegian Concrete Day, 1983
[17] BJERKELI, TOMASZEWICZ, JENSEN, "Deformation properties and ductility of
high strength concrete", Proceedings of the second international symposium on
applications of high strength concretes, Berkeley 1990
[18] WALRAVEN, J.C., FRÉNAY, J., PRUIJSSERS, A., "Influence of concrete
strength and load history on the shear friction capacity of concrete members",
PCI-Journal, January-February 1987, pp. 66-84
 -200-

[19] HSU, T., "Discussion of [18], PCI-Journal, January-February 1988, pp. 166-168
[20] GJORV, 0., BAERLAND, T., RONNING, H.R., "Abrasion resistance of high
strength concrete pavements", Concrete International, January 1990, pp. 45-48
[21] BENNENK, H.W ., GALJAARD, J., NIJSSE, R., SOUWERBREN, C., SOEN,
H.H.M., "High strength concrete", Stuvo Report 90, July 1990
 -201-

RECEIVED AFTERWARDS
 -203-

DIAPHRAGM~CTION

ir. J. Stroband
Delft University of Technology
8ekker en Stroband, Consulting Engineers, Amsterdam

1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Floors in multi-storey buildings have to transfer horizontal loads to the
bracing elements, provide lateral support to the columns and ensure the
integrity of the overall structure. The actions include wind load and
support reactions from the columns caused by the lateral deflection of the
floor, with due attention to possible second-order effects.
The internal forces acting in the floor diaphragm depend on the location
of the bracing elements (Fig. 1). In a precast floor, the bending moments
can be resisted by means of a tie, formed by interconnection of the edge
beams or by placing a continuous reinforcement in the longitudinal joints.
The shear forces can be tranferred by means of a reinforced topping, but
it is economically advantageous to omit such a topping. The shear forces
then have to be transferred by means of structural connections between the
precast floor units. Under certain conditions it is also possible to take
advantage of the shear capacity of the grouted slab keyways, which is of
special interest for the widely used floors composed of hollow core slabs.
This paper discusses the behaviour of such floor diaphragms.

Fig. 1 Forces acting in a precast floor diaphragm

 -204-

2 ANAlYSIS OF A PRECAST FlOOR SYSTEM

The internal forces in a floor diaphragm and the resulting deformations
can be analysed by means of a non-linear finite element method, provided
the program enables simulation of the behaviour of joints. At the Stevin
laboratories a floor bay, composed of precast units, was analysed by means
of the computer program ZEFE. The computed results we re in good agreement
with test results up to shear failure. However, because there is no unique
relation between the stresses and the resulting deformations in a cracked
joint, the phenomenon of shear friction cannot be taken into account. As
aresult the predicted failure load was considerably lower than the actual
failure load found in the experimental tests (Chapter 3.2).

In view of the uncertainties in the results of a non-linear analysis, the

design procedure may as well be simplified by using a linear analysis.
Consider a floor system composed of floor units as shown in Fig. 2a , with
bracing elements located at the ends of the floor. The floor diaphragm
can be considered as a simply supported beam, subjected to wind pressure,
wind suction and possibly horizontal loads caused by second order effects.
The horizontal actions produce in plane bending moments and shear forces.
To resist the bending moments the floor is provided with atension chord,
for instance a continuous edge beam.

When a load is applied, cracks will occur in the joints. The tensile force
in the tension chord is a function of the lever arm z. In case of pure
bending, the lever arm is constant and the force in the tension chord is
proportional to the bending moment (Fig. 2b). If, however, the floor is
regarded as a tie and arch structure, the tensile force is constant. The
actual tensile force distribution will lie between these extreme values.
The design strength of the tension chord follows from:
2
1 q 1
N = - where z = internal lever arm
s 8 z
where z = internal lever arm = 0.8 h < 0.5 1

Neglecting the shear deformation, the lateral deflection follows from:

5
O=--k12
48
where k = curvature at the middle of the span.
 -205-

DDDDDDDD " 'l

DDDDDDDDh F F F

DDDDDDDD
...

