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Chapter 4

Tourist Behaviour and Trends

Lidia Andrades Caldito, Fre´de´ric Dimanche and
Sergey Ilkevich

LEARNING OUTCOMES
As a result of this chapter, the students will
• Understand the wide range of factors that affect tourist choices
• Identify various approaches to tourist motivation
• Understand the need for market segmentation
• Apprehend how technology is changing tourist behaviour
• Understand tourists’ concerns for sustainability
• Learn how to design experiences for tourists
• Be aware of specific tourist markets

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter is devoted to the analysis of tourist behaviour as a funda-
mental aspect to be considered by tourism destinations and businesses
when planning marketing strategies. The chapter addresses the factors
that affect tourists’ preferences and choices, and a special attention will
be paid to sustainability, as far as modern tourists exhibit a growing
concern about the impact of their acts. Moreover, tourists’ motivations
will be discussed, so as to facilitate the readers’ understanding about
tourists’ travel decisions. However different tourists may behave in a
very diverse way, that is why the need for tourists’ segmentation will
be addressed, reflecting on the destinations need for segmentation to
102 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

be able to please different type of tourists with a wide range of expec-

tations, needs, etc.
Another issue that cannot be avoided in a tourist behaviour is the tourist
experience as the essential element around which a competitive destination
should be defined, designed, planned and developed. The elements that
comprise tourists’ experiences will be presented and managerial recommen-
dations will be made.
Finally, tourist behaviour has dramatically changed with the advent of
modern communication tools such as internet, mobile devices, social net-
works, online booking engines, etc. The consequences of the emergence of
information and communication technologies on tourist behaviour will be
discussed.

Chapter Outline

4.1. Introduction
4.2. The Decision-Making Process
4.2.1. How Do Consumers Make Decisions?
4.2.2. Explicative Models for Tourist Behaviour
4.2.3. Tourist Motivation for Travel
4.3. The Tourist Experience
4.4. Meeting the Needs of the Tourist
4.4.1. Market Segmentation
4.4.2. From Market Segmentation to Target Marketing
4.5. Global Consumer Trends
4.5.1. The C-Consumers
4.5.2. The Green Consumers
4.6. Focus on Russian Tourists
4.7. Conclusions and Marketing implications
Discussion Questions
References

4.1. Introduction

Destination marketers and tourism service providers are confronted each

day to a variety of consumer behaviour issues. Understanding consumer
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 103

behaviour, and more specifically tourist behaviour, helps organisations

design their products and services, improve their strategies and satisfy their
clients. All professionals are seeking answers to the following questions:
Why do tourists travel? How do they select a destination? What influence
their decisions? What will create value and satisfaction? To respond to
those questions, it is important to understand (1) the psychology of tourists
(how they think, feel, select and evaluate services and brands); (2) how and
why tourists are motivated to travel and to choose specific destinations and
services; (3) the psychology of how tourists are influenced by their environ-
ment (society, culture, family and friends, but also brands, social media
and advertising); (4) how marketers can adapt their strategies to effectively
reach, attract and satisfy consumers. Responding to and understanding the
above questions and issues are important for three main reasons:

• Understanding visitor behaviour will help make planning and develop-

ment decisions at the destination and at the organisational level.
• Understanding visitor behaviour will help all service providers increase
visitor satisfaction and generate memorable experiences.
• Understanding visitor behaviour is ultimately having an effect on desti-
nations’ economies as well as on businesses’ financial success.

Consumer behaviour can be simply defined as ‘activities people under-

take when obtaining, consuming, and disposing of products and services’
(Blackwell, Miniard, & Engel, 2001, p. 6). We are not only concerned with
these activities, but with the myriad of factors that influence those activities
and the implications of those activities on the consumer and society.
Indeed, tourism marketers should be concerned with all influences that
affect tourists’ complex decision-making processes. Understanding and
analysing consumer behaviour allows us to focus on the tourist, of course,
but also on competing destinations and tourism organisations and firms.
Managers and marketers should spend time evaluating how competitors
react to and adapt to consumer behaviour changes.

4.2. The Decision-Making Process

4.2.1. How Do Consumers Make Decisions?

The study of consumer behaviour, which emerged as a discipline in the

20th century, aims at analysing individuals’ actions related to obtaining,
104 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

using and consuming goods and services. Consumer behaviour is concerned

with the study of why, where, when, how often consumers buy, and about
the impacts of consumption. Classic macroeconomics explains consumers’
decision-making based upon (1) the quantities and prices of the goods
available on the marketplace; (2) consumers’ disposable incomes and
(3) their preferences toward the different available products. However, rea-
lity shows that microeconomics theories may be insufficient to explain con-
sumers’ buying behaviour.
Consequently, the discipline of consumer behaviour developed in
response to the inability of microeconomics to fully explain consumption.
The idea underlining this relatively recent subject is that consumers are
multifaceted and with varying behaviours that depend on internal and
external factors. Thus, to get a good understanding of consumer behaviour,
microeconomics but also psychology, social-psychology, anthropology, or
sociology must be considered to provide a holistic perspective. Given the
complexity of consumer behaviour, it is important to formulate models
that consider all variables affecting choices in order to explain how consu-
mers make decisions (Swarbrooke & Horner, 2004).
The first model to explain consumer behaviour, known as the Model of
Nicosia was formulated in 1966; it presents value as being a simple first
attempt. Following this, Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell (1968), then Howard
and Sheth (1969) proposed alternative models that addressed weaknesses of
Model Nicosia, such as the fact that it did not mention how external fac-
tors moderated consumer behaviour. Since those first models, many others
have been proposed but most of them agree in the following aspects:
(1) consumer behaviour results from stimuli perceived and processed by
consumers; (2) stimuli are evaluated depending on personal preferences and
internal characteristics; (3) behaviour also results from external variables
that modulate consumers’ perceptions and decisions; and (4) after the pur-
chase, consumers reflect about the experience and communicate their satis-
faction/dissatisfaction, learn about the experience and become loyal to
those brands that satisfied them. Figure 4.1 represents the sequential pro-
cess that describes how consumers make purchase decisions.
Such models are typically describing ‘high-involvement purchases’.
High-involvement purchases are defined as those in which consumers make
important efforts, for example by investing time when searching for infor-
mation to minimise the possibility of making a bad choice/decision.
High-involvement purchases occur when the acquisition of products/
services is relevant to consumers, when they have a personal interest in the
product or when the product/service is expensive thus requiring a
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 105

