BIOLOGY AOS 1 – SAC TASK 1 (CHECKLIST)

Write the word and chemical equation for photosynthesis.

Identify the two stages in photosynthesis, define what happens in each, where they happen and
list the inputs and outputs.
Light-dependent stage:
Light-dependent stage is the first stage of photosynthesis, where photolysis occurs in which light
energy splits water molecules in oxygen gas and hydrogen ions, exciting the electrons in the
chlorophyll in the process. Light-dependent stage occurs in the thylakoid membrane of the
chloroplast.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
 Twelve water (H2O) molecules.  6 oxygen (O2) molecules.
 Twelve NADP . +
 Twelve NADPH.
 Twelve ADP + Pi.  Twelve ATP.

Steps of light-dependent stage:

1. Inside the thylakoid, light energy splits water into H+, electrons, and oxygen. It also excites
the electrons in chlorophyll, which is embedded in the thylakoid membrane.
2. The oxygen is released from the chloroplast. It will either diffuse out of the stomata into the
environment or be used as an input for cellular respiration.
3. The H+ and electrons (from water and chlorophyll) are used to generate the high energy
coenzyme NADPH (NADP+ + H+ à NADPH) and ATP (ADP + Pi à ATP). This is possible through a
series of interactions with proteins in the thylakoid membrane, and movement of H + down
its concentration gradient.
4. ATP and NADPH coenzymes then move on to the light-independent stage.
Light-independent stage:
Light-independent stage is the second stage of photosynthesis, in which glucose (the main organic
compound) is produced a cycle of reactions. Light-independent stage occurs in the stroma of the
chloroplasts.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
 6 carbon dioxide (CO2) molecules.  Glucose (C6H12O6).
 Twelve NADPH.  Twelve NADP+.
 Twelve ATP.  Twelve ADP + Pi.
 Six water (H2O) molecules.

Steps of light-independent stage:

1. Carbon dioxide molecules enter the light-independent stage which is powered by ATP.
During these reactions, the carbon atoms of the CO2 molecules form chains, eventuating in
glucose molecules.
2. NADPH formed in the light-dependent reactions unload their hydrogen ions and electrons to
produce glucose.
3. The additional oxygen molecules from CO2 and hydrogen ions from NADPH bind together to
create water.
Explain the following – Why does the light independent stage of photosynthesis (the Calvin Cycle),
depend on the light dependent stage?
In the Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, the chemical energy derived from the light-
dependent reactions in the form of NADPH and ATP are used as reactants/inputs which drives both
the capture of carbon in carbon dioxide molecules and the subsequent assembly of sugar molecules.
Essentially, the products of the light-dependent reaction is required to allow the function of light-
independent stage.
There are a few things that can impact the rate of photosynthesis, these things are excellent
factors to test in an experiment! Make sure you can explain what each of the following does to the
rate of photosynthesis:
Change in amount of carbon dioxide.
What happens when there is a change in carbon dioxide concentration?
An increase in CO2 concentration increases the rate of respiration and the rate at which carbon is
incorporated into carbohydrate, glucose, in the light-independent reaction.

What are the limiting factors of carbon dioxide concentration (what causes the plateau (x))?
1. If water and light are unlimited, the maximum rate of photosynthesis can be reached when
increasing CO2. This is because the enzyme-catalysed systems within the chloroplast are
operating as fast as they possibly can.
2. Another requirement of photosynthesis, such as water or light, has become the limiting
factor in the reaction.
Change in amount of light.
What happens when there is a change in light intensity?
The more photons of light that is available and gets captured by the chloroplast during the light-
dependent stage, the more the chlorophyll can capture and phosphorylate ADP + P i and NADP+ to
generate ATP and NADPH, thus, increasing its production.
What happens when there is too much light intensity?
When there is too much light intensity it can damage the chlorophyll.

What are the limiting factors of light intensity (what causes the plateau (x))?
1. If water and CO2 are unlimited, the maximum rate of photosynthesis can be reached by
increasing light intensity. This is due to the chloroplast’s enzymes operating at full capacity.
When this happens, it is known as a light-saturation curve, as the plant is saturated with
light.
2. Another input, typically CO2 (as water is usually in surplus), has become the limiting factor in
the reaction.
Change in temperature.
What happens when there is a change in temperature?
Photosynthesis involves the use of many enzymes which function best within their optimal
temperature range and can be denatured at high temperatures. The rate of photosynthesis is
greatest when the temperature matches the enzyme’s optimal temperature. Directly effects both
the light-dependent and light-independent stage, as both processes are catalysed by enzymes.

Change in colour of light.

What happens when there is a change in the colour of light?
Light can also be absorbed by pigments. Different pigments absorb different wavelengths of light.
The leaves of a plant are green because the chlorophyll within them absorb all other wavelengths of
light and reflects green light. Different lights are effective in growth of different plants, however,
generally green light is the least effective for plants because they are themselves green due to the
pigment Chlorophyll.
Write the word and chemical equation for aerobic cellular respiration.