""""'I:lLUO I II
I

I11 11111111111 JILLLLL""'"

I

M
/

Ql,Q2&wind lood
F '" suppor t reodion
horizonlol aclion
/

[fililll!" Ir--
- - -=--"Ë] T
@ scheme of 0 precost f100r diophrogm

OITIEJ]O OOO[JE]OOO
00000000
BBBB88ffi
Ns = Ne
-- - - -- -~~:=:::::::: ~:--::-----------7- - - --
DOOD,DODO ~

r~--~-~~---------------------------------------
,,.. ......... , pure bending tie ond orch ......... .. .. ..

@ bending (bonded ten sion chord) © bending (u nbonded ten sion chord )

WJ "
>-------1

narmol stress sheor stress

@ diophrogm sheor
stress distribution section A-A
cv overoge curvotu re k '" ~.
sr
k1

Fig. 2 Model of the behaviour of a precast floor diaphragm

 -206-

The effect of tension stiffening may be accounted for by assuming that the
curvature in the uncracked sections between the joints is neglible small.
With a crack spacing s ,the average curvature follows from the anchorage
r
length lb of the tie reinforcement (Fg. 2e):
k=k
l
!g
sr
where: k = curvature at the cracked section
1

With an unbonded tie, anchored at the ends of the floor, the tensile force
is constant and a single crack will occur. The deflection of the floor in
this case is proportional to the crack width wand thus proportional to
the total elongation of the tie (Fig. 2c).

Although the average horizontal shear stresses in the joints are low and
rarely exceed the value of 0,1 N/mm2, the analysis of diaphragm shear is
rather intricate. Because of shrinkage and alternating bending stresses,
it must be assumed that the transverse joints are cracked. Thus, the shear
forces will have to be resisted almost entirely by means of friction in
the compression zones of the joints (Fig. 2d). Assuming a coefficient of
friction f = 1, the maximum shear force that can be resisted is equal to
the tensile force in the tension chord. Because the force distribution in
the tension chord can not be evaluated by means of a simple calculation,
the lower bound value according to Fig. 2b should be selected to evaluate
the shear capacity of the joints. In simply supported floors, as in the
example considered above, the shear forces acting in the critical joints
near the supports exceed the shear capacity. Hence, the shear resistance
must be increased. This can be attained by means of internal ties crossing
the joints, in order to make use of the shear friction effect. For the
same reason ties have to be installed crossing the longitudinal joints.

Similar methods of approach are dealt with in literature [1]. Calculation

methods for a simple approximation of the behaviour of floor diaphragms
with different types of ties are presented in [2].
As indicated above, the load bearing capacity of precast floors without a
reinforced topping mainly depends on the shear capacity of the joints. In
order to get a better view of the actual behaviour of a floor diaphragm,
experimental tests were carried out.
 -207-

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON JOINTS AND FLOOR DIAPHRAGMS

At the Stevin laboratories an elaborate research program was carried out
into the shear resitance of grouted joints between floor units [4] and the
behaviour of floor diaphragms composed of precast elements [2,3]. The main
results will be discussed briefly.

3.1 Joints between precast floor elements

Because it must be assumed that the joints between precast units will be
cracked, the shear forces must be resisted by friction or interlocking
effects. The shear strength of a cracked joint can be described as:

1: =1: +f.O (1 )
u h c

where:
1: the interlocking strength
h
G normal stress
c
f coefficient of friction Fig 3 Schematic representation of a
cracked joint.

Wh en a shear force is applied, slip will occur. Because of the roughness

of the crack interface this results in a dilatancy (Fig. 3). This will
induce axial stresses in the ties crossing the joint. The tensioned ties
impose additional normal stresses on the interface, thus increasing the
shear resistance of the joint. This so cal led shear-friction effect plays
an important role in the shear behaviour of floor diaphragms.

