(Lecture Notes) Wai Kiu Chan - Arithmetic of Quaternion Algebra 2012 (2012)

Arithmetic of Quaternion Algebra 2012
1 Quaternion Algebras
In this section, F is a field of characteristic 6= 2. Unless stated otherwise, all algebras
considered here are finite dimensional algebras over F . If 1A (or simply 1) is the identity
of an F -algebra A, then the map α 7→ α1A is a monomorphism of F -algebras. This map
identifies F as a subalgebra of A.
If R is a ring, then R× denotes the group of units in R.
1.1 Basic Definitions

Definition 1.1 A quaternion algebra H over F is a 4-dimensional algebra over F with a
basis {1, i, j, k} such that
i2 = a, j 2 = b, ij = k = −ji
for some a, b ∈ F × .
2
k = −ab. The basis {1, i, j, k} is called a standard basis
In this definition, notice that
for H and we write H = a,b F . Note that there are infinitely many standard bases for
H, and hence therecould be another
pair of nonzero
elements
2 c,2 b ∈ F , different from the
c,d a,b a,b ax ,by
pair a, b, such that F = F . For instance, F = F for any x, y ∈ F × , and

a,b
F = a,−ab
F .

The notation H = a,b F is functorial in F , that is, if K is a field extension of F , then

a, b a, b
⊗K ∼
= as K-algebras.
F K
Example 1.2 In M2 (F ), let

1 0 0 1 0 1
i= , j= , k = ij = .
0 −1 1 0 −1 0

1,1 1,−1
Then i2 = j 2 = 1 and {1, i, j, k} is a basis for M2 (F ). Therefore, M2 (F ) = F = F .
Example 1.3 Another familiar example of quaternion algebras is Hamilton’s quaternions

H. It is a quaternion algebra over R with a basis {1, i, j, k} such that
i2 = −1, j 2 = −1, ij = k = −ji.

This shows that H = −1,−1 R . A simple calculation shows that any two elements from
{i, j, k} are anti-commutative. Moreover, ij = k, jk = i and ki = j.
1

a,b
Theorem 1.4 Let a, b ∈ F × . Then F exists.
Proof. Fix α, β in an algebraic closure E of F such that α2 = a and β 2 = −b. Consider the
two matrices
α 0 0 β
i= , j= .
0 −α −β 0
Direct computations show that

0 αβ
i2 = a, j 2 = b, ij = = −ji.
αβ 0
Since {I2 , i, j, ij} is clearly independent over E, it is also linearly independent overF .
Therefore the F -span of {I2 , i, j, ij} is a 4-dimensional algebra H over F , and H = a,b
F .2
Theorem 1.5 A quaternion algebra over F is central simple, that is, its center is F and
it does not have any nonzero proper two-sided ideal.
Proof. Let H be a quaternion algebra over F , and {1, i, j, k} be a standard basis of H over
F . Consider an element x = α + βi + γj + δk in the center of H, where α, β, γ, δ ∈ F . Then
0 = jx − xj = 2k(β + δj).
Since k is invertible in H, we must have β = δ = 0. Similarly, γ = 0. Hence x is in F .

Next, we need to show that a nonzero two-sided ideal a is H itself. It is sufficient to
show that a contains a nonzero element of F . Take a nonzero element y = a + bi + cj + dk
in a, where a, b, c, d ∈ F . We may assume that one of b, c and d is nonzero. By replacing
y by one of iy, jy and ky, we may further assume that a 6= 0. Since yj − jy ∈ a and 2k
is invertible in H, we see that b + dj, and hence bi + dk as well, are in a. This shows
that a + cj is in a. By the same token, a + bi and a + dk are also in a. As a result,
−2a = y − (a + bi) − (a + cj) − (a + dk) is a nonzero element of F lying in a.2
So, we may study quaternion algebras using the theory of central simple algebras. Below
is a couple of well-known theorems concerning the structure of central simple algebras.
Theorem 1.6 (Wedderburn’s Structure Theorem) Let A be a finite dimensional simple

algebra over F . Then A is isomorphic to Mn (D), where D ∼ = EndA (N ) is a division algebra
over F with N a nonzero minimal right ideal of A. The integer n and the isomorphism
class of the division algebra D is uniquely determined by A.
Theorem 1.7 (Skolem-Noether Theorem) Let A be a finite dimensional central simple

algebra over F and let B be a finite dimensional simple algebra over F . If φ, ψ are algebra
homomorphisms from B to A, then there exists an invertible element c ∈ A such that
φ(b) = c−1 ψ(b)c for all b ∈ B. In particular, all nonzero endomorphisms of A are inner
automorphisms.
2
Theorem 1.8 Let H be a quaternion algebra over F .
(a) Either H is a division algebra or H ∼

= M2 (F ).
(b) Let E be a subfield of H which is a quadratic extension of F , and τ be the nontrivial

automorphism of E/F . Then there exists j ∈ H × such that j 2 ∈ F × , H = E + Ej,
and jx = τ (x)j for all x ∈ E.
Proof. Part (a) is a direct consequence of Wedderburn’s structure theorem. For part (b),
since the characteristic of F is not 2, we can write E = F (i) so that i2 ∈ F × . Let τ be the
nontrivial automorphism of E/F . By the Skolem-Noether Theorem, −i = τ (i) = jij −1 for
some invertible element j ∈ H. Clearly j 6∈ E and 1, i, j are linearly independent over F . If
ij = α + βi + γj with α, β, γ ∈ F , then (i − γ)j = α + βi. But i − γ 6= 0; thus j ∈ F (i) = E
which is impossible. Therefore, {1, i, j, ij} is a basis for H. Note that ij = −ji and so
j 2 ij −2 = i. Therefore, j 2 is in the center of H which is F , and this means that j 2 = b ∈ F .
Clearly, H = E + Ej.2
Definition 1.9 Let {1, i, j, k} be a standard basis for a quaternion algebra H. The elements
in the subspace H0 spanned by i, j and k are called the pure quaternions of H.
The next proposition shows that H0 does not depend on the choice of the standard basis
for H.
Proposition 1.10 A nonzero element x ∈ H is a pure quaternion if and only if x 6∈ F and

x2 ∈ F .

Proof. Let {1, i, j, k} be a standard basis for H = a,b
F . Let x be a nonzero element in H.
We can write x = a0 + a1 i + a2 j + a3 k with a` ∈ F for all `. Then
x2 = (a20 + aa21 + ba22 − aba23 ) + 2a0 (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k).
If x is in the F -space spanned by i, j and k, then a0 = 0 and hence x 6∈ F but x2 ∈ F .

Conversely, suppose that x 6∈ F and x2 ∈ F . Then one of a1 , a2 and a3 is nonzero, and
hence a0 = 0. Thus x is a pure quaternion.2
Thus each x ∈ H has a unique decomposition x = a + α, where a ∈ F and α ∈ H0 . The
conjugate of x, denoted x, is defined by x = a − α. For any x, y ∈ H,
(i) x + y = x + y;
(ii) xy = y x;
(ii) x = x;
(iv) rx = rx for all r ∈ F .
(v) x = x if and only if x ∈ F .
3
In particular, the conjugation is an involution on H (or, equivalently, an algebra isomor-
phism from H to its opposite algebra H ◦ ). In M2 (F ),

a b d −b
= .
c d −c a
Equivalently, if M ∈ M2 (F ), M = adj(M ), the adjoint of M .
Definition 1.11 For x ∈ H, the (reduced) norm and (reduced) trace of x are the elements
nr(x) = xx and tr(x) = x + x, respectively.
A direct computation shows that both nr(x) and tr(x) are elements of F . The norm
is multiplicative, that is, nr(xy) = nr(x)nr(y) for all x, y ∈ H. The invertible elements of
H are precisely those with nonzero norm. The trace, however, is linear as tr(ax + by) =
atr(x) + btr(y) for all a, b ∈ F . For M2 (F ), the norm of an element is just its determinant.
1.2 The Matrix Algebras

In this subsection, we discuss when a quaternion algebra H over F is isomorphic to M2 (F ).
Definition 1.12 A nonzero element x in H is said to be isotropic if nr(x) = 0.

Theorem 1.13 For H = a,b F , the following are equivalent:

(a) H ∼= 1,1
F
∼
= M2 (F ).
(b) H is not a division algebra.
(c) H has an isotropic element.
(d) H0 has an isotropic element.
(e) The equation ax2 + by 2 = 1 has a solution (x, y) ∈ F × F .

√
(f ) If E = F ( b), then a ∈ NE/F (E).
Proof. We have seen in Theorem 1.8 that (a) is equivalent to (b).

