Pakistan Studies Lecture 3 Notes

Main Topics
1. Partition of Bengal (1905)
2. Simla Deputation (1906)
3. Establishment of All India Muslim League (1906)
4. Lucknow Pact (1916)
5. Khilafat Movement (1919)

Partition of Bengal

Introduction

The partition of Bengal was the most important event during the rule of Lord Curzon. It was
carried out mainly for the convenience of administration. Bengal in those days was the
biggest province of India extending over 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80
million. It was under the central command of one lieutenant Governor.
It was comprising of
o Bengal
o Behar
o Orissa

Reasons behind partition

Vastness of Province

o The Province was spread over the area of 1, 89, 000 square miles with the population
of 80 million, which was too vast to be managed by one lieutenant Governor. He
could not make a tour for the whole province due to its vastness once in his tenure.
o Bengal, Bihar and Orissa had formed a single province of British India since 1765. By
1900 the province had grown too large to handle under a single administration. East
Bengal, because of isolation and poor communications, had been neglected in favour
of west Bengal and Bihar.
o The British recognized that Bengal, with some 85 million people, was much too large
for a single province and determined that it merited reorganization and intelligent
division.

Limited Sources of Communication

o The sources of communication in the provinces were limited due to rivers and forests.
o The law and order condition of the provinces was also worst due to insufficient police
and in-efficient management. Therefore the need of partition of province was felt
severely.

Difference of Language

o There was difference of languages and civilization of the natives of West Bengal and
East Bengal.
 o The natives of West Bengal considered themselves superior in civilization to the
residents of East Bengal. The Condition demanded for the division of Provinces.
 

Need of the time 

o The division of Bengal was the need of the time to develop trade in East Bengal and
to promote the Port of Chittagong, which could be done only by division of the
Provinces.
o The eastern region was thought to be neglected and under-governed. By splitting the
province, an improved administration could be established in the east where,
subsequently, the population would benefit from new schools and employment
opportunities.

Political Reasons

o Baxter suggests that the "divide and rule" policy was the real reason for partition.
Lord Curzon said, "Bengal united is a power; Bengali divided will pull in several
different ways."
o Bengalis were the first to benefit from English education in India and as an
intellectual class were disproportionately represented in the Civil Service, which was,
of course, dominated by colonial officials. They were also in the forefront of calls for
greater participation in governance, if not for independence. By splitting Bengal, their
influence would be weakened. This would also, effectively, divide the nationalist
movement.

Partition 

Partition took place October 1905. The Partition of Bengal was calculated to restore
efficiency in the Government and administration on one hand and encouraged local initiatives
for progress and development on the other. Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal and formed two
new provinces of manageable size – East and West Bengal.

East Bengal consisted of

o Dacca,
o Mamansingh,
o Assam,
o Kaula,
o Rangpur,
o Bogra district
The Dacca was capital of East Bengal and constituted a majority Muslim Province. East
Bengal contained a population of eighteen million Muslims and twelve million Hindus.

West Bengal constituted of

o Bihar
o Orissa
The capital was Calcutta and became the Hindu Majority provinces. West Bengal had a
population fifty four million of which 42 million where Hindus and thus was the Hindu
majority province.
Response

The partition resulted in a huge political crisis.

Muslim’s Response

The Muslims in East Bengal after initial opposition tended to be much more positive about
the arrangement, believing that a separate region would give them more opportunity for
education, employment, and so on. 
It received a favorable response from the Muslims. It was thought that it would bring the
emancipation of Muslims socially and economically. The Muslims welcomed the Partition of
Bengal for the following reasons:

1. In the majority province of East Bengal the Muslims would be free from Hindu
dominance in economic field. They would get opportunities of services and
advancement of agriculture.
2. The city of Dacca, where the Muslims were in majority was the centre of Muslim
culture. In Dacca Muslims had a great chance of success for social and cultural
advancement than in Calcutta.
3. The Partition could result in political uplift and securing representation in the
Government.
4. The partition of Bengal relieved the Muslims from competing with Hindus, who were
more advanced in every field of life.