STIMULUS

Information Processing
Internal variables:
“Funnel-like process”
Individual Psychological field: External variables
- Personality Attention - Economic environment
- Interests - Sociocultural
- Involvement Interest environment:
- Attitudes Need - Culture and values
recognition
- Perceptions - Reference groups
awareness
- Knowledge and past - Family
Motivation
experiences/Learning - Social Class
Purchase decision process:
Information search
Evaluation of alternatives
Choice and Purchase

Post-purchase evaluation
Satisfaction/dissatisfaction

Figure 4.1: Consumers’ decision-making process.

substantial economic effort. Consumers may also experience high involve-

ment when they perceive a significant physical, social or financial risk asso-
ciated with the product. In all of these situations, the consumers’
involvement with the purchase will be greater, and the resulting decision
process will be complex, aiming at minimising risk and maximising post-
purchase satisfaction. On the other hand, low-involvement purchase deci-
sion processes are so simple that they do not require a compound model to
explain them.
All models were developed under the premise that consumers have needs,
which will be sequentially satisfied, according to consumers’ priorities
(Maslow, 1943). Following Maslow’s conceptual framework about human-
being motivations, the detection of those needs by the consumer is what
motivates them to initiate a quest for a product/service to satisfy that need.
Consequently, the purchase and consumption of the product reduce the ori-
ginal tension that was generated by the awareness of unsatisfied needs.
Consumer needs can be either latent or manifest. Overall, decision-
making starts when consumers process a commercial or non-commercial
106 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

stimulus (information), which captures their attention or interest and

makes them think that their current situation may be improved if a particu-
lar product/service is purchased and consumed. Accordingly, consumers
begin a search for information about products that may satisfy their needs.
The information will be evaluated in light of their past experiences and cur-
rent knowledge, their own personality, their personal attitudes and values,
etc. But when evaluating information, they will be influenced not only by
internal factors but also by many other external elements that condition
them to make a purchase decision. Among these factors, we may cite the
culture and values prevailing in their society, demographic and economic
aspects of their environment or the opinions of their affinity groups
(family, friends, peers, neighbours, etc.). Consumers ponder alternatives
and end up choosing that one option which, a priori, would maximise
utility and satisfaction. While deciding, consumers will perceive risks (e.g.
economic, functional, social, psychological) that are associated to the pro-
duct purchase. The value of brands is important, since a strong brand will
build trust and facilitate consumer choices. After a purchase, consumers
evaluate the product and, depending on their satisfaction, they may com-
municate about it to acquaintances. In addition, after making purchases
and experiencing products, consumers learn about brands and become
loyal to those that are perceived as the best ones. If this process is used in a
tourist context, destination image and brands arise as an important stimu-
lus to initiate tourists’ buying behaviour.
Since understanding tourists’ needs, preferences and choices is vital for
destinations and businesses, tourist behaviour has been the object of
numerous studies by academic researchers, DMO managers, governments
or by consulting companies. But consumer behaviour, and in particular
tourist behaviour, is complex because of the multiple factors that come in
play. According to Sirakaya and Woodside (2005, p. 825), models explain-
ing tourist behaviour are generally characterised by describing how ‘tour-
ists follow a funnel-like procedure to narrow down choices’ among sets of
alternative products they are aware of. Tourists make successive choices,
eliminating alternatives from a set that comprises acceptable alternatives,
until they finally choose a destination or a brand. Consequently, models
have to explain why tourists reject certain brands to choose others, and
which factors determine tourists’ decisions.
Given the importance of understanding tourist behaviour, numerous
authors have proposed explicative models in the past years. The main con-
tributions are discussed in the following section which presents a brief over-
view of tourist decision-making models.
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 107

4.2.2. Explicative Models for Tourist Behaviour

The first attempt to model tourist behaviour was made by Wahab,

Crompton, and Rothfield (1976), who described tourists as rational
decision-makers who try to maximise their utility when purchasing tour-
ism products. Tourists appraise the consequences of their actions by eval-
uating the cost and the benefits of the different alternatives before
making a decision. Consequently, tourists will choose those products that
seem to them more attractive, and which they perceive as providing the
best affordable value proposition. But when assessing different product
information, they are influenced by other people’s opinions (family,
friends, colleagues and peers on the internet). These reference groups
affect their evaluation process and decision. So marketing managers
should pay attention and provide reasons to those reference groups to
recommend the tourism product. Another implication for destination
management is to build a strong and appealing image and brand for the
destination, since the recognition of a strong brand is likely to influence
tourists’ choices.
Schomoll (1977) drew attention to the fact that although tourists make
rational decisions, they may have limited knowledge of the destination. It is
therefore important to create awareness of the brand in the tourists’ mind,
because even if a destination may be very appealing, consumers may not
choose it because of a lack of information and trust about it. Tourists’
decision-making process depends on the one hand upon stimuli to initiate
it, and on the other one hand, upon external, personal and social variables
that influence tourists while deciding.
Mayo and Jarvis (1981) explained tourists’ choices as the result of their
travel opportunities and goals. They supported previous authors’ under-
standing of the travel decision-making process as one through which multi-
ple variables affect the tourist, with special attention to the influential role
of peer groups and family.
Mathieson and Wall (1982) described tourist purchase decision-making
as a sequential process which starts when tourists feel the desire or need for
travel, and which is followed by an information quest, an evaluation of
that information and finally the travel decision. Their main contribution
was to note that the consumption process continues after the purchase,
when tourists prepare the trip, and when they experience the tourism pro-
duct until they are back home and evaluate their travel experience.
Figure 4.2 describes the process from the time tourists decide to go on a
trip until they are back at home. Tourists make choices across the three
108 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