Suppose that H is not a division algebra. Then it has a nonzero element x which is not
invertible. So, nr(x) = 0. This proves (b) ⇒ (c).
For (c) ⇒ (d), let x be an isotropic element in H. Let {1, i, j, k} be a standard basis for
H and write
x = a0 + a1 i + a2 j + a3 k.
We may assume that a0 6= 0. So, at least one of a1 , a2 and a3 is also nonzero. Without loss
of generality, we assume that a1 6= 0. From nr(x) = 0, we obtain a20 − ba22 = a(a21 − ba23 ).
Let
y = b(a0 a3 + a1 a2 )i + a(a21 − ba23 )j + (a0 a1 + ba2 a3 )k.
4
Check that nr(y) = 0. If y 6= 0, then we are done. If y = 0, then −aa21 + aba23 = 0 and thus
nr(a1 i + a3 k) = 0.
Since a1 6= 0, a1 i + a3 k is an isotropic element in H0 .
Suppose that H0 has an isotropic element a1 i + a2 j + a3 k. Then −aa21 − ba22 + aba23 = 0,
and so at least two of a1 , a2 and a3 are nonzero. If a3 6= 0, then
a2 2 a1 2

a +b = 1.
aa3 ba3
If a3 = 0, then
2 2
1+a a2 (1 − a)
a +b = 1.
2a 2aa1
This proves (d) ⇒ (e). √
For (e) ⇒ (f), we assume that ax20 +by02 = 1. If x0 = 0, then b ∈ F and E = √
F , in which
−1 −1
case (f) is certainly true. If x0 6= 0, then one can check that NE/F (x0 + x0 y0 b) = a.
√
Lastly, we suppose that a is a norm from F ( b). If b = c2 for some√c ∈ F , then
(c + j)(c − j) = 0 and H is not a division algebra. So, we may assume that b 6∈ F . Then
a = x21 − by12 for some x1 , y1 ∈ F . Since nr(x1 + i + y1 j) = 0, H again is not a division
algebra. This proves (f) ⇒ (b). 2
Definition 1.14 Let K/F be a field extension. A quaternion algebra H over F splits over
K if H ⊗F K ∼= M2 (K). We say that a quaternion algebra over F splits if it splits over F .
Corollary 1.15 If F is algebraically closed, then every quaternion algebra over F splits.
Proof. This is clear since every element of F is a square in F .2

Corollary 1.16 The quaternion algebras 1,a and a,−a

F F splits.
Proof. Apply (d) and (e) of Theorem 1.13.2

Example 1.17 Theorem 1.13 is very useful in constructing quaternion algebras that do not
split. For example, let p be a prime ≡ −1 mod 4. Then the congruence −x2 + py 2 ≡ z 2 mod
4 does not have any solution with gcd(x, y, z) = 1. Therefore, the equation −x2 + py 2 = 1
does
not
have any rational solution. Thus, by Theorem 1.13(e), the quaternion algebra
−1,p
Q does not split. However, if p ≡ 1 mod 4, then p is a sum of two integer squares,
√
which means that p is a norm from Q( −1). So, when p ≡ 1 mod 4, the algebra −1,p Q

−1,p
splits. Thus we have shown; Let p be a prime. Then Q splits if and only if p ≡ 1 mod
4.
Proposition 1.18 Let H be a quaternion division algebra over F . If E is a subfield of H
which is a quadratic extension of F , then H splits over E.
Proof. As is in the proof of Theorem 1.1,
there
{1,
exists a standard basis i, j, k}
for H with
2 a,b a,b 1,b
E = F (i) and i = a ∈ F . Thus H = F and hence H ⊗F E = E = E = M2 (E).2
5
1.3 Quaternion Algebras over Finite Fields
Theorem 1.19 (Wedderburn’s Little Theorem) Let A be a finite division ring. Then A is
a field.
Proof. Let F be the center of A. Then F is a finite field of order q, a prime power ≥ 2. Let
n = dimF A. We shall show that n = 1. Assume the contrary that n > 1. The finite group
A× acts on itself by conjugation. It follows from the class equation that
X
|A× | = q n − 1 = q − 1 + [A× : CA (a)× ],
a
where CA (a) is the centralizer of a, and the a in the summation runs over a (nonempty) set
of representatives of non-singleton conjugacy classes of A× . Let r(a) = dimF CA (a). Then
1 ≤ r(a) < n, and the transitivity of dimensions shows that r(a) | n. Rewriting the class
equation, we have
X qn − 1
(∗) qn − 1 = q − 1 + .
a
q r(a) − 1
Let r be one of the r(a) in the summation. Since r | n, we have the following factorization
in Z[x]:
xn − 1 = Φn (x)(xr − 1)h(x), h(x) ∈ Z[x],
where Φn (x) is the n-th cyclotomic polynomial. This equation implies that (q n − 1)/(q r − 1)
is always an integer divisible by Φn (q). It follows from (∗) that Φn (q) divides q − 1 as well.
In particular, Y
q − 1 ≥ |Φn (q)| = |q − ζ|,
where ζ ranges over all the primitive n-th roots of unity. This is impossible since n > 1 and
q ≥ 2 clearly implies that |q − ζ| > q − 1 ≥ 1 for each ζ.2
Corollary 1.20 If A is a central simple algebra over a finite field F , then A ∼= Mn (F ) for
some n ≥ 1. In particular, every quaternion algebra over a finite field splits.
2 Quaternion Algebras as Quadratic Spaces

Let H be a quaternion algebra over F . The norm map is a quadratic form on H, that is, it
satisfies:
(i) nr(αx) = α2 nr(x) for all α ∈ F ,
(ii) the function B : H × H → F defined by
1 1
B(x, y) := (nr(x + y) − nr(x) − nr(y)) = tr(xy)
2 2
is a symmetric bilinear form on H.
In this section, we will review some results from the algebraic theory of quadratic forms
that are useful for later discussion.
6
2.1 Quadratic Spaces
A quadratic space over a field F is a pair (V, Q), where V is a finite dimensional vector
space over F and Q : V → F satisfies:
(a) Q(ax) = a2 Q(x) for all a ∈ F and all x ∈ V ;

1
(b) the function B(x, y) = 2 (Q(x + y) − Q(x) − Q(y)) is a symmetric bilinear form on
V.
The function Q is called a quadratic form on V . Note that B determines Q by B(x, x) =

Q(x) for all x ∈ V . So we also use (V, B) to denote the quadratic space (V, Q). A nonzero
vector v in a quadratic space (V, Q) over a field F is isotropic if Q(v) = 0; otherwise v is
called anisotropic. The space V is said to be isotropic if it has an isotropic vector.
Two subsets X and Y of V are said to be orthogonal if B(x, y) = 0 for all x ∈ X and
y ∈ Y . The set of vector in V which are orthogonal to every vector in X is denoted by
X ⊥ . The space V is called nondegenerate if V ⊥ = {0}, that is, there is no nonzero vector
in V which is orthogonal to all vectors in V . A basis of V is called an orthogonal basis if
its vectors are orthogonal to each other.
Let B = {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis for V . The symmetric matrix MB = (B(vi , vj )) is called
the matrix of V with respect to B. The following is a easy consequence from linear algebra.
Lemma 2.1 If B and B 0 are two bases for V , then there exists a matrix T in GLn (F ) such
that MB0 = T MB T t .
Let V ∗ be the dual space of V , the vector space of all linear maps V → F . If B =
{v1 , . . . , vn } is a basis for V , then B ∗ = {v1∗ , . . . , vn∗ } denotes its dual basis for V ∗ , where
vi∗ (vj ) = δij (Kronecker’s delta).
The function B̂ : V → V ∗ defined by B̂(v)(u) = B(v, u) is obviously a linear transformation.
Lemma 2.2 If B is a basis for V and B ∗ is its dual basis for V ∗ , then the matrix of the
linear transformation B̂ with respect to B and B ∗ is MB .
Proof. From B̂(vi )(vj ) = B(vi , vj ) follows
n
X
B̂(vi ) = B(vi , vj )vj∗
j=1
which is what is needed to be shown.2
Lemma 2.3 If W is a subspace of V , then W ⊥ = ker(π ◦ B̂) where π : V ∗ → W ∗ is the

linear map induced by restricting functions in V ∗ on W .
Proof. A vector v of V is in W ⊥ if and only if B(v, w) = 0 for all w ∈ W . This means
B̂(v)|W = 0 and hence v ∈ ker(π ◦ B̂).2
7
Corollary 2.4 A quadratic space (V, B) is nondegenerate if and only if B̂ is an isomor-
phism or, equivalently, when the matrix MB is invertible for one particular basis B for
V.
Proof. This follows from the previous two lemmas.2
Corollary 2.5 If W is a nondegenerate subspace of V , then V = W ⊥ W ⊥ (orthogonal

sum).
Proof. Clearly, W and W ⊥ are orthogonal to each other. So it remains to show that
V = W ⊕ W ⊥ . As W is nondegenerate, W ∩ W ⊥ = {0}. Let v ∈ V and f = B̂(v)|W . Then
because W is nondegenerate, there exists w ∈ W with B̂(w) = f . Hence for all z ∈ W ,
B(v, z) = B̂(v)(z) = f (z) = B̂(w)(z) = B(w, z).
So, v − w ∈ W ⊥ and we can write v = w + (v − w). Thereby W ⊥ W ⊥ = V .2
Theorem 2.6 Every quadratic space has an orthogonal basis.