To investigate the actual behaviour of cracked joints a series of tests

was carried out on pre-cracked plain and indented joints with crack widths
of 0.2 mm and 0.3 mmo The testing rig was provided with hydraulic jacks to
adjust the crack width. Most tests were carried out with a constant crack
width under various loading conditions (monotonically increasing, repeat-
ing and alternating load) . Moreover, in some tests the normal stress was
increased proportional to the increase of the crack width to simulate the
influence of a reinforcing bar crossing the joint.
The test results confirmed that the shear resistance of a cracked joint is
generated by friction. The interlocking strength, however, is negligibly
small .
 - 2 08-

Figure 4 shows the values of the coefficient of friction f, computed from

results of tests on plain joints with a constant crack width. The test
results show a considerable dispersion, but in all cases the values level
down to about f = 1 with increasing shear displacement . The same results
were found for test s with increasing crack width. Repeated loading with
up to 4000 repetitions did not show unfavourable effects ot her then an
increase of the shear displacement .
3,0
I I c'
w : c.rac.k width Imml

2,5
I'\.

~ I'--..
.2 2, 0
~ ~
u w.O,2
26)

~
f
~ -!!:.tO.,Jo
~ f:>...
c
.!!!
l,S
(13)-.
(21)-.
~, ~O w.O,20 r---- f.-<-j a)
7)

~
.~ w · 015

----
(321-- '''0 w.O.JO 12)
Q; "'·tl; 10)
3 w.0 2
-.......
-
1, 0 6)
(JIJ- 0,30

---
w~O,30 W ·
20)
w.O,20 ---{ 17)
I
L,s (31
w.o,JO

0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0

____ shear displacement Imml

Fig. 4 Coefficients of friction in tests with constant crack width.

Regarding the shear strength of the joints the results also we re subjected
to a considerable dispersion. For joint mort ar with a compressive strength
of about 20 N/mm2, the shear strength in practically all cases , both under
monolitically increasing and repeated loading, exceeded 0.15 N/mm2. Thus,
the design value of the average shear stress in plain joints with a crack
width =< 0.3 mm should not exceed 0. 1 N/mm2. For higher shear stresses
indented joints can be used . The shear strength of indented joints , with
3 mm shear keys, under repeating load varied fr om 0.5 N/mm2 to 1.0 N/mm2,
Finally , it can be concluded from the test results is that there exist s no
unambiguous rel at ion between the shear stress and the longitudinal shear
displacement. At a stress level of 0.1 N/mm2 a maximum shear displacement
of· about 1 mm was found. This means that in practical cases the influence
of shear deformation on the deflection of the floor may be îeglected.
 - 209 -

3.2 Tests on a floor bay

The tests we re carried out on 1:5 scale models of a floor bay as shown in
FIG. 4a. The floor was composed of hollow co re slabs and inverted T-
beams . The beams bear on column heads, supported through roller bearings
so as to obtain a virtually frictionless bearing. All joints were filled
with low-strength mortar (compressive strength f 2 N/mm2). Figs. 4b to
c
4e show the bearing details .
The shear walls were simulated by steel strips at grid lines 1 and 14.
Thus, the boundary conditions could be varied by connecting one or more
floor slabs and/or beams to the steel strips (Fig . 4f).
The floor was provided with longitudinal ties at grid lines A through D.
Apart from th at the units were not interconnected.
The horizontal load was applied at the grid lines 1 to 14 by means of
pneumatic jacks.

The influence of the following parameters was investigated.

1. The type of longitudinal tie at grid lines A to 0:
- In series A the ends of the floor were coupled by means of unbonded
prestressing wires (Fig. 4g). The prestressing force was varied.
- In series B unbonded reinforcing bars we re used. These were likewise
anchored to the ends of the floor and moreover welded to the column
heads (Fig. 4h). In consequence of the welding a prestressing force
was developed.
- In series C and 0 the beams were connected by threaded bars (Fig.4i)
Because the tests were intended to investigate the shear behaviour of
the floor, the ties possessed excess strength.
2. The boundary conditions at the supports (Fig.4e).
3. The type of loading: monolitically increasing load (series A,B and C),
repeating load (series C) and alternating load (series 0).
4. In several tests of series C, a crack was formed in the critical joint
at grid line 2 or 13 before testing commenced. In some of these tests
a longitudinal tensile force was applied at the ends of the floor to
simulate wind suction and imperfections.

