Open Physics 2020; 18: 566–573
Research Article
Gangqin Huang, Zhangfa Yan, Tiantian Dai*, Ren-Guey Lee, and Qingyang Wei*
Simultaneous measurement of ionizing
radiation and heart rate using a smartphone
camera
https://doi.org/10.1515/phys-2020-0181
received July 14, 2020; accepted August 12, 2020
Abstract: Complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) cameras have been used to detect ionizing
radiation when shaded from light or under the condition
of static scenes. We propose a novel idea for simulta-
neous measurement of ionizing radiation and heart rate
(HR) by using a smartphone with its CMOS camera lens
covered by a finger in one measurement. Verified
experiments were conducted: videos were recorded
using a Xiaomi8 smartphone when the camera lens
was covered by a finger and a light-tight tape for
controlled experiment, with a ∼33 mCi 99mTc liquid
radioactive source at six different distances (from 20 to
70 cm, step size 10 cm) from the camera. The exact HRs
were measured using an oximeter at the same time.
Image processing algorithm is proposed to extract
radiation events and HR in the same videos. Results
show that: (1) frame numbers containing radiation-
related bright spots in two experiments have a linear
relationship, and they are inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the camera and radiation
source; (2) the HR difference between the video process-
ing and the oximeter result is less than 2 beats per
minute. In conclusion, it verifies that the proposed
method is available to detect ionizing radiation and