Proof. Let (V, B) be a quadratic space. If B = 0, then the assertion is clear. So, we
assume that B 6= 0. Then there exist vectors u, v ∈ V such that B(u, v) 6= 0. Since
2B(u, v) = Q(u + v) − Q(u) − Q(v), it follows that there must be a w ∈ V with Q(w) 6= 0.
Then the one-dimensional subspace W = F w is nondegenerate, and by the last corollary
V = W ⊥ W ⊥ . An application of the induction hypothesis to W ⊥ completes the proof.2
P {e1 , . . . , en } be an orthogonal basis for V , and let Q(ei ) = ai for all i. For any
Let
v = xi ei ∈ V , we have
Q(v) = a1 x21 + · · · + an x2n .
In this case, we shall write V ∼
= ha1 , . . . , an i.
Let (V, Q) and (V, Q0 ) be quadratic spaces over F . A linear map σ : V → V 0 is an
isometry if
(a) σ is a vector space isomorphism;
(b) Q0 (σ(x)) = Q(x) for all x ∈ V .
Two quadratic spaces are isometric if there is an isometry from one to the other. The set
of all isometries from V to V itself form a group which is called the orthogonal group of V ,
denoted O(V ). Suppose that x is an anisotropic vector in V . Then the function τx : V → V
defined by
2B(y, x)
τx (y) = y − x
Q(x)
is called the symmetry with respect to x, which is an element in O(V ).
Theorem 2.7 (Witt’s Cancellation Theorem) If V, V1 and V2 are nondegenerate quadratic

spaces over F such that V ⊥ V1 ∼
= V ⊥ V2 , then V1 ∼
= V2 .
8
Proof. Since V is the orthogonal sum of 1-dimensional subspaces, it suffices to consider the
case where dimF (V ) = 1; thus V = F x. Under an isometry F x ⊥ V1 → F x ⊥ V2 , x is sent
to a vector y ∈ F x ⊥ V2 . Let u = (x + y)/2 and v = (x − y)/2. Then B(u, v) = 0 and
Q(x) = Q(u) + Q(v). This implies that either Q(u) or Q(v) is nonzero. If Q(u) 6= 0, then
−τu (x) = y; otherwise τv (x) = y. Therefore, there is an isometry Σ : F x ⊥ V1 → F x ⊥ V2
such that Σ(x) = x. It is easy to see that Σ must send V1 to V2 .2
2.2 The Norm Form

Let H be a quaternion algebra over F . Recall that the reduced norm nr is a quadratic map
nr is a 4-dimensional quadratic space over F . If {1, i, j, k} is a
on H. So, H equipped with
standard basis for H = a,b
F , then
nr(x + yi + zj + wk) = x2 − ay 2 − bz 2 + abw2 ,
and so {1, i, j, k} is an orthogonal basis of H. Moreover, since ab 6= 0, H is nondegenerate as

a quadratic space. The subspace of pure quaternions H0 equipped with nr is a nondegenerate
3-dimensional quadratic space over F . Note that for any x ∈ H0 , x = −x, and thus for all
x, y ∈ H0 we have
1
nr(x) = −x2 and B(x, y) = − (xy + yx).
2
From now on, when we say that H or H0 is a quadratic space, it will be understood that
the associated quadratic form is the reduced norm. The main theorem of this subsection is
the following classification theorem of quaternion algebras in terms of quadratic spaces.
Theorem 2.8 Let H and H 0 be quaternion algebras over F . Then H and H 0 are isomorphic
if and only if the quadratic spaces H0 and H00 are isometric.
Proof. Let nr and nr0 be the reduced norms of H and H 0 , respectively. Suppose first that
there exists an algebra isomorphism φ : H → H 0 . Let x be a nonzero vector in H0 . Then
x 6∈ F but x2 ∈ F . So, φ(x) 6∈ F and φ(x)2 = φ(x2 ) ∈ F . Therefore, φ(x) ∈ H00 ,
which shows that φ is a vector space isomorphism from H0 into H00 . For any x ∈ H0 ,
nr0 (φ(x)) = −φ(x)2 = φ(−x2 ) = φ(nr(x)) = nr(x). Thus H0 and H00 are isometric.
0
that σ : H0 → H0 is an isometry. Let {1, i, j, ij} be a standard basis
Now suppose
a,b
for H = F . Since nr(i) = −i2 = −a, therefore σ(i)2 = −nr0 (σ(i)) = a. Similarly, we
have σ(j)2 = b. The elements i and j are orthogonal in H0 . Therefore, σ(i) and σ(j) are
also orthogonal. So, σ(i)σ(j) = −σ(j)σ(i). Then one can easily check that σ(i) does not
commute with σ(i)σ(j), which means that σ(i)σ(j) 6∈ F . Also, (σ(i)σ(j))2 = −ab ∈ F .
Thus σ(i)σ(j) ∈ H00 . If rσ(i) + sσ(j) + tσ(i)σ(j) = 0 for some r, s, t ∈ F , then left
multiplication by σ(i) to this equation forces r = 0. By a similar
token,
s = t = 0. Thus
0 0 a,b
{1, σ(i), σ(j), σ(i)σ(j)} is a standard basis for H so that H = F .2
9
3 Quaternion Algebras over Local Fields
In this section, we give a more thorough discussion of quaternion algebras over a local
field. A local field, by our definition, is the completion of a number field with respect to
a nontrivial valuation. The complex numbers C and the real numbers R are examples of
local fields. By Corollary 1.15,
every
quaternion
algebra
over C must split. Over R, the
1,1 1,−1 −1,−1
only quaternion algebras are R , R and R = H, since R× has only two square
classes represented by 1 and −1 respectively. The first two are isomorphic to M2 (R).
3.1 Local Fields

Let F be a number field, which is just a finite extension of Q. By definition, every element of
F is algebraic over F . In other words, every element α of F is a root of a monic polynomial
over Q. If this monic polynomial is over Z, then we say that α is an algebraic integer in
F . Let o be the set of all algebraic integers in F . Then o is a ring and we call it the ring
of integers of F . It is well-known that the field of fractions of o is F , and o is a Dedekind
domain, that is, it satisfies the following three properties:
(a) it is Noetherian, which means that every ascending chain of ideals must become sta-
tionary after finite number of steps ;
(b) it is integrally closed, which means that an element of F that is a root of a monic
polynomial over o is already in o;
(c) all its nonzero prime ideal are maximal.

A nontrivial consequence of these properties is that every nonzero ideal a of o is a product
of prime ideals, and these prime ideals, counted with multiplicities, are uniquely determined
by a.
A (multiplicative) valuation v on F is a function v : F → R such that
(1) v(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ F , and v(x) = 0 if and only if x = 0.
(2) v(xy) = v(x)v(y) for all x, y ∈ F .
(3) v(x + y) ≤ v(x) + v(y) for all x, y ∈ F .

There is always the trivial valuation where v(x) = 1 for all x 6= 0. We assume throughout
that all valuations in the subsequent discussion are nontrivial. Two valuations v and v 0 are
equivalent if there exists c ∈ R+ such that v 0 (x) = v(x)c for all x ∈ F . A place of F is an
equivalence class of valuations on F . The set of all places of F is denoted by ΩF or simply
Ω if F is understood from the discussion. If v is a valuation on F , we also use v to denote
the place containing v.
A valuation v is called nonarchimedean if it satisfies in addition the ultra triangle in-
equality
(3)0 v(x + y) ≤ max{v(x), v(y)}
10
for all x, y ∈ F with equality when v(x) 6= v(y). A place v is called a finite place if it
contains a nonarchimedean valuation. Otherwise it is called an infinite place. The set of all
finite places of F and the set of infinite places of F are denoted by Ωf and Ω∞ , respectively.
Let v be a place of F . The function d(x, y) = v(x − y) defines a metric on F . The
completion of F with respect to this metric is denoted by Fv , which is a locally compact
complete metric space. The valuation v extends uniquely to a valuation on Fv which we also
denote by v. It turns out that Fv is a field, and its addition, subtraction, multiplication and
taking inverse are all continuous operations with respect to the metric topology. Associated
to v is an embedding σv : F → Fv , and we can identify F as a subfield of Fv through σv .
We usually make no distinction between F and σv (F ). So, when we write F ⊆ Fv , it is
understood that F is embedded in Fv through σv . In this way, we identify each element
a ∈ F with its image σv (a) in Fv .
If v is a finite place, then Fv is called a p-adic field. The set {x ∈ Fv : v(x) ≤ 1} is a
subring of Fv , which is called the ring of integers in Fv . It is a local ring with maximal ideal
pv (or simply p) = {x ∈ Fv : v(x) < 1}.
Every nonarchimedean valuation of F is coming from a nonzero prime ideal of o in the