Hindus’ Response
 
The Hindus did not accept it, as it dealt a telling blow to their monopolies and exclusive hold
on economic, social, Political life of the whole of Bengal. They called it as a deliberate
attempt by British Government. As details of the plan became public knowledge, prominent
Bengalis began a series of demonstrations against partition and a boycott of British products.

Bengali Hindus were upset with their minority status in the new province. They began an
angry agitation freedom, featuring terrorism as younger members adopted the use of
bombings, shootings and assassinations in a blend of religious and political feelings. Vande
Mataram (meaning 'I bow to thee Mother'), praising the goddess who represented Bengal &
Kali was a rallying cry. Bengal was interpreted as the goddess which had been victimized by
the British.
 
1. The Partition of Bengal had brightened the possibility of betterment of Muslims;
while the Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders wanted status quo and to continue
the exploitation of the Muslims.
2. Hindu lawyers also reacted to the partition of Bengal because they thought that the
new province would have its separate courts and thus their practice would be affected.
3. Hindu press was not different from that of Hindu advocates. Hindus had their
monopoly over almost whole of the province press. They were afraid that new
newspapers would be established which would decrease their income naturally.
4. The Hindus launched Swadeshi Movement whose sole purpose was to boycott of
British goods.
Support for the anti-partition cause came from throughout India, where the partition of an
historic province was regarded as an act of colonial arrogance and blamed on the divide and
rule policy. "Calcutta," says Metcalf, "came alive with rallies, bonfires of foreign goods,
petitions, newspapers and posters." Anti-British and pro-self-rule sentiment increased.

Bengal's Partition rescinded

o The authorities not able to end the protest, assented to reversing the partition and did
so in 1911. When Lord Hardinage assumed charge as Governor General of India
Hindus again became active and sent a representation to him for the annulment of
partition of Bengal. He recommended the same to the British Prime Minister for
Indian Affairs.
o On the occasion of the visiting His Majesty George V to Indo-Pakistan and holding of
Darbar at Delhi on 12th December 1911 the partition of Bengal was cancelled.
o King George announced in December 1911 that eastern Bengal would be assimilated
into the Bengal Presidency.
o Districts where Bengali was spoken were once again unified, and Assam, Bihar and
Orissa were separated. The capital was shifted to New Delhi, clearly intended to
provide the British Empire with a stronger base.
o The united Bengal was placed under a Governor and Assam was placed under a Chief
Commissioner.
o This decision was shattering blow to Muslims. It left them sullen and disillusioned.
Their anger and indignation had widespread repercussions. The Muslims leaders and
intelligentsia condemned the decision as betrayal of worst kind. Muslims of Bengal
were shocked because they had seen the Muslim majority East Bengal as an indicator
of the government's enthusiasm for protecting Muslim interests. They saw this as the
government compromising Muslim interests for Hindu appeasement and
administrative ease.

Conclusion
 
The Muslims of India had appreciated the step and started turning in the favour of the British
but the British soon gave in against the mounting pressure of Hindus which helped the
Muslims to realize the importance of standing on their feet and to organize themselves
politically. It also affirmed the apprehension of Sir Syed that the Muslims might submerge in
the majority of Hindus and lose their rights.

Simla Deputation

Introduction

The Simla deputation proved a landmark in the history of modern India, because for the very
first time the Hindu-Muslim conflict, which started with the Urdu-Hindi controversy, was
lifted to the constitutional plane.