* Corresponding author: Tiantian Dai, Department of Radiation
Oncology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, 100029, China,
e-mail: maxinedtt@163.com
* Corresponding author: Qingyang Wei, Beijing Engineering Research
Center of Industrial Spectrum Imaging, School of Automation and
Electrical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing,
Beijing, 100083, China, e-mail: weiqy@ustb.edu.cn
Gangqin Huang, Zhangfa Yan: Beijing Engineering Research Center
of Industrial Spectrum Imaging, School of Automation and Electrical
Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing,
100083, China
Ren-Guey Lee: Department of Electronic Engineering, National
Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
Open Access. © 2020 Gangqin Huang et al., published by De Gruyter.
International License.
measure HR simultaneously with smartphone camera
lens covered by a finger. We have been working on the
development of an Android phone application based on
the algorithms.
Keywords: complementary metal oxide semiconductor
sensors, heart rate measurement, ionizing radiation
detection, smartphone
1 Introduction
The extensive application of nuclear technology in
industry, agriculture, medical science, and other fields
has greatly promoted economic construction and devel-
opment of the world. However, ionizing radiation can
cause damage to humans and animals, such as genetic
mutations and chromosomal aberrations, which cause
one or even several generations of damage and even lead
to death [1]. Potential safety hazards that nuclear
technology may bring cannot be ignored, and various
radioactivity-related accidents occurred, such as nuclear
leakage of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in
March 2011 [2] and Jilin Daqing Drilling and Detecting
Well Company lost the container containing radioisotope
in September 2016 [3]. The Chernobyl accident in 1986
caused many severe radiation effects, and of the 600
workers present at the site, 134 received high doses
(0.8–16 Gy) and suffered from radiation sickness, of
whom, 28 died in the first 3 months [4]. Therefore,
nuclear radiation detection is crucial to ensure nuclear
security. It can reduce the probability of a nuclear
accident on one hand and reduce its damage after a
nuclear accident on the other.
Traditional technologies use dedicated radiation
detection instruments such as gas detectors, scintillator
detectors, and semiconductor detectors [5,6]. Nowadays,
various kinds of novel radiation source locating or
imaging systems [7–10] have been developed for radia-
tion monitoring and fast locating the radiation sources.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
 Simultaneous measurement of ionizing radiation and HR using a smartphone camera
However, these traditional detectors and novel imaging
systems are expensive and require a lot of post-
maintenance, but the relatively low probability of
nuclear-related accidents/incidents makes the use of
these detectors and systems on a large scale cost-
effective.
In recent years, complementary metal oxide semi-
conductor (CMOS) cameras have been used for X/γ-ray
detection and classification [11–14]. This promising
direction has advantages of higher penetration rate and
lower cost compared to traditional methods. Studies
have shown that random bright spots are generated in
images recorded by CMOS image sensors under irradia-
tion of X/γ rays [11–13]. Xu et al. studied the potential of
CMOS image sensors and found that both the mean pixel
value and the cumulative pixel value have a linear
relationship with radiation dose rate [14–16]. Our group
successfully extracted radioactive events in videos and
found that the frequency of the bright spots is positively
correlated with the radiation intensity [17,18]. Several
algorithms were developed to identify the radioactive
events in images or videos recorded by CMOS cameras
[18–20]. Since smartphones have powerful abilities for
information collection and computational analysis and
contain CMOS cameras, using a smartphone to detect
ionizing radiation has become a research hotspot and
many smartphone applications (application [APP]) have
been developed and released. Quick and Drukier et al.
released ionizing radiation detection APPs WikiSensor
[19] and GammaPix [20], respectively, in 2011. However,
both of the APPs only can be used under the condition
that the smartphone camera lens is completely shielded
from light by a light-tight device. A real-time ionizing
radiation detection APP called RayDose is developed by
our group in 2017 [18], which can be used in a static and
non-shading condition. Our group is further working on
the research of nuclear radiation detection based on
uncovered surveillance CMOS camera under dynamic
scene [21].
In this paper, we propose a novel idea for achieving
ionizing radiation detection by using a smartphone with
the CMOS camera lens covered by a finger instead of a
light-tight device, which can also measure the heart rate
(HR) simultaneously. The algorithm for HR measurement
is based on the non-invasive photoplethysmography
(PPG) technology, which was first proposed by Hertzmen
et al. in the 1930s [22]. Many smartphone APPs for HR
monitoring are based on this principle [23–27]. Algo-
rithms were developed to extract the radiation events
and HR simultaneously. Verified experiments were
conducted in the following section.
 567
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Experiments
A certain smartphone (Xiaomi8) with dual 12-megapixel
rear camera (Sony IMX363) was used for studies. The
main rear camera was utilized to record videos. The
image sensor of the camera has a size of 1/2.55 inches
and a single pixel-type of 1.4 µm. The video frame rate
recorded by the smartphone is 30 fps, and the image size
is 1,920 × 1,080. The radioactive source used in
experiments is a ∼33 mCi 99mTc liquid radioactive source
(2 mL) with the γ-ray energy of 140 keV and the decay
half-life of 6.02 h. Two groups of experiments were
carried out. All experiments were carried out in a room
with uniform and constant artificial illumination. In
group 1, the smartphone camera lens was completely
covered by a finger of an adult male subject, and videos
were recorded when the smartphone was set at six
different distances from the radioactive source to obtain
different radiation intensities, ranging from 20 to 70 cm
with a step size of 10 cm. At the same time, we measured
the HR for each experiment using a Heal Force Prince-
100F Oximeter [28]. Figure 1 shows the details of
measurement in group 1. In group 2, the smartphone
camera lens was completely covered by a light-tight
tape. For controlled experiments, six sets of videos were
recorded under the same conditions as group 1. Each
video of the two group experiments was recorded for
1 min continuously. The data were processed by using
MATLAB R2016b (MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA, USA).
Smartphone camera lens
Probe
Heal Force Prince -
100F Oximeter
Figure 1: The details of measurement in group 1.
568  Gangqin Huang et al.
2.2 Image processing
The first procedure is to obtain radiation events in finger
videos. In this procedure, we combine the modified
inter-frame difference method with a threshold method
to identify if a specified frame contains radiation-related
bright spots and count the number of target frames in
1 min. The second procedure is to extract the PPG signals
in the same finger videos and calculate the HRs.
Figure 2 shows the frame image with a bright spot in
the bottom left corner recorded by the smartphone with
the finger-covered camera lens.