Most floors failed in shear at one of the jOints in grid lines 2 or 13,
with the exception of the prestressed floor (series A), that failed in
bending due to crushing of the hollow core slabs in the compression zone.
.,.
.

-2 1 0-

~ - -~HH~~++~++~4+~4++HH++hH++r~~
~ · _~4+~++H4~H+~++~++HR+rH++H~~
·b

@r -~~~~~~~~~~~kt~~~~~
I--a 13.720 • .'!:93~6~0_---.:.A=---_ _ _ __

o '" plan of floor boy

1100 1 480 ~~

'------+-~:c,:)~~m~ :::l R:!@q

111 111

eB section a (0 section b o sec tion c

710 710
A

f . ~I f
B C
. R
A

f ft
B C 0
T•

H I.
~
I fI

r------+c-!~----11 :~!
~-11Q..-.1.t--- feit
I I'I
11
I.
11
I. II
I. I II II

.
•.

- rol ler bearing I H I . I I F+-

, - - testing rig
H. I. II I.
CV elevation of support eI) boundory conditions

adjusting nut
7

Aa· 19,6 mm 2, fa" 1570 N/mm 2 Aa· 50.3 mm 2, fa· 400 NJmm2 Aa " 22,6 mm 2, '0" 1150 N/ mm1
® series A ® seri es B CD seri es eend D

Fig. 5 Plan and det ail s of the floo r bay .

 -211-

For all tests the forces in the longitudinal ties were calculated by means
of a linear analysis and compared to the test results [4]. In most cases
the calculated values were in reasonable agreement with the test results.
However, in the tests with pre-cracked joints at grid lines 2 or 13, the
test results deviated at higher load levels. Fig 6 shows a characteristic
example of the forces acting in the beam to beam connections at grid lines
o and 7 at various load level s. From fig. 6a it appears that up to a total
load Q = 18 kN, the measured forces reasonably agree with the calculated
values, but close to the ultimate load (Q = 30.3 kN) the floor tends to
u
behave like a tie and arch structure. From figure 6b it appears that also
a redistribution of forces occurs between the ties at grid lines B to D.
This behaviour can partly be explained by the fact that cracks occurred in
the longitudinal joints at grid lines Band D.

From the observed behaviour two design rules may be deduced. First, the
tension chord should be desingned on the basis of a tie and arch model and
second, internal ties should be installed crossing the longitudinal joints

1 2 J 4 5 6 7 e 9 10 11 12 13 ll.+-grid line
o
~- . A

\\\\ / !

I'--- '-....
JJJwlJNJ
t-..,
r0 r;:
Q:30kN ../
'.~:
' ..
,
" '- -.
" , i'" I"-
10~~~~+'-+-+-+-+-f-+-+-~
......
f\-\ Î"--
........ ........ 0 calculated
QlkL .... 12 , ",18 " z~ .~O
'-.....
Î'-
®-o 1 2 3 I. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
-....-tensile force (kNI

a. force distribution at grid line 0 b. force distribution at grid line 7

Fig. 6 Calculated and measured tensile forces at various load levels.

The tests with the pre-cracked joints clearly demonstrated the favourable
influence of the shear friction effect on the shear capacity of the joint.
To set an example, Fig. 7 shows the measured and calculated tensile forces
 - 212 -

Ë16m r;
z
=.
ë
Ë e
E
t
12

L / -'
.-
.,*
, '
. . . .rl:~
V-
/
---
__ - f,f
- - calculoted
- - - --measured

o
(
\
1 2 J l, ij
I
/
1 2 J o
,V
1 2 J
~ force IkNI ~ force I kNI ~ force IkNI

o tensile force 82 ® tensile force C2 0 tensile force 02

Fig. 7 Tensile forces in the connections at grid line 2.

in the longitudinal connections at grid line 2. It appears th at consider-

able tensile forces are imposed on the connections, thus increasing the
compressive stresses in the joint to about twice the bending stresses. The
coefficient of friction computed from the test results was about 1.3 with
monotonically increasing load, and about 0.9 with repeating load. It has
to be pointed out that the cracks crossed the joint at one or more places ,
so the shear force was partly resisted by interlocking effects.
Fig. 8 shows the lateral deflection of the floor . The deviation between
the measured and the calculated deflection is caused both by the decrease
in bending stiffness nd the shear displacement at grid line 2.