o The Indians were not satisfied with the Indian council Act of 1892. Especially, the act
failed to ensure the fair representation of Muslims. So, the Indians were agitating for
more power. Under the Act of 1892 in United Province, where Muslims were fourteen
 percent of population, they had not secured a single seat by joint franchise. And if by
chance they would get any seats they would have to agree with Hindus, and thus had
to go against their own interests. 
o Due to the growing political pressure and increasing social unrest, the British
Government decided to make constitutional reforms relating to the electoral bodies.
o On 20th July 1906 John Morley the Secretary of State for Indian affairs, speaking on
the Indian budget in the British parliament, announced that the Government wanted to
increase the number of seats for the legislative councils and also their powers.
o John Morley announcement created an anxiety among the Muslims of the sub-
continent. The proposed reforms, if implemented, as was demanded by the Congress,
would have suppressed the Muslims more under the Hindu Majority.
o Muslim leaders were of the view that neither elections nor nominations fulfilled the
requirements of the Indian Muslims, and that they needed a certain number of seats in
both the central and provincial councils. Their seats should be filled up by votes of
their own community.
o The weekly Muslim Patriot penned down this important issue to clarify the
assumption that India was inhabited by one class. It stated that India consists on a
heterogeneous mass of different races whose interests were often different. It although
supported the extended representation in the legislature, but also wished that the
extension should be based on the class recognition and each distinct community
should have representatives of its own in proportion to its population.
o Now, many Muslims drew the attention of Mohsin-ul-Mulk, the secretary of the
M.A.O College, Aligarh, to John Morley’s speech. So, Nawab Mohin-ul-Mulk wrote
a letter on August 1906, to Archbold, Principal of the college, in which he expressed
his apprehensions about the forthcoming constitutional changes. He was of the view
that if combined election would be held on a more extended scale, Mohammedans
will hardly get a single seat, while Hindus will carry more advantage because of their
majority. He asked Archbold to advise for submit memorial from the Mohammedans
to the Viceroy and to request his permission to accept a deputation for discuss the
issue of forthcoming constitutional amendments.
o Archbold contacted to Viceroy’s secretary and on 10th August 1906. He informed
Mohsin-ul-Mulk that the Viceroy was ready to meet the deputation.

Preparation for Simla Deputation

o Arrangement of meetings among Muslim personalities like Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Waqar-
ul-Mulk and Agha Khan.
o Mohsin-ul-Mulk got the memorial signed by 1,411,183 Muslims from Peshawar to
Bihar.
o Mr. Archbold (principal of M.A.O College), contacted Dunlop Smith, the private
secretary of viceroy, and arranged a meeting between Muslims and Lord Minto.

Important Points

A Muslim delegation comprising of 35 leaders headed by Sir Agha Khan met Viceroy Lord
Minto at Simla on October 1, 1906. The draft of Simla Deputation was written by Syed Ali
Bilgrami. They presented following demands:
 1. Muslims should be given the right to vote under separate electoral system.
2. The Muslims should be given representation in the Imperial Legislative Council in
excess of their population.
3. Electoral system should be given preference over nomination system as far as
possible.
4. The Muslims should be given due share in the gazetted and non-gazetted cadres.
5. The Muslims should be appointed as judges of High courts as well as chief courts.
6. Seats should be reserved for Muslims in the Senate and Syndicate of various
universities.
7. Financial help should be given for setting up a Muslim university.
8. Muslims should be given representation in the Executive council of Viceroy.

The Simla Deputation consisting of seventy representatives of all shades of opinion and led
by Sir Aga Khan who read the address, written by Mr. Bilgrami. The long address said,
among other things, that the position of the Muslim community should not be estimated on
it’s numerical strength alone, but in terms of it’s political importance and the service rendered
to the Empire. He also pointed out that the representative institutions of the West were
inappropriate and inadequate for India and their application raised difficult problems and that
it was necessary to proceed in this unchartered field with utmost care and in whatever sphere
(municipal or provincial) it was intended to introduce or extend the electoral system. The
Muslims should be represented as a community.

Results

o The Viceroy in his reply to the Simla Deputation address reassured the Muslims that
their political rights and interests as a community shall be safeguarded by any
administrative reorganization under him.
o Viceroy listened to them and promised them that their demands would put forward to
British Government.
o With this positive response, Muslims established their own political party named as
All India Muslim League in December, 1906.
o There was increase in unity among Muslims. However, Hindu-Muslim relations
suffered.
o In 1909 the Morley-Minto Reforms granted separate electorates to Muslims. In these
the numerical strength of legislature councils was increased. 27 out of total 60
members were to be elected and 5 seats were reserved for the Muslims. In provincial
government, Muslims were to be represented by separate electorates. It gave
constitutional recognition to Muslims. They would have not only elect their own
representatives, but also had right to vote in general constituencies. Muslims were
given fewer share than their numerical strength, but this was a land mark in the
political history of Indian Muslims.