Figure 3 is a superimposing image with all bright
spots of a 1 min video recorded by the smartphone with
the finger-covered camera lens and the 99mTc source
placed at a distance of 20 cm from the smartphone. It can
be observed that positions where the bright spots appear
in the image are random. Under the irradiation of γ-rays,
bright spots are also generated and can be clearly
distinguished in the images when smartphone camera
lens was covered by a finger.
Besides, based on our previous research results [14],
bright spots generated by ionizing radiations are
almost impossible to appear at the same position of
adjacent frame images. An inter-frame difference
method combined with a threshold method can be
used to extract radiation-related bright spots in videos.
The algorithm has the advantages of simple implemen-
tation, low programming complexity, insensitivity to
scene light changes, and strong adaptability to dynamic
environment. Details of the algorithm are described
below:
Step 1. The modified inter-frame difference method
calculates the inter-frame difference image Vn . Since the
image background is changed due to blood flow changes
in the finger, in this work, the inter-frame difference
Figure 2: A frame with a bright spot of the video recorded by the
smartphone with the finger-covered camera lens.
Figure 3: A superimposing image with all bright spots of a 1 min
video recorded by the smartphone with the finger-covered camera
lens using the 99mTc source placed at a distance of 20 cm from the
smartphone.
image is calculated by a combination of forward inter-
frame difference method and post inter-frame difference
method, which can improve the accuracy. Assume that
the grayscale images of three consecutive frames in a
video are In − 1, In , and In + 1, where In is the current frame.
Then the forward difference image D1 and the backward
difference image D2 are calculated as follows:
 D1 = In − In − 1
 (1)
 D2 = In − In + 1.
Then the current difference image is calculated as
follows:
Vn = min(D1 , D2 ). (2)
Figure 4 shows the grayscale distributions in two
typical images Vn , Figure 4(a) is the grayscale distribution
of Vn for current frame with bright spots, and Figure 4(b)
is the grayscale distribution of Vn for current frame
without bright spots. We can note that Figure 4(a) has
pixels with large gray value.
Step 2. The threshold method calculates the max-
imum value η of Vn and compares η with the threshold T.
If η > T, the current frame will be judged as a frame
containing bright spots. The setting of the threshold T
affects the detection sensitivity: higher threshold will
decrease the detection sensitivity, and lower threshold
will cause a false detection. The noise approximately
obeys a normal distribution, therefore, the probability of
mistaking noise beyond +4 sigma is 0.00158%. Thus, Tn
can be calculated by equation (3).
Tn = μn + 4σn, (3)
where μn is the mean value of η{1 − n} and σn is the
standard deviation of η{1 − n}, which are dynamically
calculated by equation (4).
 Simultaneous measurement of ionizing radiation and HR using a smartphone camera
Figure 4: The grayscale distributions of two typical images Vn and (a) the grayscale distribution of Vn for current frame with bright spots and
(b) is the grayscale distribution of Vn for current frame without bright spots.
 n−N−1 1 variance. In this work, we used the MATLAB PCA
 μn = μn − 1 n − N + ηn n − N
 ,
 σn = σn − 1 2 n − N − 1 + (η − μ )2 1
 n n
 n−N n−N
where N is the number of frames containing bright spots
in the first n frames N. If ηn > Tn − 1, the current frame
contains bright spots, ηn will not be used to compute μn
and σn .
The algorithms were used to get the number of
frames N1 containing bright spots in 1 min finger videos
when the smartphone camera was placed at the distance
ranging between 20 and 70 cm from the 99mTc source and
the number of frames N2 containing bright spots in 1 min
videos of group 2. Since the radiation intensity is
inversely proportional to the distance from the center
of the radiation source. If the number N1 is proportional
to the square of the distance between camera lens and
radiation source, the number N1 is proportional to the
radiation intensity. Besides, based on our previous
research [17,18], the number N1 and N2 should have a
linear relationship.
The algorithm for HR measurement is based on the
PPG technology [22–27]. Principal component analysis
(PCA) is used for data analysis. The PCA is a technique
commonly used for data reduction in statistical pattern
recognition and signal processing [29]. The basic
principle of PCA is to find an orthogonal transformation
matrix U to convert vector X = [X1, X2,…, XN ]T into a
vector Y = [Y1, Y2,…, YN ]T , the transformation is Y = UX ,
then Y1 is the first component of X, Y2 is the second
component of X, and so forth. The columns of matrix U
are the principle components. They are the eigenvectors
of the covariance matrix, ordered with decreasing
 569
function to carry out PCA. HR measurement algorithms
(4)
are described below:
Step 1. Decompose video frames into red, green, and
blue (RGB) channels and get the R, G, B PPG signals by
taking the mean pixel values of each frame from R, G, B
channels.
Step 2. Conduct PCA, the input vector is R, G PPG
signal combination as Lamonaca’s research has proved
the R channel signal can best reflect heart-beat
information [25]. Besides, the absorption of yellow and
green light by the blood is higher. Figure 5 shows the R,
G PPG signals for 15 s.
Figure 6 is the result of PCA. Principal component
that contains information about HR was selected as the
first principle component.
Step 3. Calculate HR. The PPG signal is a periodic
pulse, and its period is equal to the cardiac cycle period.
We can detect the peaks of the first principle component
signal and get the time interval DT (unit: second)
between adjacent peaks. The HR can be calculated by
equation (5):
60
HR = . (5)
DT
The HR is between 42 and 180 bpm (which is equal
to 0.7–3.0 Hz), in order to avoid false detection of the
venous wave peaks and the gradual wave peaks in the
signal as the peaks of the PPG signal, we limited the time
difference between the peaks by 0.5 s (the median of the
HR range is about 120 bpm). We will detect the peaks in
1 min and calculate the average value of DT to get the
average HR in 1 min.
570  Gangqin Huang et al.
Figure 5: The R, G PPG signals for 15 s.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Results of ionizing radiation detection
Videos recorded by the smartphone with its camera lens
completely covered by a light-tight tape and a finger
were processed by our proposed algorithm. Figure 7
shows the distribution of η for the video recorded with
camera covered by a light-tight tape (Figure 7a and c)
and a finger (Figure 7b and d) for 1,800 frames (equal to
1 min) when the camera was placed at distance of 20 cm
Figure 6: Result of PCA of RG signal combination.
(Figure 7a and b) and 50 cm (Figure 7c and d) from the
99m
Tc source. It can be seen from the pictures that under
the condition that the smartphone camera lens comple-
tely covered by a finger or a light-tight tape, the value of
η is randomly appearing at a large value. Meanwhile, the
number of η at large value in 20 cm is more than in
50 cm, which means the number of η at large value in
high radiation intensity is more than that in low
radiation intensity.
The relationship between the number N and the
distance D is shown in Figure 8. The blue curve fitting is
9.4769 × 104
N1 = D2
for finger video, the red curve fitting is
 Simultaneous measurement of ionizing radiation and HR using a smartphone camera  571