following way. Suppose that p is a nonzero prime ideal of o. For any nonzero element x in
o, the ideal xo has an ideal factorization
xo = pn a,
where p - a. Let N(p) := |o/p| be the norm of p and set v(x) = N(p)−n . Then v extends to an
nonarchimedean valuation on F . It turns out that this way of constructing nonarchimedean
valuations yields a bijection between Ωf and the nonzero prime ideals of o. The residue
field of Fv is the field ov /pv , which is isomorphic to o/p, a finite extension of the field Z/pZ
of p elements. A consequence of this is that ov is a compact subset in Fv , which makes Fv
locally compact. The ring ov is a PID, and its maximal ideal pv is generated by any element
π ∈ p \ p2 . In general, a generator of pv is called a uniformizer of Fv , which is an element
in pv of the largest valuation. The nonzero ideals of ov are of the form pnv , n ∈ N. Let π be
a uniformizer of Fv . Then every nonzero element in Fv× can be written as π m with m ∈ Z
and a unit in ov .
Suppose that [F : Q] = n. Then there are n different embeddings of F into C. An
embedding σ : F → C is called a real embedding if σ(F ) ⊆ R; otherwise it is called a
complex embedding. Since complex embeddings occur in pairs, n = r + 2s where r (resp.
s) is the number of real (resp. complex) embeddings of F . If σ is an embedding of F
into C, then v(a) = |σ(a)| is a valuation on F . Here | | is the complex modulus. Note
that a complex embedding and its complex conjugation yield the same valuation. So the
total number of inequivalent valuations obtained in this way is r + s, and they correspond
to all the infinite places of F . An infinite place v of F is real if it corresponds to a real
embedding; otherwise it is called a complex place. When v is a real (resp. complex) place,
Fv is isomorphic to R (resp. C).
11
Example 3.1 There is only one infinite place on Q which contains the usual absolute
value on R. This is clearly a real place. Let p be a prime number. For any nonzero rational
number x, we can write x = pn z, where z is a rational number for which p divides neither
the numerator nor the denominator. Then v(x) = p−n is called the p-adic valuation on Q.
The completion of Q with respect to this valuation is called the field of p-adic numbers,
denoted Qp . The ring of integers in Qp is Zp , the ring of p-adic integers.
In this lecture notes, a local field always means the completion of a number field with
respect to a valuation. Let K be a local field and E/K be a finite extension. It turns out
that E is also a local field. If v is a valuation on K, then v extends uniquely to a valuation
w on E by
1
w(x) = v(NE/K (x)) [E:K] ,
where NE/K is the norm from E to K.
Definition 3.2 A finite extension of p-adic fields E/K is called unramified if a uniformizer
in K is also a uniformizer in E. Otherwise E/K is ramified.
Let oK and oE be the ring of integers of K and E, respectively, and let π be a uniformizer
of K. Then E/K is unramified if and only if π generates the maximal ideal of oE . In general,
if pE is the maximal ideal of oE , then πoE = peE for some positive integer e. This e is called
the ramification index of E/K. Note that E/K is unramified exactly when e = 1. The
residue field oE /pE is a finite extension of the residue field oK /pK . Its degree of extension
[oE /pE : oK /pK ] is called the residue degree of E/K, usually denoted by f .
Theorem 3.3 (Local Fundamental Identity) If E/K is a finite extension of p-adic fields,
then ef = [E : K].
The next theorem is an important result form local class field theory.
Theorem 3.4 (Local Norm Index) Let E/K be a finite abelian extension of local fields.
Then
[K × : NE/K (E × )] = [E : K].
Corollary 3.5 Let E/K be a quadratic extension of p-adic fields. Then E/K is unramified
if and only if NE/K (E × ) contains all the units of the ring of integers in K.
Proof. Suppose that E/K is unramified. If π := NE/K (x) is a uniformizer of K, then
1 1
w(x) = v(NE/K (x)) 2 = v(π) 2 . But since π is also a uniformizer of E, we must have
1
1 > v(π) = w(π) ≥ w(x) = v(π) 2 ,
which is impossible. So, NE/K (E × ) does not contain any uniformizer of K. Notice that
NE/K (E × ) contains K ×2 , and that every coset in K × /K ×2 is represented by an element of
12
K of the form π δ , where δ ∈ {0, 1} and ∈ o× × × ×2
K . So, [K : oK K ] = 2. It follows form the
Local Norm Index Theorem that NE/K (E × ) is equal to o× K K ×2 in this case.
The converse now is obvious.2

We can say more about unramified quadratic extensions of p-adic fields. Inside one
algebraic closure of a p-adic field K, there is only one unramified quadratic extension of
√
K. This extension is given by K( u), where u is some specific chosen unit of oK . If K is
nondyadic, that is when the residue field of K has odd characteristic, then u can be chosen
to be any nonsquare unit in oK . When K is dyadic, then u is chosen from one specific
square class of units. In the special case K = Q2 , we can choose δ to be 5.
3.2 Quaternion Algebras over p-adic fields

Let F be a p-adic field, with ring of integers o, uniformizer π, p = πo the unique maximal
ideal and F = o/p the residue class field. We fix a valuation v on F .
Let H be a quaternion division algebra over F . Define
w:H→R
by w(x) = v(nr(x)). Note that w(π) = v(π)2 .
Lemma 3.6 The function w is a nonarchimedean valuation on H

Proof. We need to show that w satisfies the following two properties:
(a) w(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ H, and w(x) = 0 if and only if x = 0;
(b) w(xy) = w(x)w(y) for all x, y ∈ H;
(c) w(x + y) ≤ max{w(x), w(y)} with equality when w(x) 6= w(y).

Property (a) and (b) follow immediately from the definition of v and the multiplicative
property of nr. For (c), let E be a quadratic field extension of F inside H. The restriction
of nr on E is the norm NE/F of the extension E/F . Now v ◦ NE/F is a nonarchimedean
valuation on the p-adic field E. Thus w restricted to such a quadratic extension satisfies
(c). So for x, y ∈ H × ,
w(x + y)w(y)−1 = w(xy −1 − 1) ≤ max{w(xy −1 ), w(1)}
with equality if w(xy −1 ) 6= w(1). Note that w(1) = 1 and that w(xy −1 ) = w(x)w(y)−1 from
(b). Hence w satisfies (c).2
Corollary 3.7 Let O = {x ∈ H : w(x) ≤ 1} and P = {x ∈ H : w(x) < 1}.

(a) O is a ring and P is a two-sided ideal of O. The unit group of O is precisely the set
O \ P.
(b) nr(O) ⊆ o and nr(P) ⊆ p.
13
(c) Let z ∈ P be such that w(z) is maximal. Then P = zO = Oz.
(d) P 2 ⊆ πO ⊆ P.
(e) The map x + P 7−→ zx + P 2 is a F -vector space isomorphism from O/P to P/P 2 .
Proof. Parts (a) and (b) are straightforward. For (c), if y ∈ P, then w(y) ≤ w(z). Hence
w(z −1 y) = w(yz −1 ) ≤ 1, which means that y is in zO and Oz.
For (d), it is clear that πO ⊆ P. Note that w(π −1 z 2 ) = [v(π)−1 v(nr(z))]2 ≤ 1. So,
z 2 ∈ πO and hence P 2 ⊆ πO.
For (e), the map x + P 7−→ zx + P 2 is a F -linear map. By (c), it is surjective. Suppose
that zx ∈ P 2 . Then x ∈ P which shows that the map is injective. 2
Proposition 3.8 The quotient O/P is a finite field.

Proof. By part(a) of Corollary 3.7, O/P is a division ring. We proceed to show that O/P
is a finite division ring. Then Wedderburn’s Little Theorem says that every finite division
ring is a field, whence the theorem.
For any x ∈ H, there exists m ∈ Z such that π m x ∈ O. It follows that H = F O. We
choose a basis {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 } of H such that xi ∈ O for all i. Since H, equipped with the
quadratic map 2nr, is a nondegenerate quadratic space over F , there exist x∗1 , x∗2 , x∗3 , x∗4 ∈ H
such that
B(xi , x∗j ) = δij (Kronecker’s delta)
where B is the symmetric bilinear formPassociated to 2nr. The x∗i are clearly linearly
independent over F . If x ∈ O and x = i ai x∗i , then since 2nr(y) ∈ 2o for all y ∈ O, we
have ai = B(x, xi ) ∈ o for all i. Thus
4
X 4
X
oxi ⊆ O ⊆ ox∗i ,
i=1 i=1
and O is a (necessarily) free o-module of rank 4. It follows that O/πO is a 4-dimensional

vector space over the finite field F . So, O/πO is a finite set. Since πO ⊆ P, O/P is also a
finite set.2
√
The p-adic field F has a unique unramified quadratic extension K = F ( u), where u is
from a specific square class of units in o. Let K be the residue field of K. Then K can be
regarded as a quadratic extension of F . By Corollary 3.5, the norm group NK/F (K × ) is a
subgroup of index 2 in F × which contains all the units in o, and the nontrivial element in
the quotientgroup F × /NK/F (K × ) is represented by a uniformizer π. Thus the quaternion
algebra u,πF is a division algebra.
Theorem 3.9 Up to isomorphism, u,π