The acceptance of the Deputation’s demands proved to be a turning point in the history of the
Sub-continent. For the first time, the Hindu-Muslim conflict was raised to the constitutional
plane. The Muslims made it clear that they had no confidence in the Hindu majority and that
they were not prepared to put their future in the hands of an assembly elected on the assumed
basis of a homogenous Indian nation. It is in this sense that the beginning of separate
electorate may be seen as the beginning of the realization of the Two-Nation Theory, its final
and inevitable consequence being the partition of British India in 1947.
The Simla Deputation was successful because the Muslims were strongly urged to protect
their separate identity, whereas the British responded to their demands, as Lord Minto was
anxious to pull them out of their political discontent.

Reaction of Hindus

Hindus did their best to malign the Simla Deputation by alleging that it was engineered by the
British Government to create a resistance to all activities of Indian National Congress.

Congress made an allegation that the deputation was engineered by the Government to resist
the activities of nationalists. A newspaper, Amrita Bazar Patrika, closed to the Congress,
launched the propaganda that the deputation was the part of British policy of divide and rule.
It also stated that the deputation did not represent the whole of the Muslim community and
self-serving British officers were involved in its formation.

The Simla deputation was unique, because for the first time Muslims were anxious to take
their share in the political activities as a separate identity. Another purpose of the delegation
was to get a silent permission form the Government to make a political platform for the
representation of Muslims, and also was to take the Government into confidence. The
demand of separate electorates, which were presented through the deputation, was the
foundation of all future constitutional amendments for India. The inevitable consequence of
deputation was the partition of Indian and the emergence of Pakistan.

Establishment of All India Muslim League

Reasons

Following are the reasons for the establishment of Muslim league:

1. Indifferent Attitude of the Congress towards Muslims: All India National Congress was a
pre-dominantly Hindu body. Its interests were always at odds ends to those of the Muslims.
After the creation of the Indian national Congress and its time as a ‘representative’ party for
the people of the Indian sub-continent, there was felt a need to reassess its claims at unbiased
representation. From the very start of its existence the Congress had shown clear its interest
to safeguard the rights of Hindus, alone. Some of the Congress leaders adopted a
revolutionary policy to establish Hindu Raj in the sub-continent under the guise of a national
movement.
The prediction of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Soon proved to be fact that, “Hindus and Muslims
are two different nations who have different ideologies.” The Muslims of India were greatly
disappointed by the anti-Muslim stance that the Congress seemed to have adopted. By 1906,
Muslim leaders were convinced that they must have their own party which may speak for the
community on all important occasions.

2. Educational and Economic Backwardness: Muslims had lagged far behind from the Hindus
in education and economic progress. Educational and economic conditions could only be up
graded by establishing a separate Muslims organization that could represent the wishes of the
Muslims.
3. Urdu-Hindi Controversy: The Urdu-Hindu controversy began with the demand of Hindus
to replace Urdu by Hindi as official language in Deva Nagari Script. Sir Anthony Macdonal,
the then Governor of UP ousted Urdu from public offices. Congress clearly sided with Hindi
and supported the movement against Urdu and there was no other political party to support
Urdu. Thus, the need of formation of a Muslim political party was felt severely.

4. The Evolution of Minto Marley Reforms: The turning point came in the summer of 1906
during John Morley’s budget speech, in which he hinted of constitutional reforms. At that
time Muslims did not have a political platform to demand their share. It was reasserted that
they wanted a separate political platform.

5. The Success of Simla Deputation: Minto offered fullest sympathy to the Muslim demands.
The success of Deputation compelled the Muslims to have a separate political association of
their own.

6. To Save Muslim Entity: The belief uttered by sir Syed Ahmed Khan that the Muslims were
somehow a separate entity. The Muslims did not believe that Hindus and Muslims formed
one nation. They were different by religion, history, languages and civilization. It became
essential for Muslims to establish a political party of their own.