Pre-consumption
Consumption Post-consumption
• Searching
• Planning • Sharing
• Experiencing
• Expectations • Enjoying • Memories
• Decisions • Evaluation
• Navigating
• Buying • Loyalty building
• Searching
• Anticipation • Short-term decisions • Advocating
• Preparation • On-site buying
• On-site evaluation

Figure 4.2: The consumption of tourism product by tourists.

stages and each stage contributes to the final result of their travelling
experience.
Van Raaij and Francken (1984) investigated how personal factors such
as personality or aspirations, together with household factors like lifestyle
or decision-making style, affect tourists’ decisions. However, Moutinho
(1987) considered that tourists’ travel choices are mainly the consequence
of external variables that affect tourists when they are deciding. Beyond
this consideration, his most remarkable contribution was to point out that
tourists make consecutive decisions, choosing at first the destination and
then other service elements such as accommodation, leisure activities, etc.
So as Figure 4.2 shows, a tourist purchase is not always limited to a pack-
age that provides everything visitors may need. Following Moutinho’s
insight, tourists will often make numerous decisions while travelling, and
destinations and tourism companies have to plan accordingly.
Woodside and Lysonski (1989) reviewed existing models and focussed
their attention on the process through which tourists evaluate the evoked
set of destinations to end up selecting one of them. They first warned about
the small size of the consideration set, three to five destinations at the
most. So working on tourist awareness of a destination is essential, since
tourists who know about a destination before making a decision will
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 109

transfer that knowledge from their long-term memory to their working

memory. Another important issue to consider is that tourists will be
affected by cognitive and emotional situational factors. Tourists’ final
choices will result from the interaction between their intention to visit and
the situation in which they decide.
Figure 4.3 describes how tourist choices result from how they process
information about tourism brands according to their own perceptions,
beliefs, past experiences, knowledge, motivations, etc.

Figure 4.3: The complexity of tourist choice. Source: Adapted from

Walker (2001).

Um and Crompton (1990) analysed the role of tourists’ attitudes when

choosing a tourism destination. They also studied how destination image
affects tourists’ attitudes toward destinations. Azjen and Driver (1992)
evaluated those internal factors (e.g. attitudes, intentions, motivations,
involvement) that may affect tourist choices. Involvement is understood as
the extent to which a tourism product or recreational activity is relevant
for tourists, making them feel motivated, interested or aroused toward it
110 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

(Andrades & Dimanche, 2014; Havitz & Dimanche, 1997, 1999). Tourists
that exhibit a higher level of involvement with a destination, due for
instance to social bonds that link them to the destination, will have more
positive attitudes toward the destination and will present a greater motiva-
tion and intention to visit.
Woodside and MacDonald (1994) critiqued the previous consensus
about tourists making rational decisions and explained how tourist choices
may be sometimes irrational. Accordingly, Walker (2001) highlighted the
need for more realistic models, as evidenced in Figure 4.2, to describe tour-
ist behaviour. Moreover, reflecting over the complexity inherent to explain-
ing tourist behaviour, Woodside and MacDonald introduced another
aspect to be considered, the influence that the travel party has in travel
decisions. Indeed, the selection of a destination is only the first choice, but
many other decisions will be taken at the destination, and the travel party
may then have a substantial role to play.
Independent travellers are a growing market. Hyde and Lawson (2003)
suggested that independent travellers’ motivations are reflected in their
decision-making process at destinations. By independent travellers they
meant those who are willing to take risks in choosing vacation elements,
who enjoy experiencing the unplanned, and who experience an evolving
itinerary.
A particularly important aspect of studying tourist behaviour is to
understand the reasons why travellers choose a tourism product instead of
another. Tourist motivations are indeed a key component to understand.
The knowledge of tourists’ motivations brings to destination managers use-
ful information about tourist needs and wants, and helps them with desti-
nation planning and marketing. Tourist motivations are discussed in the
next section.

4.2.3. Tourist Motivation for Travel

Motivation is a driving force that stimulates consumers’ behaviour

(Fodness, 1994). Motivated behaviours result from tourists’ biological or
psychological needs, desires and wants (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Motivators
for travel or behavioural activators could be the chance to share good times
with family and friends, to escape home and work routine, to explore and
discover new cultures, to rest and relax, to practice favourite activities, to
indulge in luxury, etc. Motivation can be defined as those primary forces
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 111

that encourage, guide and sustain a person’s behaviour (Dann, 1981; Iso-
Ahola, 1999). This concept has often been used as a predictor of travelling
behaviour and tourist choice. Knowing about tourists’ motivations is there-
fore important for destination and tourism firms’ managers. Motivation
can be a useful variable to define tourism products, to segment markets,
and to efficiently use tourism resources, in order to meet tourists’ needs,
expectations and desires.
A theoretical framework that is generally well accepted is the ‘pull and
push model of motivation’ (Dann, 1977; Uysal, Li, & Sirakaya-Turk,
2008). According to this framework, tourists travel because they are pulled
and pushed by ‘some forces’ (Dann, 1981; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Push
motivations are internal desires and emotions that make tourists feel like
going away from home and travelling, while pull motivations are mainly
external reasons that induce in tourists the desire to travel or to visit a
particular destination (Gnoth, 1997). These external reasons are related to
tourism destination attributes and situational conditions, while the internal
reasons for travel are more related to tourists’ personal desires and needs
(Crompton, 1979; Kim & Lee, 2002). Pull motivations are encouraged by
the appeal of the destination, so destination attributes such as landscape,
culture, history, mix of activities, climate, etc. may stimulate and
strengthen tourists’ desire for travelling. Destination positioning, branding
and building a strong and appealing image are essential to motivate tour-
ists to visit.