F is the only quaternion division algebra over F .
Proof. Let H be a quaternion division algebra over F . The first step is to show that an
unramified quadratic extension of F embeds in H. We have shown that O/P is a finite
14
extension of F . By Corollary 3.7(e), O/P and P/P 2 have the same dimension as F -vector
spaces. Therefore dimF (O/P) > 1, in particular, O/P = 6 F.
Now choose α ∈ O such that O/P = F (α + P). Then α 6∈ F and hence K = F (α) is
a quadratic extension over F . Since K/F is a nontrivial extension, therefore the residue
degree f of K/F is at least 2. It then follows from the Local Fundamental Identity that
f must be exactly 2 and the ramification index of K/F is 1. So, K/F is unramified, and
hence there exists i ∈ K such that i2 = u.
The two square roots ±i of u give two embeddings of K into H. By the Skolem-Noether
Theorem, there is a j ∈ H × such that −i = jij −1 . Thus {1, i, j, ij} is a basis of H (verify!).
Since j 2 commutes with i, j 2 is in center of H and hence j 2 ∈ F . This implies that {1, i, j, ij}
is a standard basis of H.
Let j 2 = π m , where ∈ o× . We may assume that m = 0 or 1. Since every in o×
u,
is a norm of an element in K, F splits. Thus m = 1, and there exists a, b ∈ F such
that a2 − ub2 = . It remains to show that H = u,π F . It suffices to show that H0 has an
orthogonal basis {e1 , e2 , e3 } such that nr(e1 ) = −u, nr(e2 ) = −π and nr(e3 ) = πu.
Since H = u,π F , H0 has an orthogonal basis {f1 , f2 , f3 } such that nr(f1 ) = −u,
nr(f2 ) = −π and nr(f3 ) = πu. Now, let e1 = f1 , e2 = −1 (af2 + bf3 ) and e3 = −1 (ubf2 +
af3 ). It is direct to check that {e1 , e2 , e3 } is the desired orthogonal basis of H.2
Theorem 3.10 Let L/F be a quadratic field extension. Then u,π

F splits over L.
√
Proof. If L is an unramified quadratic extension of F , then L ∼ = F ( u) and hence u,π

L
splits.
√ √
Now suppose that L/F is ramified. Let K = F ( u) and set M = L( u). Then
[M : F ] = [M : L][L : F ] = [M : L]
since L/F is ramified. On the other hand,
[M : F ] = [M : K][K : F ] = 2[M : K].
So, [M : L] = 2 and M/L is unramified. Let ρ be a uniformizer for L such that π = ρ2 t,

where t is a unit of the ring of integers in L. Then
u, π u, ρ2 t u, t
= = .
L L L
But t is a norm of an element in M since M/L is unramified. Thus u,t

L splits.2
We can say a bit more when F is a nondyadic p-adic field. The following is a well known
result in the theory of local fields.
Theorem 3.11 (Hensel’s Lemma) Let f (x) be a monic polynomial in o[x]. Suppose that
f (x) mod p admits a factorization g(x)h(x), where g(x) and h(x) are relatively prime poly-
nomials in F [x]. Then f (x) admits a factorization g(x)h(x) in o[x], where g(x) mod p =
g(x) and h(x) mod p = h(x).
15
Corollary 3.12 Let F be a nondyadic p-adic field. Then F × /F ×2 is a group of order 4
whose elements are represented by 1, u, π and πu where u is a nonsquare unit in o.
Proof. By Hensel’s Lemma, an element c ∈ o× is a square if and only if c is a square
modulo p. Since the residue field o/p is a finite field of odd characteristic, it has exactly
two square classes. So, o× also has exactly two square classes. The Corollary now follows
immediately.2

Theorem 3.13 Let F be a nondyadic p-adic field. Let H = a,b F , where a, b ∈ o.
(a) If a, b ∈ o× , then H splits.
(b) If a ∈ o× and b ∈ p \ p2 , then H splits if and only if a is a square.
(c) If a, b ∈ p \ p2 , then H splits if and only if −a−1 b is a square.

√
Proof. (a) We may assume that a = u. Then b is a norm of an element in F ( a). Hence
H splits.
√
(b) Once again, we may assume that a = u, which is not a square mod p. Since F ( u)/F
√
is unramified, b isnota norm
from F ( u). Therefore, H does not split in
this case.
a,b a,−a−1 b −1 a,b
(c) Note that F = F and −a b is a unit in o. Therefore, F splits if and
only if −a−1 b is a square, by part (b).2
4 Quaternion Algebras over Number Fields

In this section, F is a number field and o is the ring of integers of F .
4.1 Local to Global

Let K be a finite extension of F . The restriction of a valuation on K to F is a valuation
on F . For every place v of F , there are only finitely many places w of K such that the
restriction of any valuation in w on F is a valuation in v. Those w are said to be lying
above v and we write w | v. Moreover,
K ⊗F Fv ∼
Y
(]) = Kw .
w|v
This decomposition gives Y

NK/F (a) = Nw/v (a)
w|v
and X
TK/F (a) = Tw/v (a).
w|v
16
Here Nw/v and Tw/v are the norm and the trace of the extension Kw /Fv . Recall that the
valuation on Kw that extends v on Fv is defined by w(x) = v(Nw/v (x))1/[Kw :Fv ] . It also
follows from (]) that X
[Kw : Fv ] = [K : F ].
w|v
If ew and fw are the ramification index and residue degree of Kw /Fv , then the Local
Fundamental Identity implies:
X
ew fw = [K : F ] (Fundamental Identity).
w|v
We now mention some results from class field theory. An element a ∈ F is called a
global norm (of the extension K/F ) if a ∈ NK/F (K). For any v ∈ ΩF , a is called a local
norm at v if a ∈ Nw/v (Kw ) for all w | v.
Theorem 4.1 (Hasse’s Norm Theorem) Let K/F be a cyclic extension of number fields,
and let a ∈ F . Then a is a global norm if and only if it is a local norm at every v ∈ ΩF .
We shall be
√ interested in the special case when K/F is a quadratic extension. In this
case, K = F ( δ) for some δ 6∈ F 2 . An element a ∈ F is a global norm if the diophantine
equation x2 − δy 2 = a has a solution over F . For every v ∈ ΩF , by (]) there are either one
or two places of w lying above v. The latter occurs exactly when δ is a square in Fv and
we say that v splits in K. If there is only one w lying above v, then Kw /Fv is a quadratic
extension and a is a local norm at v if and only if x2 − δy 2 = a has a solution over Fv . If
there are two places of K lying above v, then every a ∈ F is a local norm at v. At the
same time, the equation x2 − δy 2 = a always has a solution over Fv . Hence Hasse’s Norm
Theorem in the special case can be rephrased as: x2 − δy 2 = a has a solution over F if and
only if x2 − δy 2 = a has a solution over Fv for every v ∈ ΩF .
Theorem 4.2 (Global Square Theorem) Let δ be an element in a number field F . Then δ
is a square in F if and only if δ is a square in Fv for almost all v ∈ ΩF .
Recall that a quadratic space (V, Q) is called isotropic if there exists a nonzero vector
v in V such that Q(x) = 0; such a v is called an isotropic vector. The space V is called
isotropic if it has an isotropic vector, and is called nondegenerate if it does not have any
nonzero vector that is orthogonal to all vectors in V . If v is a place of F , then Vv denotes
the quadratic space Fv ⊗F V with quadratic form Qv (a ⊗ x) = a2 Q(x) for all a ∈ Fv and
x ∈ V . We often abuse the notation and use the same Q, instead of Qv , to denote the
quadratic form on Vv .
The next theorem is one of the most important theorem in the algebraic theory of
quadratic forms.
Theorem 4.3 (Hasse-Minkowski Theorem)
17
(a) Let V be a nondegenerate quadratic space over a number field F . Then V is isotropic
if and only if Vv is isotropic for all places v of F .
(b) Let V and W be nondegenerate quadratic spaces over a number field F . Then V and
W are isometric if and only if Vv and Wv are isometric for all places v of F .
Let us look at part (a) of the Hasse-Minkowski Theorem. We may assume, by scaling
the quadratic form on V suitably, that there exists v1 ∈ V with Q(v1 ) = 1. We can extend
v1 to an orthogonal basis {v1 , . . . , vn } of V . If n = 2, then there exists a δ ∈ F × such that
every Q(v) is of the form x2 + δy 2 with x, y ∈ F . So, V is isotropic if and only if −δ is a
square in F . Thus part (a) in this case is just the Global Square Theorem. If n = 3, then
the corresponding quadratic form on V is of the form x2 + δy 2 + γz 2 . We may assume that
−δ is not a square
√ in F . Then V is isotropic if and only if γ is a norm from the quadratic
extension F ( −δ), and part (a) in this case is just Hasse’s Norm Theorem. The rest of
the proof for part (a) is an (nontrivial) induction on the dimension of V ; see page 187 in
O’Meara’s book.
For part (b), we first observe that the case n = 1 the theorem is equivalent to the Global
Square Theorem. Suppose that n > 1. It suffices to look at the ”if” part of the statement.
We may assume that V has a vector x such that Q(x) = 1. Then V ∼ = h1i ⊥ V 0 for some
0
subspace V of dimension n − 1 . At each v, there is a vector wv ∈ Wv such that Q(wv ) = 1,
since Wv ∼= Vv . This means that the space h−1i ⊥ Wv is isotropic for every v and, by part
(a), the space h−1i ⊥ W is isotropic. Thus there exists a vector w ∈ W with Q(w) = 1.
So, W ∼= h1i ⊥ W 0 for some subspace W 0 of dimension n − 1. Now, by Witt’s Cancellation
Theorem, Vv0 ∼ = Wv0 for all places v. It follows from an induction on the dimension that
0 ∼
V = W , whence V ∼
0
= W.
4.2 Classification
Let v be a place of F . For any a, b ∈ Fv× , define the Hilbert Symbol
if ax2 + by 2 = 1 has a solution in Fv ;