Figure 7: Distribution of η for 1,800 frames with smartphone cameras covered by a light-tight tape (a and c) and a finger (b and d) when the
camera was placed at distance of 20 cm (a and b) and 50 cm (c and d) from the 99mTc source.

1.2047 × 105 not suitable for radiation detection asking for high
N2 = D2
for light-tight video. Thus, both N1 and N2
are approximately inversely proportional to the square of accuracy. Besides, since different types of smartphones
distance, which means the number N is proportional to have various CMOS cameras, the detection efficiency will
the radiation intensity. As the distance D from the be different. However, it has advantages of low-cost,
camera lens to radioactive source is not absolutely easy access to everyone. The algorithm is also simple
accurate, there is a large error in the fitting result and can be used for real-time detection. The accuracy of
at 20 cm. the proposed method is slightly lower than the camera
Figure 9 shows the relationship between N1 and N2
for distances ranging from 20 to 70 cm. It shows that N1
and N2 have a linear relationship, and the linear fitting
result is N1 = 0.9576N2 − 14.6 with R2 = 0.978. N1 has
lower count than N2 , and the ratio of N1 and N2 is
0.9576:1. There are two main reasons for this phenom-
enon: (1) the finger attenuates gamma-rays, the number
of bright spots generated in image is reduced; (2) since
the finger cannot completely block the light, the noise of
finger video image is higher than the light-tight tape
covered video image.
Therefore, under the condition that the smartphone
camera lens is completely covered by a finger, the
camera can record the video to realize the ionizing
radiation detection. However, since the CMOS camera is Figure 8: The relationship between the number N and the distance
not sensitive than the dedicated detectors, the method is from smartphone to radioactive source.
572  Gangqin Huang et al.

Table 1: Results of the HR measurement

HR (bpm) Distance (cm)

20 30 40 50 60 70

Our measurement 77.5 75.9 74.4 75.1 76.3 74.6

Oximeter measurement 77.8 76.2 75.1 75.9 74.5 74.9
The difference −0.3 −0.3 −0.7 −0.8 1.8 −0.3

detection. Meanwhile, we successfully calculated the HR

Figure 9: The relationship between the number N1 and N2.
lens completely blocked. However, the method is very
simple and convenient, and it can be used for fast
detection everywhere without smartphone camera lens
covered by a light-tight tape but a finger.
3.2 Results of HR measurement
from the finger videos, and the HR difference between
our measurement and the oximeter measurement is less
than 2 bpm. In conclusion, the proposed method can
realize ionizing radiation monitoring and HR detection
simultaneously by using a smartphone camera.
We have been working on the development of
an APP based on the algorithm to realize detecting
ionizing radiation and human HR simultaneously. As
smartphones are used by almost everyone everywhere, it
is convenient for the general public to check whether
there are radiation surroundings and measure HR
anytime.

We extracted PPG signals from six sets of videos in group
1 and detected the peaks in 1 min to calculate the
average HR of 1 min. The results of our measurement and
the oximeter measurement are listed in Table 1. The
biggest difference between our measurement and oxi-
meter measurement is 1.8 bpm, less than 2 bpm. It
verifies that the proposed method can measure HR
with a good accuracy.
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
number 11975044), Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities (grant number FRF-TP-19-019A3),
Joint Research Project between University of Science
and Technology Beijing and National Taipei University
of Technology (grant number TW201708), and Science &
Technology on Reliability & Environmental Engineering
Laboratory (grant number 6142004180205).

4 Conclusions
In this paper, we proposed a method for radiation
detection using a smartphone camera by partly shading
the sensor from light with a finger and measure HR
simultaneously. With the proposed algorithm, we iden-
tified whether the recorded video contained the radia-
tion-related spots. The result shows that the number of
frames with bright spots in 1 min inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from smartphone camera to
radioactive resource. It means it has a positive correla-
tion with the radiation intensity of the sensor exposure
to. In addition, the number of frames when the camera
was covered by a finger and the number when the
camera was covered by a light-tight tape have a linear
relationship. It verifies that the method is available for
the camera with a finger pressed on to realize radiation
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