The test results prove that internal longitudinal ties have a favourable
effect on the shear behaviour of floor diaphragms . Further recommendations
for the design of floor diaphragms are presented in [4].

60,---,,----,---,,---,----,----,----,
- - colculoted

Ê /
501-~!--t+-+- .......... _. c 206
~ V
1 LO~-4-~~~- ~...-_...-....4...-...-....-.-.+..-...--.-
............ ...~...-_.~
..
rn30r-~-r~~-+---+---r--~~

1 V,/"· 20

t 10 l/
V' L
_ deflection Imml
se ries C

Fig. 8 Lateral deflection

 -213-

4 SAFETY AND STRUCTURAl INTEGRITY

Structures are designed to sustain actions and other influences liable to
occur during construction and use. However, because the hazards to which
the structure may be exposed and the resistance that it can offer to such
hazards are not accurately predictable, absolute safety is unattainable.
Indeed, several cases of structural damage have occured in the past, the
great majority attributable to human errors due to lack of knowledge or
lack of proper care. Hence, the risk of local failure must be taken into
consideration and the structure must be so designed that it will maintain
sufficient structural integrity during and af ter accidents.
To reduce the risk of progressive collapse the structure should be able to
bridge over local failures. In precast structures this can be achieved by
providing adequate tensile continuity between the precast units by means
of an appropriate tying system within the structure (Fig . 9). In practice,
however, it is difficult to prove that alternate load paths are available .
As an alternative, design codes have been issued specifying requirements
with regard to the tying system [5].
As to floors, tensile continuity can be effectively achieved by providing
internal and peripheral ties (Fig.lO). It is of great importance to ensure
ductility within the ties and connections, more particularly for absorbing
the energy that is released in the event of local damage. For this purpose
the ties and connections should possess sufficient deformation capacity

~
NO
, ql

No : ql

Fig. 9 Example of an alternative load path.

5 QUAlITY ASSURANCE
The proper functioning of a floor is determined to a great extent by the
probability of human errors in the design process and during construction
and use. The only effective way to prevent such errors is to introduce a
system of quality assurance comprising the entire building process, from
 -214-

continuous peripheral tie

column to floar connection and internal tie
3 floor to be am connection
4 column to column connection
5 be am to col urnn conneet i on
6 connections to transfer loads to the care
detail A

Fig. 10 View of a tying system within the floor "

the design to the final handing over of the completed project. Guidelines
concerning quality management and quality systems are given in CEN codes
EN 29000 - EN 29004. As to floors special attention should be paid to the
design of the tying system and the detailing of the connections. At the
construction site good care should be given to executing the tying system,
the joint cast and the curing of the joints, according to the guidelines
given in [8].

6 REFERENCES
1. WESTERBERG, B, Design of floors with regard to horizontal loads,
Strangbetong, 1990.
2. CUR-report 135, Demontabel Bouwen (Demountable Construction), CUR,
Gouda 1990. (In Dutch)
3. STROBAND, J, and J.J. KOLPA, The behaviour of a demountable floor,
Proceedings Symposium on Demountable Concrete structures, Delft
University Press, Delft 1985, pp 201-216.
4. CUR-report 136, Voegen in geprefabriceerde constructies (Joints in
precast floors), CUR, Gouda 1988. (In Dutch)
5. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, First Draft, CEB, Lausanne 1990.
6. FIP Guide to good practice, Quality assurance of hollow core slab
floors, Fourth Draft, FIP, London 1989.