Box 4.1: Image of Russia in the United States

Stepchenkova and Morrison (2006) studied how American tour opera-
tors portrayed Russia on their websites. They identified 10 image
themes of Russia that influence how American people see Russia:
• Culture and history;
• Nature parks;
• Siberia and Baikal;
• Cruise tours;
• Moscow and St. Petersburg;
• Solovki, Kamchatka and hunting.
‘The most prevalent themes were related to the cultural, historical,
and arts aspects of the Russian image (culture and history; Moscow;
(Continued )
112 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

St. Petersburg), and the natural features of Russia (Kamchatka; nat-

ure parks; Baikal; Siberia)’ (p. 954). The authors concluded that US
tour operators narrowly position Russia as a historic and cultural
destination, with a geographic focus on western Russia.

As shown in Figure 4.4 (already presented in Chapter 3) tourism desti-

nations can be understood as systems that have two central elements: On
the one hand, destinations resources and attractors, and the other hand,
tourists for whom the destination is developed. Destinations develop and
build their value proposition based upon their core resources and attrac-
tors, and these represent external motivating factors for tourists. Since des-
tinations should meet tourists’ expectations, marketers have first to
understand tourists’ intrinsic motivations for travel, and then provide tour-
ists with chances to fulfil those needs and expectations. If a destination can
do this efficiently, tourists will be satisfied and they will become loyal to
that destination. When tourists come back to a destination and recommend
it to their peers, they heavily contribute to destination sustainability and
competitiveness.
Tourists’ motivations may vary along the consumption process. There
are motivations that can work as initiators of the purchasing phase, for
instance, when tourists are at home and realise the need to escape routine.
Later, at the destination, other motives may influence tourists’ choices
related to the activities they may enjoy, from participating in cultural visits
or engaging in recreational sports activities. Finally, once they are back
home, tourists’ motivations to communicate about their travel experience
may also be varied, from the need to share memories with peers, to make
recommendations, or to indulge in self-expression.
Despite the importance of understanding such an important aspect of
consumer behaviour, professionals and academic researchers are still con-
fronted to problems in determining tourist motivation. Tourism is such a
complex phenomenon with very varied products and service that the range
of needs that are addressed is very broad. Tourist motives result from inter-
nal and external factors and motivation is often multi-dimensional. Those
needs and motivations may be deeply rooted in tourists’ minds and are
sometimes difficult to uncover. Finally, tourist motives evolve over time
and even change, for the same person, from one trip to another.
Motivation remains a complex subject. If efforts must be made to better
understand what motivates tourists to visit a destination, tourism
 ALTERNATIVE TOURISM DESTINATIONS DEMAND CONDITIONS
Tourists’ experiences
Competitor X Competitor Z

Competitor Y Pre-consumption

Competitive Comparative
advantages advantages

perceived images
Tourism destinations
Situational
Tourist A Conditions
Organization Unanimated environment

Core resources and During

Destination policy, Attractors consumption
Planning and
Development
Tourists’ expectations
Supporting factors and
Tourist B
Communication - Social media

resources
Qualifying and Tourist C
amplifying
Contact personnel
Determinants Set of destination
Accommodations and advantages/
Destination Restaurants
Post-consumption benefits perceived
Management
Care and treatment by the tourist C
ia
ed

TOURISM DESTINATION
Perceived value per money lm
o cia

Tourism destination perceived image

INVISIBLE VISIBLE -S
n
tio
ica
Tourism Destination as a service delivery system un
m
m
Co

Set of destination advantages/ TOURISM MARKETS

benefits perceived by the tourist A

Figure 4.4: Tourism destinations and tourism markets: A service delivery system approach.
Tourist Behaviour and Trends
113
114 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

professionals must remain cautious when making policy decisions based on

motivation studies.

4.3. The Tourist Experience

Following the process that leads to the choice of a destination and type of
accommodations and activities, tourists actually have an on-site experience
that will either satisfy or dissatisfy them. Satisfaction is reached when tour-
ists perceive quality and high performance in the delivery of tourism ser-
vices. Satisfaction is achieved if the overall tourist experience matches the
expectations that have been formed by personal needs, previous experience
and various marketing messages. Of course, expectations may vary consid-
erably from one tourist segment to another. Different segments may exhibit
different expectations, motivations, interests, etc. (Ballantyne, Packer, &
Sutherland, 2011).
Providing tourists with memorable and satisfying travel experiences is a
complex task that requires an understanding of tourist motivations and
expectations. Experiences are personal and may be described as the indivi-
dual and subjective response that tourists have after interacting with a
tourism destination or a tourism firm. Furthermore, tourists’ experiences
integrate a set of physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, subjective
impressions that are acquired from the planning phase of the trip till the
return home (Andrades, 2012; Otto & Ritchie, 1996; Pine & Gilmore, 1998).
In a competitive environment, destinations and firms can differentiate
themselves by providing tourists with unforgettable experiences. Tourism
managers have to implement segmentation strategies to identify their
potential visitors’ needs and wants, and subsequently develop the right
positioning strategies to reach the selected target markets. But the crucial
stage in the implementation of positioning strategies that promise memor-
able experiences for tourists is the effective delivery of such experiences. So
the key questions to be answered are: How can destinations and firms
design and supply memorable experiences to their customers? What are the
basic components of a tourist experience?
Table 4.1 proposes some of the aspects that managers need to address in
order to design peak experiences for tourists. The factors may be grouped
around three main components of the experience: (1) the unanimated envir-
onment where the experience is delivered; (2) the need to involve tourists
and make them actively participate in the co-creation of the experience
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 115

Table 4.1: Components of memorable tourism experiences.