Formation

o A resolution to form the All India Muslim League was passed by Nawab Salimullah
Khan and was seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan, Maulana Muhammad Ali and
Moulana Zafar Ali. The resolution was passed by All India Educational Conference
on 30th December 1906.
o A committee was formed to prepare its draft constitution.
o Sir Agha Khan was appointed as President.
o Syed Hassan Balgrami was appointed as secretary
o Nawab Mohsim-ul-Mulk and Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk were made joint secretaries with
six Vice- Presidents
o A Central Committee with forty Members was also constituted.
o The headquarters of the All India Muslim League was established in Lucknow.
o The initial membership was 400, with members hailing proportionately from all
provinces.
o Maulana Muhammad Ali Jouhar wrote the constitution of the League, known as the
“Green Book”. 
o Syed Ameer Ali established a branch of the League in London in 1908, supporting the
same objectives.

In this way Muslim league was established and become the sole representative of Muslims.

Objectives

Knowing the circumstances which led to the formation of Muslim league was not difficult to
make out what it aimed to. However, the Muslim league laid the following points as its
objectives:
1. To create among Muslims the feelings of loyalty towards British Government and to
remove misconception and suspicious, to disabuse their minds of misunderstandings and
misconceptions of its actions and intentions.

2. To Safeguard the political rights of the Muslims and to bring them into the notice of the
Government, to represent their needs and aspirations to the government from time to time.

3. To prevent among the Muslims, the rise of prejudicial feelings against the other
communities of India without compromising to it’s own purpose.

Impact

The first session of all India Muslim league was held at Karachi on 29th December, 1907 and
was presided over by Adamji Peer Bhai.

There come into being a political body which was to play a decisive role in the destiny of the
Muslim peoples of the Indian sub-continent. The day the Muslim delegation won recognition
of the demand of separate electorate, the course of the Muslim freedom struggle was charted.

It was the beginning of the growth of Muslim national consciousness. It farmed visible
institutional expression in the form of Muslim League which after a forty (40) years struggle
was to achieve for the Muslims the culmination of their national aspiration, Muslim League
became a mass movement of the Muslims and succeeded in achieving Pakistan in 1947.
Actually the new breed of leadership like Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was
instrumental in its metamorphosis.

After the acceptance of the demand of separate representation in the Minto Morely reforms, it
was common sense to have political party to fight elections for Muslim representation.
Whatever may have been the effects of Muslim league, but it made clear that the interests of
Muslims must be regarded completely separate from those of the Hindus. Any fusion of both
the communities in future was not possible. It steered the ship of Muslim destiny safely
through of Political chaos and turmoil to the safer harbour of Pakistan.

Lucknow Pact

The Lucknow Pact was an agreement reached between the Indian National Congress and

the Muslim League at a joint session of both the parties held in Lucknow in December 1916.
Through the pact, the two parties agreed to allow representation to religious minorities in the
provincial legislatures. The Muslim League leaders agreed to join the Congress movement
demanding Indian autonomy. Scholars cite this as an example of a consociation (power
sharing) practice in Indian politics.

Background

When All India Muslim League came into existence, it was a moderate organization with its
basic aim to establish friendly relations with the Crown. However, due to the decision of the
British Government to annul the partition of Bengal, the Muslim leadership decided to
change its stance. In 1913, a new group of Muslim leaders entered the folds of the Muslim
League with the aim of bridging the gulf between the Muslims and the Hindus. The most
prominent amongst them was Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was already a member of Indian
National Congress. The Muslim League changed its major objective and decided to join
hands with the Congress in order to put pressure on the British government. Lord
Chelmsford’s invitation for suggestions from the Indian politicians for the post World War I
reforms further helped in the development of the situation. The Muslim League led by
Mohammed Ali Jinnah wanted to use this opportunity to press for constitutional reforms
through a joint Hindu-Muslim platform. Jinnah was then a member of both the parties and he
was largely responsible for the Pact. This was the first time that leaders of both the INC and
the Muslim League were meeting for a joint session.

Both the Muslim League and the Congress met for their annual sessions at Bombay in
December 1915. The principal leaders of the two political parties assembled at one place for
the first time in the history of these organizations. The speeches made from the platform of
the two groups were similar in tone and theme.