Identify the three stages in aerobic cellular respiration, define what happens in each, where they
happen and list the inputs and outputs. Identify the ATP yield in each stage too.
Stage 1: Glycolysis
What happens during glycolysis?
Glycolysis is the first stage of aerobic respiration in which glucose (a six-carbon molecule) is split into
two pyruvate molecules (2 x three-carbon molecules).
Where does glycolysis take place?
Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cell.
How much ATP is produced?
2 ATP.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
 1 Glucose (C6H12O6)  2 Pyruvate.
 2 ADP + Pi  2 ATP.
 2 NAD+ + 2 H+  2 NADH.
Stage 2: Krebs Cycle
What happens during the Krebs cycle?
The Krebs cycle is the second stage of aerobic cellular respiration, where multiple reactions occur to
create lots of high-energy electron and proton carriers, NADH and FADH2, which can be used in the
electron transport chain. Small amounts of ATP are also produced.
Where does Krebs cycle?
Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
How much ATP is produced?
2 ATP.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
 2 Acetyl CoA  4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 2 ADP + Pi  2 ATP
 6 NAD + 6 H
+ +
 6 NADH
 2 FAD + 4 H+  2 FADH2
Stage 3: Electron Transport Chain
What happens during the electron transport chain?
The electron transport chain is the third step of aerobic respiration, and during this step, energy
from electrons unloaded by NADH and FADH2 generates a proton gradient that drives ATP
production.
How much ATP is produced?
32-34 ATP.
INPUTS OUTPUT
 6 Oxygen (O2)  6 Water (H2O)
 32-34 ADP + Pi  32-34 ATP
 10 NADH  10 NAD+
 2 FADH2  2 FAD
Explain the following – How could each of the following be used to measure the rate of cellular
respiration:
The amount of carbon dioxide in the environment
Carbon dioxide is an output (by-product) from the intermediate stage and the Krebs cycle. The
release of CO2 during the breaking down of pyruvate, and the Krebs cycle (Acetyl COA oxidisation),
show that ATP, NADH, and FADH2 coenzymes are being produced.
Hence, carbon dioxide concentration can be used to measure the rate of the metabolic pathways of
cellular respiration.
The amount of oxygen in the environment.
As a crucial input within the electron transport chain, decreases in oxygen’s concentration is
indicative of the rate in which metabolic processes of cellular respiration. Without oxygen
consumption, free protons and electrons are disruptive and even toxic to others metabolic pathways
and transport across the membrane. Oxygen is therefore crucial to the electron transport chain as it
binds with water, which is why it can be used to indicate whether cellular respiration is occurring or
not as the chemical reaction cannot occur without it.
There are a few things that can impact the rate of cellular respiration, these things are excellent
factors to test in an experiment! Make sure you can explain what each of the following does to the
rate of cellular respiration:
Change in amount of glucose.
What does the availability of glucose impact?
The availability of glucose impacts the rate at which plants and animals can undergo respiration.
When is glucose used, and how does it affect the stages?
Glucose is used in the first stage of respiration, glycolysis, meaning that its concentration determines
the rate at which glycolysis can proceed. Furthermore, as every subsequent reaction in respiration is
dependent on the completion of glycolysis, the availability of glucose dictates the rate of respiration
as a whole.
What does a higher amount of glucose cause?
The more glucose is present, the faster a cell can produce ATP through cellular respiration. Assuming
oxygen is unlimited, increasing glucose will increase respiration rate until a maximum level is
reached. Similar to photosynthesis, this maximum is reached when the enzymes within the cells are
operating at their maximum capacity.

Temperature.
How does temperature effect cellular respiration?
The temperature of an organism impacts the rate of cellular respiration. Enzymes have an optimal
temperature for functioning. At the optimal, the enzyme-catalysed reactions occur at the greatest
rate. As a result of this, respiration rate and ATP production are greatest when the temperature
aligns with the enzyme’s optimal temperature.
What happens when enzymes are below the optimal temperature?
Below the optimal temperature, respiration rate is slower as individual molecules have lower kinetic
energy causing fewer collisions between the enzyme and substrate.
What happens when enzymes are above the optimal temperature?
Above the optimal, enzymes begin to denature, and respiration rate drops significantly due to the
loss of enzyme function.
What is temperature range for each organism?
The temperature range within which an organism can respire is different for each kind of organism.
However, every organism’s peak respiration rate and ATP production occurs when the temperature
matches their enzyme’s optimal temperature.

What process is used to produce energy in the absence of oxygen? Write word equations for what
happens in animals and what happens in plants.
What process is used to produce energy in the absence of oxygen?
When oxygen availability is low, cells will rely on the process of anaerobic cellular respiration to
make ATP. It involves glycolysis, followed by further reactions that convert pyruvate into lactic acid,
or ethanol and carbon dioxide. Also known as fermentation.
Animals.
How do animals produce ATP in anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic cellular respiration in animals produces ATP by converting glucose into lactic acid. When
oxygen is insufficient, such as when working at high intensities, animals undertake lactic acid
fermentation.
What is lactic acid fermentation?
Lactic acid fermentation is anaerobic cellular respiration in animals that involves glucose being
broken down into pyruvate during glycolysis, followed by a conversion into lactic acid, and cycles
NADH back with NAD+ for reuse in glycolysis.
What happens when lactic acid accumulates?
Lactic acid cannot accumulate indefinitely, as it lowers the pH of our cells and our blood and can be
toxic in high amounts. To deal with this, lactic acid is metabolised back into pyruvate when oxygen is
present. The pyruvate can then be used for aerobic cellular respiration.

Plants.
How do yeasts and plants produce ATP in anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic cellular respiration in yeast, bacteria, and plants produces ATP by converting glucose into
ethanol and carbon dioxide. In yeast, bacteria, and plants pyruvate is converted into ethanol and
carbon dioxide. NAD+ is also replenished in this process.
What happens when ethanol accumulates?
Ethanol cannot be metabolised in yeast or plants. Instead, it diffuses out of cells, but can eventually
accumulate to toxic levels.

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.