1
(a, b)v =
−1 otherwise.

a,b
By Theorem 1.13, (a, b)v = 1 if and only if the quaternion algebra Fv splits. Now,
suppose that a and b are in F ×.
For almost all finite places v, a and b are units of ov .
Therefore, by Theorem 3.13, (a, b)v = 1 for almost all v.
Theorem 4.4 (Hilbert’s Reciprocity Law) Let a, b ∈ F × . Then

Y
(a, b)v = 1,
v
where the product is taken over all places of F .
18
Let H be a quaternion algebra over F . For any place v of F , let Hv denote the quaternion
algebra Fv ⊗F H over Fv . If v is a complex place, then Hv necessarily splits. However, if v is
a real place or a finite place, then Hv either splits or is isomorphic to the unique quaternion
division algebra over Fv . Note that Hv splits for almost all places v.
Theorem 4.5 Let H be a quaternion algebra over a number field F . Then H splits over
F if and only if Hv splits over Fv for all places v of F .
Proof. By Theorem 1.13, H splits over F if and only if H0 is isotropic. The theorem now
follows immediately from the Hasse-Minkowski Theorem.2
Definition 4.6 Let H be a quaternion algebra over a number field F . Then H is said to
be ramified at a place v if Hv is a division algebra. Otherwise, H splits at v. The set of
places at which H is ramified is denoted by Ram(H).
Proposition 4.7 The set Ram(H) is a finite set containing even number of places.
Proof. This is a consequence of Hilbert’s Reciprocity Law.2
Theorem 4.8 Let H and H 0 be quaternion algebras over a number field F . Then H ∼
= H0
if and only if Ram(H) = Ram(H 0 ).
Proof. By Theorem 2.8, H and H 0 are isomorphic if and only if H0 and H00 are isometric as
quadratic spaces. By the Hasse-Minkowski Theorem, H0 and H00 are isometric if and only
if (H0 )v and (H00 )v are isometric for all places v, which is the same as saying that Hv and
Hv0 are isomorphic for all places v. But Hv and Hv0 are isomorphic if and only if either they
both split or they are both ramified. Thus H and H 0 are isomorphic if and only if they are
ramified at the same set of places.2
5 Orders in Quaternion Algebras

5.1 Orders
Throughout this subsection, F is either a number field of a p-adic field. Its ring of integers
o is a Dedekind domain. In particular, F is the field of fractions of o, and o is an integrally
closed Noetherian ring in which every nonzero prime ideal is maximal.
Let IF be the set of nonzero finitely generated o-submodule of F . The elements in IF
are called the fractional ideals of F . The nonzero ideals of o are elements of IF , and they
are called the integral ideals of F . Let a, b be two fractional ideals. Their product ab is the
o-module generated by the products ab with a ∈ a and b ∈ b. The inverse of a is defined to
be a−1 = {x ∈ F : xa ⊆ o}. It turns out that ab and a−1 are also fractional ideals. In fact,
IF is an abelian group under the multiplication of fraction ideals just defined. The identity
element is o, and a−1 is indeed the inverse of a, that is aa−1 = o. An important result about
19
Dedekind domain is that IF is the free abelian group on the set of nonzero prime ideals of
o. In other words, every fractional ideal a has a unique prime ideal factorization
a = pa11 · · · pat t ,
where each pi is a nonzero prime ideal of o and each ai is a nonzero integer.

Let PF be the set of principal fractional ideals αo, α ∈ F × . Then PF is a subgroup
of IF , and the quotient IF /PF is called the ideal class group of F . This group is a finite
group for those fields F we are considering here. The order of this group is called the class
number of F . When F is a p-adic field, its class number is always 1.
Definition 5.1 Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over F . An o-lattice in V is a

finitely generated o-module contained in V . An o-lattice L in V is said to be complete if
FL = V .
From now on, unless stated otherwise, every vector space is finite dimensional over F
and every lattice in V is an o-lattice. Since o is a Dedekind domain, every lattice L in a
vector space V can be written as L = ox1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ oxk−1 ⊕ axk for some x1 , . . . , xk ∈ V and
a fractional ideal a. If L is complete, then {x1 , . . . , xk } is necessarily a basis of V .
Theorem 5.2 (Invariant Factor Theorem) Let L and M be two complete lattices in a vector
space V over F . Then there is a basis {x1 , . . . , xn } of V such that

L = a1 x1 + · · · + an xn
M = a1 r1 x1 + · · · + an rn xn
where a1 , . . . , an , r1 , . . . , rn are fractional ideals of F with r1 ⊇ r2 ⊇ · · · ⊇ rn . The ri

determined in this way are unique.
The fractional ideals r1 , . . . , rn of the last theorem are called the invariant factors of M
in L. It is clear that M ⊆ L if and only if all the ri are integral ideals.
Corollary 5.3 Let L be a complete lattice in a vector space V and M be an o-module

contained in V . Then M is a complete lattice if and only if there exists nonzero a ∈ o such
that aL ⊆ M ⊆ a−1 L.
Proof. Suppose that there is an a ∈ o such that aL ⊆ M ⊆ a−1 L. Since a−1 L is a finitely
generated o-module and o is Noetherian, M is also finitely generated. Moreover, since
aL ⊆ M , M contains a basis of V . Thus M is a complete lattice.
Conversely, suppose that M is a complete lattice. By the Invariant Factor Theorem,
there exists nonzero a ∈ o such that aL ⊆ M and aM ⊆ L.2
Definition 5.4 Let H be a quaternion algebra over F . An o-ideal in H is a complete

o-lattice in H. An order in H is an o-ideal which is also a ring. A maximal order is an order
which is maximal with respect to inclusion.
20
Henceforth, H is always a quaternion algebra over F . We first demonstrate the existence
of an order in H. Unless stated otherwise, an ideal in H is always an o-ideal. If I is an
ideal in H, then the left order of I and the right order of I are defined respectively by
O` (I) = {α ∈ H : αI ⊆ I}, Or (I) = {α ∈ H : Iα ⊆ I}.
Lemma 5.5 If I is an ideal in H, then O` (I) and Or (I) are orders in H.

Proof. We shall show only that O` (I) is an order; the argument for Or (I) will be the same.
Clearly, O` (I) is a subring and an o-submodule of H.
Since I is an ideal in H, there exists a nonzero s ∈ o such that s · 1 ∈ I. Therefore,
O` (I)(s · 1) ⊆ I; whence O` (I) ⊆ s−1 I. This shows that O` (I) is finitely generated as an
o-module. So, O` (I) is a lattice.
Now, for any y ∈ H, yI is a lattice in H. Therefore, there exists a nonzero a ∈ o such
that ayI ⊆ I. Then ay ∈ O` (I) and hence F O` (I) = H. This complete the proof that
O` (I) is an order in H.2
Let O be an order in H. Since O is a finitely generated o-module and o is Noetherian,
every element of O is integral over o. More generally, suppose α ∈ H is integral over o.
Since α2 − tr(α)α + nr(α) = 0, it follows that tr(α) and nr(α) are in o.
Lemma 5.6 Let O be a subring of H. Then O is an order in H if and only if O contains

o, F O = H and O is integral over o.
Proof. It is clear that if O is an order in H, then O has all the properties stated in the
lemma.
For the converse, let {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 } be a basis of H such that xi ∈ O for all i. It can
be checked readily that H, equipped with the (reduced) trace tr as the symmetric bilinear
form, is a nondegenerate quadratic space. Therefore, d = det(tr(xi xj )) 6= 0. Let L be the
ideal spanned by the xi . Then L ⊆ O. Suppose that α ∈ O so that
4
X
α= bi xi , bi ∈ F for all i.
i=1
For each j, αxj ∈ O and so

4
X
tr(αxj ) = bi tr(xi xj ) ∈ o.
i=1
Thus bi ∈ d−1 o and O ⊆ d−1 L. So, O is a finitely generated o-module which implies that
O is an order.2
Corollary 5.7 Every order in H is contained in a maximal order.