1. About the physical environment where the experience is provided

• Theming the experience and setting the stage;
• Defining the mix of memorabilia;
• Engaging the tourists’ five senses;
• Respecting the authenticity and singularity of the place when designing
activities.
2. About the need to involve tourists
• Offering the possibility to choose between a wide range of alternatives;
• Managing each touch point and service encounter to enhance the
experience;
• Surprising tourists with amazing moments, exceeding their
expectations;
• Facilitating a safe environment so tourists perceive control over the
situation and low risk.
3. About the need to facilitate personal growth
• Aligning the experience with positive cues that match tourists’ values;
• Offering freedom for self-discovery and time to interact with local
communities;
• Planning activities to connect tourists with local communities and their
singular resources;
• Proposing challenges that match tourists’ skills, so self-growth, self-
expression, and self-actualisation will be fostered.

and (3) the need to amaze, surprise, challenge, facilitate tourists’ self-
development and growth.
One key recommendation is to involve tourists in the co-creation of
experiences. Managers should plan opportunities for effective interactions
between tourists and service providers, other tourists at the destination,
and the host community.
The travel experience does not end on the last day of the trip. It con-
tinues when tourists are at home and when they reflect over their experi-
ence, reminisce about the good times, and share with others their
impressions. At this stage, tourists may share photographs that help them
to construct their travel narrative (Urry, 2003), or amateur videos which
represent a powerful means of ‘transportation’ to destinations (Tussyadiah &
Fesenmaier, 2009), allowing others to experience the destination without
moving geographically and motivating them to visit in the future. They can
116 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

also write comments in travel blogs or review sites to share their interpreta-
tion of the destination at the time, which helps them build their social identity
(Kane, 2011). This post-consumption, as described in Figure 4.2, is relevant
and provides stimuli for other tourists to visit the destination, helping them
to evaluate alternatives before making a decision. Tourists will avoid those
places or tourism services whose reviews are not positive (Gretzel & Yoo,
2008). Consequently, tourists are active in creating, reinforcing or devaluating
destination images while sharing their post-visit experiences. This can be a
threat to tourism managers, but it should be considered as an opportunity.
Destinations and services that are able to create and manage quality experi-
ences will greatly benefit from the tourists’ contributions.

4.4. Meeting the Needs of the Tourist

4.4.1. Market Segmentation

Global tourism markets have greatly evolved. New source markets (and
new destinations) are emerging, particularly in Asia. As a consequence, it is
expected that by 2030 the traditionally top two destination regions, Europe
and North America, will have their market share significantly reduced in
favour of Asia and the Pacific. Tourist profiles are changing as well.
Travellers in 2030 will have different values, customs and will expect differ-
ent tourism experiences according to their respective wants and needs. The
Future Foundation report (2015) produced for the Global Distribution
System (GDS) Amadeus on future traveller tribes states that future travel-
lers will not respond to classic socio-demographic patterns, but that their
profiles will be determined by their values, behaviours and specific needs.
The report identifies six traveller ‘tribes’ that will configure the tourism
market in 2030: ‘simplicity searchers’; ‘cultural purists’; ‘social capital see-
kers’; ‘reward hunters’; ‘obligation metres’ and ‘ethical travellers’. As
expected, each of them will look for different experiences. Understanding
how tourism markets are evolving provides tourism managers with relevant
information to guide destination management. Market segmentation helps
destination managers and tourism suppliers devise the best strategies to
adopt in order to attract target markets. Benefits from effective segmenta-
tion are well-known and range from better meeting customers’ needs,
achieving a differentiated position for the tourism brand, to focussing on
those areas where improvements are better acknowledged by tourists. The
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 117

following section describes some theoretical foundations for implementing

segmentation strategies.

4.4.2. From Market Segmentation to Target Marketing

Since there are many tourist markets, it is essential for a destination and
for businesses to select carefully the potential customers to be reached,
attracted and satisfied. A successful positioning strategy can only be imple-
mented when the organisation has a good knowledge of its target markets.
In order to create value, tourism companies are expected to fit their services
to their clients, but this is only possible when a thorough market segmenta-
tion and target selection has been performed.
Market segmentation is a process that splits the market into smaller
groups of potential tourists who exhibit similar needs, wants, behaviours,
etc. In addition, each group should be dissimilar to other identified groups.
Knowing the common features of these market subgroups will allow tour-
ism companies to personalise their offer, to better address potential custo-
mers’ specific expectations and to satisfy them. If segmenting means
dividing the market into submarkets, the essential decision to make is to
choose the segmentation variables that will help differentiate between cus-
tomers. Classic variables have been geographical, demographic or socioeco-
nomic variables. More specific tourism segmentation variables have been
purpose of travel, tourist needs, motivation and benefits sought, willingness
to pay, etc. However, markets are evolving and traditional variables may
not be as useful as they used to. Although geographic and socio-
demographic variables remain important, they must be completed by psy-
chographic and behavioural variables. Variables which have been suggested
as useful when segmenting tourism markets may be tourist information
search behaviour or tourists’ sentiments. Examples can be found in the
identification of traveller tribes (Future Foundation, 2015).
Some issues must be considered when deciding which segmentation vari-
ables to use. Typically, the following criteria are used to judge segmenta-
tion alternatives:

• Ease of identification;
• Segment size;
• Segment accessibility;
• Strategic/operational effectiveness;
• Segment stability.
118 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

First, the variables must be differentiating. They must contribute to

easily differentiate between people within a market. Second, a segment
must be large enough to warrant efforts and investment. Third, a segment
must be realistically reachable (communication) and accessible (distribution
and sales). Fourth, variables must be operational to be easily used and
measured by tourism marketers. Finally, a segment must be stable over
time so that marketing efforts can be made and yield results that will bene-
fit the destination and the tourism organisations.
Once the market has been segmented, tourism organisations will have to
evaluate the attractiveness of each market and decide which to target. Once
a target is identified, a set of marketing strategies must be designed and
implemented to reach, attract and satisfy the target market by meeting their
needs. Specific marketing plans must be actively pursued to achieve success
with each target market.

4.5. Global Consumer Trends

4.5.1. The C-Consumers

This section addresses what may be the greatest change with respect to con-
sumer behaviour, a change that has affected tourism, and also other retail
sectors and people’s lifestyles. A new type of consumer was born as a result
of the technological evolutions of the late 20th century as well as a conse-
quence of globalisation. Today’s consumers are increasingly connected;
they are in fact always connected. This generation of consumers may be
called the ‘C-generation’ or the connected generation (Dimanche, 2010).
Unlike the baby-boomers or generations X and Y, the C-generation is not
limited to an age group. People of all ages have adopted a new connected
lifestyle with their electronic devices. Mobile devices such as laptops, tablets
and smartphones have made it possible for people to always be connected,
at the office and at home, on the road, and in destinations. This connected
consumer has earlier been called the e-consumer (electronic consumer).
More recently, connected mobile tourists have been called m-tourists: they
use mobile electronic devices such as smartphones or tablets.
The C-consumer (see Figure 4.5) is changing the way businesses and des-
tinations are approaching marketing and their relationships with visitors.
C stands first for Connected. New consumers feel the need to be always
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 119

Figure 4.5: The C-consumer.

connected. Even on vacations, they are connected to their devices and, as a

result, to networks and to work. Not only are consumers constantly check-
ing their smartphones, they will soon be wearing connected watches that
carry multi-purpose applications from way-finding to hotel room keys.
Travellers are connected to keep in touch with Contacts, but also to get
Content anytime. This is the Google generation that is constantly looking
for information, news, photos or videos. Not only are people consuming
content, they are also creating and posting content. Thanks to web 2.0
technologies, tourists post pictures and videos, write blogs, share ideas and
experiences, write evaluations and recommendations. They can do this any-
time and faster than any business or destination could do it. It is therefore
important for organisations to learn how to use such consumers. For exam-
ple, a destination, a hotel, or an attraction can set up strategies to encou-
rage the posting and sharing of positive information toward peers and
networks. Certainly, the organisation loses some control … but it is at that
price (or risk) that the C-consumer will contribute to its marketing efforts.
The connected traveller evolves from being a passive consumer (I read and
consume information) to an active one (I produce information, I share it,
and I persuade others). As a result, new tourist typologies (some call them
tribes) are emerging.
120 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

The C also stands for Cross-channel. New consumers easily go from one
channel to another to purchase and to communicate and may even do that
simultaneously on several channels. They may start a relationship with a
service provider through one channel but will go through several channels
before completing their transactions and customer experiences. Control is
also important for the C-generation: The consumer can look for informa-
tion and ask for advice anytime and wherever. They like to make their own
decisions and they are in control of their own groups. This client is also a
star! They at the centre of their networks and their comments, photos and
videos are accessible, if they wish, to all. They can also have products and
services that are uniquely customised for them. Customization is another
key point. This new consumer wants to be co-creator of the services they
purchase. We increasingly see hotel and travel companies designing
dynamic packaging opportunities that respond to this trend. Finally, the
C-generation changes traditional market segmentation efforts. We now
address communities, networks, and even tribes (Future Foundation,
2015). These communities of consumers are multinational, multi-age and
bring people together around travel preferences and behaviours.
Organisations now have to share control and (marketing) power with con-
nected travellers.

4.5.2. The Green Consumers

Sustainable development has grown since the late 1980s as a new approach
for tourism planning and management. The basic tenet of sustainable
development is that natural resources are limited and should be managed
so that they can still be enjoyed by and continue to provide economic bene-
fits for future generations. Parallel to the growing concern for sustainability
from a government and business perspective (focus on Corporate Social
Responsibility or CSR), the late 20th century has witnessed a growing con-
sumer concern for the environment. People are increasingly paying atten-
tion to environmental degradation, pollution, and to the overall impacts of
human behaviour on global warming and the natural environment. The
emerging ‘green consumer’ is mindful of the environment and is supportive
of environmental causes. Such consumers change their purchase behaviour
and may even switch brands or products to have a lesser impact on the
environment.
In fact, there is no such thing as a green tourist. Rather, studies find
that consumers vary on a continuum and present different behaviours,
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 121

depending on situations. Differences between consumers can be explained

with the following factors (Horner & Swarbrooke, 2006, p. 181):

• Awareness and knowledge of the issues;

• Attitudes toward the environment in general;
• Other priorities in life (such as making a living);
• Information obtained from the media and pressure groups;
• Their health, family commitments and housing.