Within a few months of the Bombay moot, 19 Muslim and Hindu elected members of the
Imperial Legislative Council addressed a memorandum to the Viceroy on the subject of
reforms in October 1916. Their suggestions did not become news in the British circle, but
were discussed, amended and accepted at a subsequent meeting of the Congress and Muslim
League leaders at Calcutta in November 1916. This meeting settled the details of an
agreement about the composition of the legislatures and the quantum of representation to be
allowed to the two communities. The agreement was confirmed by the annual sessions of the
Congress and the League in their annual session held at Lucknow on December 29 and
December 31, 1916 respectively. Sarojini Naidu gave Jinnah, the chief architect of the
Lucknow Pact, the title of “the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity”.

Importance

o The Lucknow agreement took a new twist with change in Muslim League’s political
doctrine. The Quaid-e-Azam inclusion in the Muslim league was a historic event,
which gave new direction to Muslim league’s political struggle.
o Self-rule for India brought the Muslim league and the Congress closer to each other.
o The leaders of both parties agreed that they should cooperate with each other to make
the British accept their demands.
o They acknowledged that the objectives can be achieved if the two major communities
of India forget their differences on petty issues and come closer to each other to see
eye to eye on the important national issues.
o The political vicinity had taken a happy turn and ground for cherished Hindu Muslim
unity had been smoothed.
o It was the first and last pact signed between Congress and Muslim league.
o After joining the Muslim League in 1913 the Quaid-e-Azam started clearing the path
for Hindu Muslim unity.
o In 1915, the annual meetings of Congress and Muslim League were held together at
Bombay because of his efforts.
o This led to quick clearing of the path for Hindu Muslim unity, at last in 1916 once
more the meeting of both parties was held together at Lucknow where a written
agreement was signed between the two parties, which in the history of sub-continent
is called the Lucknow Pact.
Conditions of the Pact

o One Third seats for Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council.

o Separate Electorate
o Half members of the Executive Council should be Indian to be elected by the Imperial
Legislative Council.
o Commissioned ranks of the army for Indians.
o Expansion of Provincial Legislative Councils.
o Half members of the Governor’s Executive Council should be Indians to be elected by
the elected members of the Legislative Council.
o Weightage to minorities in provinces.
o Unofficial bill, if opposed by three-fourth members of a community, it will not be
passed.

Main Clauses

The main clauses of the Lucknow Pact were:

o There shall be self-government in India.

o Muslims should be given one-third representation in the central government.
o There should be separate electorates for all the communities until a community
demanded for joint electorates.
o System of weightage should be adopted.
o The number of the members of Central Legislative Council should be increased to
150.
o At the provincial level, four-fifth of the members of the Legislative Councils should
be elected and one-fifth should be nominated.
o The strength of Provincial legislative should not be less than 125 in the major
provinces and from 50 to 75 in the minor provinces.
o All members, except those nominated, were to be elected directly on the basis of adult
franchise.
o No bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed by three-
fourth of the members of that community in the Legislative Council.
o Term of the Legislative Council should be five years.
o Members of Legislative Council should themselves elect their president.
o Half of the members of Imperial Legislative Council should be Indians.
o Indian Council must be abolished.
o The salaries of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be paid by the British
Government and not from Indian funds.
o Out of two Under Secretaries, one should be Indian.
o The Executive should be separated from the Judiciary.

Results
The Lucknow Pact was seen as a beacon of hope to Hindu–Muslim unity. The Lucknow Pact
gave the impression of Hindu-Muslim unity in the national political scene. But it was only
an impression and short-lived. The agreement between the parties on a separate communal
electorate formally established communal politics in India. Through this pact, the INC also
tacitly accepted that India consisted of two different communities with different interests.
This pact pushed the hitherto less relevant Muslim League into the forefront of Indian
politics along with the Congress Party.

Although this Hindu Muslim Unity was not able to live for more than eight years, and
collapsed after the development of differences between the two communities after the
Khilafat Movement, yet it was an important event in the history of the Muslims of South
Asia. It was the first time when Congress recognized the Muslim League as the political party
representing the Muslims of the region. As Congress agreed to separate electorates, it in fact
agreed to consider the Muslims as a separate nation. They thus accepted the concept of the
Two-Nation Theory.