Proof. Apply Zorn’s Lemma and the characterization of orders given in the last lemma.2
21
The set of all elements
in H that are integral over o is not necessarily an order. For
−1,−1
example, let H = Q with standard basis {1, i, j, ij}. Then α = i and β = (3i + 4j)/5
are integral over Z, but neither αβ nor α + β is integral over Z.
If O is an order in H and α ∈ H × , then αOα−1 is also an order in H. So, the conjugate
of a maximal order in H is also a maximal order. However, there could be more than one
conjugacy classes of maximal orders in a quaternion algebra.
5.2 Localizations I
In this subsection, F is a number field and o is the ring of integers in F . The symbol p
always denote a finite place of F or its associated prime ideal of o. For any p ∈ Ωf , let o(p)
be the localization of o with respect to the multiplicative set o \ p. In other words,
o(p) = {a/b ∈ F : a ∈ o, b ∈ o \ p}.
It is a local ring with maximal ideal
p̃ = {a/b ∈ F : a ∈ p, b ∈ o \ p}.
Let x be an nonzero element in F . The exponent of p appearing in the prime ideal

factorization of the fractional ideal xo is denote by ordp (x). It is our convention that
ordp (0) = ∞. We claim that
o(p) = {α ∈ F : ordp (α) ≥ 0}
and so
p̃ = {α ∈ F : ordp (α) > 0}.
It is clear that ordp (α) ≥ 0 for all α ∈ o(p). Conversely, suppose that ordp (α) ≥ 0 and we
can write α = a/b, where a, b ∈ o. Then ordp (a) ≥ ordp (b). Suppose that ordp (b) = n, or
equivalently, bo = pn b for some integral ideal b. Let a be an integral ideal belongs to the
ideal class containing p−1 . So, ap is a principal ideal to for some t ∈ o.
If p - a, then a 6⊆ p. Then there exists x ∈ a but x 6∈ p. Therefore, xo = ac, where p - c.
This implies
xn bo = (ap)n cb = tn cb.
Set b0 := xn b/tn , which is an element in o \ p. Using the same argument we can show that
the element a0 := xn a/tn is in o. Then α = a/b = a0 /b0 ∈ o(p).
If p | a, then a ⊆ p. Choose an integral ideal i such that ia is principal generated by
δ ∈ o. Then ia 6⊆ δp. Fix an ∈ i such that a 6⊆ δp and set γ = /δ. Then γa ⊆ o and
γa 6⊆ p. So, γa is an integral ideal in the ideal class containing p−1 and p - γa. We can then
replace a by γa in the last paragraph.
Let I be a nonzero ideal of o(p). Among all the elements in I, choose one, say x,
such that ordp (x) is the smallest. For any a ∈ I, ordp (a) ≥ ordp (x), which implies that
ordp (ax−1 ) ≥ 0, that is ax−1 ∈ o(p). Thus, a ∈ xo(p) and hence I = xo(p). This shows
22
that o(p) is a PID and its ideals are π n o(p) = p̃n , n ≥ 0. The rings o(p) are subrings of F
and o can be recovered from them as
\
o= o(p).
p∈Ωf
Lemma 5.8 Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over F and let L be an o-lattice in
V . Then \
L= o(p)L.
p∈Ωf
Proof. It is clear that L is contained in the intersection. For the converse, let {x1 , . . . , xk }
be a generating set for L as an o-module; thus it is also a generating set for o(p)L as an
o(p)-module for each p. Suppose that x is in the intersection. Let
J = {y ∈ o : yx ∈ L}.
Then J is an integral ideal of o. Fix a p in Ωf . We can write x = ki=1 ai xi with ai = bi /ci ,

P
where bi , ci ∈ o and ci 6∈ p for all i. Let c = c1 · · · ck so that c 6∈ p. However, c ∈ J. Thus J
is an integral ideal of o which does not lie in any nonzero prime ideal of o. This shows that
J = o. Thus 1 ∈ J and x ∈ L.2
This result will be applied to the case when V is a quaternion algebra H over F and L
is an o-ideal in H.
Lemma 5.9 Let I be an o-ideal in an quaternion algebra H over F . For each prime ideal
p ∈ Ωf , let I(p) be an o(p)-ideal in H such that I(p) = o(p)I for almost all p. Then
\
J= I(p)
p∈Ωf
is an o-ideal in H such that o(p)J = I(p) for all p.

Proof. Let {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 } be a basis of H in I, and let L be the o-ideal ox1 + · · · + ox4 .
Then L ⊆ I, and there exists an nonzero r ∈ o such that rI ⊆ L. For almost all p, r is a
unit in o(p). Therefore, for almost all p,
o(p)L = o(p)I = I(p).
As a result, we can find an nonzero a ∈ o such that
aI(p) ⊆ o(p)L ⊆ a−1 I(p) for all p.
Then \ \
J= I(p) ⊆ a−1 o(p)L = a−1 L
p∈Ωf p∈Ωf
23
by Lemma 5.8. Thus J is an o-lattice in H. By the same token, aL ⊆ J; thus J is an
o-ideal in H.
Now, for each p ∈ Ωf , o(p)J ⊆ o(p)I(p) = I(p). For the reverse inclusion,
P let j1 , . . . , jk
be a generating set for J as o-module. Let x ∈ I(p) so that x = i ai ji with ai ∈ F .
Choose a nonzero s1 ∈ o so that s1 a1 ∈ o. Suppose that s1 o has the following prime ideal
factorization
s1 o = pn0 qn1 1 · · · qnt t
where ni ≥ 1 for 0 ≤ i ≤ t. By the Chinese Remainder Theorem, there exists d1 ∈ o such
that
s1 a1 + s1 mod pn0 +1 ,

d1 ≡
s1 mod qini +1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ t.
Then b1 = d1 /s1 is such that b1 − a1 ∈ o(p) and b1 ∈Po(q) for all prime ideals q 6= p. Repeat
the same for each ai toPobtain a bi , and let y = bi ji . Then y ∈ o(q)J ⊆ I(q) for all
q 6= p. Also, y − x = (bi − ai )ji ∈ o(p)J ⊆ I(p). Thus y ∈ I(p) and so y ∈ J. Hence
x = y − (y − x) ∈ o(p)J.2
Note that if O is an o-order in H, then o(p)O is an o(p)-order in H and the above lemma
holds with “ideals” replaced by “orders”.
Lemma 5.10 Let O be an o-order in a quaternion algebra H over F . Then O is a maximal

o-order if and only if o(p)O is a maximal o(p)-order for all p ∈ Ωf .
Proof. Suppose that O is maximal but o(p)O ⊆ Λ(p) for some o(p)-order Λ(p). Define an
order O0 by (
0 o(q)O if q = 6 p;
o(q)O =
Λ(p) if q = p.
Then O ⊆ O0 ; so O = O0 and hence o(p)O = Λ(p).
Conversely, suppose that each o(p)O is maximal and O is contained in a maximal o-order
O0 . Then clearly o(p)O ⊆ o(p)O0 for all p. By maximality, we have
o(p)O = o(p)O0 for all p.
The result then follows from Lemma 5.8.2

In later discussion, we will identify o(p)O with o(p) ⊗o O.
5.3 Localizations II
In this subsection, we shall interpret the local-global results obtained in the last subsection
in the context of ideals and orders over the p-adics. If H is a quaternion algebra over F ,
then Hp denotes the quaternion algebra Fp ⊗F H. For any lattice L in H, Lp denotes the
op -lattice op ⊗o L in Hp . If O is an order in H, then Op is an op -order in Hp . Note that
Op = op ⊗o O = op ⊗o(p) (o(p)O).
24
Lemma 5.11 There is a bijection between o(p)-ideals (resp. orders) in a quaternion algebra
H over F and the op -ideals (resp. orders) in the quaternion algebra Hp over Fp given by
the map
I 7−→ op ⊗o(p) I
which has the inverse J 7→ J ∩ H.
Proof. Since o(p) is a PID, I is free as an o(p)-module. Let {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 } be a basis of
I over o(p). Then in Fp ⊗F H, (op ⊗o(p) I) ∩ H consists of the op ∩ F = o(p) linearly
combinations of the xi . Thus (op ⊗o(p) I) ∩ H = I.
Now, suppose that J is an op -ideal in Hp and that {yP 1 , y2 , y3 , y4 } is a basis of J over op .
Let {z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 } be a basis of H over F so that zi = j bij yj for all i. Then B = (bij )
is an invertible matrix in M4 (Fp ). Since F is dense in Fp , we can choose cij ∈ F such that
the entries of C = −1 to make CB to be a unit in M (o ).
P(cij ) is close
P enough to those of B 4 p
0
Now let zi = j cij zj = j,k cij bjk yk . Then {z1 , z20 , z30 , z40 } is a basis of J over op , which
0
is also a basis of H over F . Thus J ∩ H consists of the op ∩ F = o(p) linear combinations

of the zi0 , and so is an o(p)-ideal in H such that op ⊗o(p) (J ∩ H) = J.2
Fix an o-ideal I in H. Let I be the set of o-ideals in H, and let T be the set of all
sequences (Lp ) such that Lp is an op -ideal in Hp for all p ∈ Ωf and Lp = Ip for almost all p.
Lemma 5.12 The map J 7→ (Jp ) is a bijection from I to T.