In response to the greening trends, governments, destinations, and com-

panies are increasingly implementing sustainable development strategies
and numerous ‘green’ labels and certifications have been established
(e.g. Green Globe, Green Key, European Ecolabel). Consumers may be
confused by all these certifications and by companies’ and destinations’
assertions that they are green!
But the trend towards more environmental responsibility and account-
ability is strengthening. Companies are increasingly focussing on sustain-
ability because of government regulations, competitive pressure and
customer demand. From a tourist behaviour perspective, companies believe
that visitors look for green companies and might choose green companies
as opposed to ‘non-green’ ones. For example, hotel group Accor has
invested resources and made strong efforts to become the leading hotel
group with respect to sustainability. However, research has shown that
even though visitors may declare positive attitudes towards the environ-
ment and sustainable tourism, only a few of them act accordingly
(Budeanu, 2007). Nonetheless, there is growing evidence that travellers are
expecting green practices from suppliers. Even though the sustainable tour-
ism concept did not emerge from the demand side, creating a sustainable
future will require fundamental changes in attitude and behaviour from
governments and industries as well as from individual tourists.

4.6. Focus on Russian Tourists

Until the late 20th century, the tourism sector in the Russian Federation
consisted mostly of internal tourism. The number of domestic travellers in
Russia went from about 52 million people movements in 1990 to reach 96.3
million trips in 2011. The economic impact of those trips was 444,200
million rubles in 2006, and it was expected to reach 713,815 million rubles
122 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

in 2016, demonstrating the growth of Russian internal tourism

(Euromonitor, 2012). Russian tourists enjoy visiting traditional destina-
tions like Moscow, St. Petersburg, or Sochi, as well as many others places
along this vast country. Their motivations for travelling are similar to those
of tourists from other countries: They like culture, nature, or gastronomy,
but they exhibit a particular interest for health and spa destinations.
If, on the one hand, internal tourism has a long tradition in the coun-
try and is well developed, on the other hand, international tourism, both
inbound and outbound, has been limited until the late 1990s, mostly due
to political reasons. Among the forces that drove the transformation of
the Russian tourism sector into a more open one, the most significant
were ‘the fall of the Iron Curtain, the abolition of the state monopoly on
certain types of business activities, the privatization of government-owned
enterprises, price liberalization, the creation of a legislative and legal fra-
mework for domestic businesses, favoured nations status to foreign busi-
nesses operating in Russia’ (Furmanova, Balaevab, & Predvoditelevab,
2012, p. 17). The total number of trips made by Russian citizens to non-
CIS countries in 2010 almost tripled compared to 2000 and between 2005
and 2013; the number of foreign trips taken by Russians rose 118% to
reach 31.5 million trips in 2013. This growth stopped in 2014/2015 as a
result of the Ukraine crisis which was followed by a devaluation of the
ruble. International tourism is nonetheless developing in the country, and
the number of Russians who want to travel abroad for holidays is
growing.
According to Euromonitor, preferred international destinations for
Russians are Ukraine (7.9 million Russian tourist visits in 2010), Turkey
(3 million), Egypt (2.7 million) or China (2.3 millions). Social bonds, price
competitiveness, as well as relative proximity and accessibility, may explain
these preferences. Besides, during the period from 2000 to 2013, an increas-
ing flow of Russian tourists was recorded to European Union countries
such as Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy and Spain. In 2013
Russia was the fastest growing tourism market for Europe. This trend is
expected to continue with a flourishing Russian middle class (European
Travel Commission & World Tourism Organization, 2015), if the geopoliti-
cal and economic situation improves. However, this growth is expected to
be more modest. Russians who travel abroad are sensitive to prices when
choosing a destination. Consequently, changes in the exchange rate will ser-
iously affect their decisions in favour of Russian destinations. So in the
short run, internal tourism will be reinforced at the expense of outbound
tourism.
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 123

About half of the Russians who travel abroad are using the internet as
an information source, and unlike tourists from other countries, they rarely
book their trips through internet. Due to this behaviour, Russian tourists
travelling abroad are still very dependent upon outbound tour operators
and travel agencies. Tour operators are considered as a good source of
information when planning a holiday trip. Russians mostly book through
travel agencies, and often select destinations offering sun and beach holi-
days. Only 5% of the Russian tourists book their holidays online
(European Travel Commission & World Tourism Organization, 2015).
However, for those booking online, internet represents an influential source
of information (Fotis, Buhalis, & Rossides, 2011). After analysing a panel
of 345 Russian internet users, they found that internet users may be willing
to change their travel plans during a trip because of the influence of social
media.
With respect to motivation for travelling, Russians seek good weather
and rest, usually in sun and beach destinations, but they also look for
added value from cultural, gastronomy, shopping and sightseeing elements
to enhance their travel experience. Although shopping may not be the main
motivation for travelling, it is still a key factor. For instance, Russian tour-
ists were the second nationality as measured by expenditure in Spain in
2013. They bought mainly clothes and accessories (55.8%); personal elec-
tronic devices and household stuff (14.8%) and travelling items, watches
and jewellery (Renedo-Sedano, 2014). When travelling abroad, Russian
tourists like to visit historic buildings, museums and castles, they enjoy eat-
ing at restaurants, clubbing and visiting theme parks (Renedo-Sedano,
2014; U.S. Department of Commerce, 2011; VisitBritain, 2014). Most
Russians declared that when they are on holidays, they like to see famous
and well-known locations. They often chose destinations that have beauti-
ful resources, and a third of them enjoy exploring new places that are not
overcrowded (VisitBritain, 2014). Most travel abroad in summer and
around Christmas and their trip last about 10 days on average. They
usually choose hotels as the main type of accommodation (European
Travel Commission & World Tourism Organization, 2015).
No matter where they travel, there are some features that may be speci-
fic to Russian tourists:

• An increasing unwillingness to obtain visas via complicated and lengthy

procedures; a shift towards visa-free destinations;
• Regional variability in destination preferences, due to geographic
proximity;
124 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

• Late booking and buying decisions, both for accommodation and trans-
portation, for both holidaymakers and business travellers;
• High price elasticity of tourist demand for mass tourism, and a relatively
low price elasticity for high-end tourism products;
• A preference for hot and heavy meals, and for dark bread;
• A limited knowledge of foreign languages, including English. In mass
tourism destinations, they expect some personnel to know Russian.

Belova (2014, p. 190) described Russian tourists as people who are

‘open, often unwary, characterized by breadth of mind and optimism, hop-
ing to the so-called “Russian avos”’ (‘Whatever, I’m sure I’ll get lucky’)
even in the most inappropriate situations, gambling, loving all that is
cheap, and even preferring to get it for free. ‘Russian tourists, especially
holidaymakers, love to relax with good singing and dancing’ (translation
by the authors).
In a report published by VisitBritain (2014), guidelines are made for
British hoteliers and tour operators with respect to Russian tourists; recom-
mendations include the following:

• Russians tend to book at the last minute; it is estimated that 80% of

holidays packages are traded in the last four weeks before departure.
• A big majority of Russians, middle and lower middle class in particular,
prefer to travel in groups. By contrast, the most affluent Russians prefer
to take individual trips.
• Russian tourists are adventurous, active and participative, sociable, and
seeking fresh experiences.

Also, Russian tourists, according to this report, may be perceived as

cold and not very open or polite. It is nonetheless noted that Russian tour-
ists may be willing to spend more than they can afford during their
holidays.
Accessibility to a country is very important to international arrivals and
Russian tourists are increasingly unwilling to deal with difficult visa proce-
dures. This is particularly evident in the case of Britain, which was in 2013
the 32nd most visited country by Russians although the country attracts
Russians and is still considered as a prestigious destination. The average
expenditure by Russian tourists in Britain is 1057 pounds per visit, well
above the 600 pounds per trip that average international tourists make. But
obtaining a British visa is substantially more difficult than getting a
Schengen visa, which provides access to 26 countries across Europe, and
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 125

this places Britain in a very disadvantaged position (Prynn, 2013).

Nonetheless, even getting a Schengen visa is increasingly perceived by
many Russian tourists as a difficult and time-wasting process. As a result,
the EU may lose out to visa-free countries or countries that propose easier
visa procedures or multiple entry visas.
Finally, from a socio-demographic perspective, the Russian market can
simply be seen as two main groups: The low-end to middle-class mass tour-
ists who enjoy tanning on the beach in Greece, Turkey, Egypt or Bulgaria,
and high-end luxury travellers who travel further to world-renown top-end
destinations such as London, the French Riviera and Monaco or
Courchevel.

Box 4.2: Russian Travel Tribes

In their 2015 report titled ‘Understanding Russian outbound tour-
ism — What the Russian blogosphere is saying about Europe’ the
European Travel Commission (ETC) and the World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO) identified four Russian travel tribes based
on a netnographic study of Russian blogs and travel forums:
• The ‘rookie’ (50 60% of Russian travellers)
• The ‘travel guru’ (25 35%)
• The ‘immersive explorer’ (10 20%)
• The ‘wealthy world citizen’ (5%).
Each of those four tribes exhibit various travel experiences, motiva-
tions and shared values that impact what Russians are looking for in
terms of travel products and marketing messages.

4.7. Conclusions and Marketing Implications

It is important for tourism professionals to understand the basic models

that attempt to explain consumer behaviour. Indeed, it is the responsibility
of the tourism manager/marketer to identify target markets, attract them
to a destination and satisfy them though the provision of good experiences.
It is indeed tourism professionals’ responsibility to develop marketing and
management strategies that are based on an accurate knowledge of tourist
behaviour trends. Tourists have various motivations, expectations, and
126 Lidia Andrades Caldito et al.

behaviours, and tourists differ according to nationality, culture, social

class, travel experience, etc. It is also important for professionals to review
travel demand data and the factors that affect international and national
demand. They should identify sources of information such as the
UNWTO, the ETC, as well as Russian sources of tourism statistics and
information.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What models help you understand consumer behaviour?

2. Think about your own motivation to travel. What internal or
personal factors would push you to go on a trip? Which destina-
tion would you choose to travel to and why? How does the desti-
nation match your personal motives to travel?
3. Discuss the extent to which Russian travellers are free to choose
a destination for their holidays. What factors are constraining
their choices?
4. Choose a tourism destination in your region and identify its ‘pull
factors’. Then choose a tourist market segment whose ‘push fac-
tors’ are likely to be matched and satisfied by your destination.
5. In the context of a Russian destination of your choice, read that
destination print and online marketing materials and determine
the various target markets the destination is attempting to
attract. Write a description of these markets in terms of consu-
mer behaviour.
6. Consult the report published by the Future Foundation and
Amadeus and read the descriptions of the six traveller tribes.
Identify people you know and explain how they might fit in some
of those tribes.
7. Consult the ETC — UNWTO report on Russian outbound tour-
ism and read the description of Russian traveller tribes. Which
tribe do you belong to?
8. Is social class important in people’s choice of vacation
destination?
9. Why should tourism professionals use market segmentation?
 Tourist Behaviour and Trends 127

10. What is the image of Western Europe in your mind and that of
your peers?
11. How are Russian destinations using new information technology
and mobile devices to create value for tourists?

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