Proof. If J is an o-ideal in H, then there exist nonzero a, b ∈ F such that aJ ⊆ I ⊆ bJ. For
almost all p, a and b are units in op so that Jp = Ip for almost all p.
Now, suppose that a sequence (Lp ) in T is given. Let J(p) = H ∩ Lp , which is an o(p)-
ideal in H by Lemma 5.11. Furthermore, J(p) = o(p)I for almost all p. Then J = ∩p J(p)
is an o-ideal in H, and Jp = Lp for all p. Thus the map J 7→ (Jp ) is surjective. Now if
ideals J and J 0 have the same image under this map, then o(p)J = o(p)J 0 for all p. Then,
by Lemma 5.8, J = J 0 and the map is injective.2
Corollary 5.13 Let O be an o-order in the quaternion algebra H over F . Then O is

maximal if and only if Op are maximal op -orders in Hp for all p ∈ Ωf .
Proof. Exercise.2
5.4 Discriminants
In this subsection, F is the field of fractions of a Dedekind domain o, and H is a quaternion
algebra over F .
Definition 5.14 Let O be an o-order in H. The discriminant of O, denoted d(O), is the

fractional ideal of o generated by the elements det(tr(xi xj )), where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ O.
Since O is an o-order, it must contain a basis of H over F . Thus d(O) is nonzero (recall
that H together with tr(x2 ) as the quadratic form is a nondegenerate quadratic space over
F ). Also, since every element in O is integral over o, d(O) is an integral ideal.
25
Proposition 5.15 If an o-order O in H is free with a basis {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } over o, then
d(O) is the principal ideal generated by det(tr(ui uj )).
P
Proof. Let x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ∈ O so that xi = k aik uk with aik ∈ o for all i, k. Then
det(tr(xi xj )) = det(aik ) det(tr(ui uj )) det(aik )t
and the result follows.2
Example 5.16 Let O = M2 (o). It has a basis {Eij : 1 ≤ i, j ≤ 2}, where Eij is the matrix
with 1 in the (i, j)-entry and 0 elsewhere. Using this basis one can easily compute d(O) = o.

−1,−1
Example 5.17 Let H be the quaternion algebra Q and O be the Z-order Z + Zi +
Zj + Zij. Then d(O) = 16Z. Let O0 be the Z- order O + Zα, where α = (1 + i + j + ij)/2.
Then O ⊆ O0 , and d(O0 ) = 4Z.
Lemma 5.18 Suppose that o is a PID. If O1 and O2 are two o-orders in H with O1 ⊆ O2 ,
then d(O2 ) | d(O1 ), and O1 = O2 if and only if d(O1 ) = d(O2 ).
Proof. The first assertion is clear. For the second assertion, suppose that d(O1 ) = d(O2 ).
Let {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 } be an o-basis of O1 , and let {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } be o-basis of O2 . Since
O1 ⊆ O2 , the matrix T that expresses the ui in terms of the vj has entries in o. But
det(T )2 det(tr(vi vj )) = det(tr(ui uj ));
thus T ∈ GL4 (o) and hence O1 = O2 .2

Now, assume that F is a number field and o is its ring of integers. Let O be an o-order
in H. Then it can readily be shown that d(o(p)O) = o(p)d(O) for all p ∈ Ωf . Each o(p) is
a PID and we can compute d(o(p)O) using a basis of o(p)O. Then, by Lemma 5.8,
\
d(O) = d(o(p)O).
p∈Ωf
Theorem 5.19 Suppose that F is a number field and o is its ring of integers. Let O1 and
O2 be o-orders in H with O1 ⊆ O2 . Then d(O2 ) | d(O1 ), and d(O1 ) = d(O2 ) if and only if
O1 = O2 . In particular, O is maximal if d(O) = o.
Proof. The first assertion is clear. Suppose that d(O1 ) = d(O2 ). Then d(o(p)O1 ) =
d(o(p)O2 ) for all p ∈ Ωf . It follows from Lemma 5.18 that o(p)O1 = o(p)O2 for all p,
and so O1 = O2 by Lemma 5.8.2
Let us continue to assume that F is a number field and o is its ring of integers. Suppose
that
Yr
d(O) = pni i
i=1
26
is the prime ideal factorization of d(O). If p is not one of those pi , then d(o(p)O) =
o(p)d(O) = o(p). For i = 1, . . . , t, d(o(pi )O) = pni i o(pi ). Thus
Y
d(O) = (d(o(p)O) ∩ o).
p∈Ωf
Over the p-adics, one can show that d(Op ) = d(O)p for all p. Since the unique prime
ideal in op is pop , one can, with an abuse of notation, re-write the above product as
Y
d(O) = d(Op ).
p∈Ωf
5.5 Orders in M2 (F )
In this subsection, we discuss the special case when H = M2 (F ). Here F is the field of
fractions of a Dedekind domain o. Let V be a 2-dimensional vector space over F . We fix
a basis {e1 , e2 } of V so that M2 (F ) is identified with End(V ). The o-lattice oe1 + oe2 is
denoted by L0 .
If L is a complete o-lattice in V , define
End(L) = {σ ∈ End(V ) : σ(L) ⊆ L}.
In particular, End(L0 ) is identified with the o-order M2 (o). It is clear that End(L) is a
subring of End(V ) for any L. Moreover, End(L) = End(aL) for all a ∈ F × .
For any complete o-lattice L in V , there exists nonzero a ∈ o such that aL0 ⊆ L ⊆ a−1 L0 .
It follows that
a2 End(L0 ) ⊆ End(L) ⊆ a−2 End(L0 ).
Thus End(L) is an o-order in H.
Lemma 5.20 M2 (o) is a maximal o-order in M2 (F ).

Proof. This is clear because the discriminant of M2 (o) is o.2
Lemma 5.21 Let O be an o-order in End(V ). Then there exists a complete o-lattice L in
V such that O ⊆ End(L).
Proof. Let L = {` ∈ L0 : O` ⊆ L0 }. Then L is an o-submodule of L0 . In particular, L is
finitely generated. Also, if 0 6= a in o such that aEnd(L0 ) ⊆ O ⊆ a−1 End(L0 ), then for all
` ∈ L0 , we have
Oa` ⊆ End(L0 )` ⊆ L0 .
Thus aL0 ⊆ L and L is a complete o-lattice in V .
Let α ∈ O. For any ` ∈ L, Oα` ⊆ O` ⊆ L0 . Therefore, α` ⊆ L and O ⊆ End(L).2
27
Corollary 5.22 Suppose that o is a PID. Then the maximal o-orders in M2 (F ) are precisely
the orders End(L). Every maximal o-order in M2 (F ) is conjugate to M2 (o).
Proof. Let O be a maximal o-order in M2 (F ). By Lemma 5.21, there exists a complete
o-lattice L in V such that O = End(L). Conversely, if L is a complete o-lattice in V , then
L = of1 + of2 for some basis {f1 , f2 } of V . Let σ ∈ End(V ) defined by σ(ei ) = fi with
i = 1, 2. Then L = σ(L0 ) and hence End(L) = σEnd(L0 )σ −1 = σM2 (o)σ −1 . This shows
that End(L) is a maximal o-order, and that every maximal o-order in M2 (F ) is conjugate
to M2 (o).2
When o is not a PID, not every L is free as an o-module. However, since o is a Dedekind
domain, there exists a basis {x, y} of V and a fractional ideal a such that L = ox + ay.
Thus End(L) is a conjugate of

a b −1
M2 (o, a) = : a, d ∈ o, b ∈ a , c ∈ a .
c d
Now suppose that F is a p-adic field with ring of integers o. Let π be a uniformizer for
F and let q be the size of the residue field o/p. Then for any integer n ≥ 0, [o : pn ] = q n .
Lemma 5.23 Let O and O0 be maximal o-orders in M2 (F ). Then
O ∼ O0
=
O ∩ O0 O ∩ O0
as o-modules.
Proof. Suppose that O = End(L) and O0 = End(L0 ), where L and L0 are complete o-lattices
in V . By the Invariant Factor Theorem and scaling L0 by an element in F × if necessary,
we can find a basis {e, f } of L and n ≥ 0 such that {e, π n f } is a basis of L0 . Using {e, f },
0 −1 1 0
we can O with M2 (o) and O with xOx where x is the matrix ( 0 πn ). Then
identify
o pn
O0 = p−n o
. Thus
O ∼ o ∼ O0
= = .
O ∩ O0 pn O ∩ O0
2
Definition 5.24 Let O and O0 be maximal o-orders in M2 (F ). The distance between O

and O0 is defined to be logq [O : O ∩ O0 ]. The orders O and O0 are neighbors if the distance
between them is 1.
Lemma 5.25 Suppose that the distance between two maximal o-orders O and O0 in M2 (F )
is n. Then O0 = xOx−1 for some x ∈ GL2 (F ) with ordp (det(x)) = n.
Proof. This is clear from the proof of Lemma 5.23.
28
5.6 Orders in the Local Case
In this subsection, we deal with the case when F is a p-adic field and o is its ring of
integers. So, o is a PID with prime ideal p = πo. Let H is the unique quaternion algebra
u,π √
F , where u is a nonsquare unit so that F ( u)/F is an unramified quadratic extension.
If v is a valuation on F and w = v ◦ nr, then w is a valuation on H. Let O be the associated
valuation ring {x ∈ H : w(x) ≤ 1}. Note that O is also equal to {x ∈ H : nr(x) ∈ o}.
Theorem 5.26 The valuation ring O is the unique o-maximal order in H and has discrim-
inant d(O) = π 2 o = p2 .
Proof. For any x ∈ H, there exists a nonzero r ∈ o such that rx ∈ O. So, F O = H. If
x ∈ O, then x ∈ O and so tr(x) = x + x ∈ O ∩ F = o. But nr(x) ∈ o since x ∈ O. Thus x
is integral over o. This shows that O is an o-order in H.
If x ∈ H is integral over o, then nr(x) ∈ o and hence w(x) ≤ 1. Thus x ∈ O, which
means that O is precisely the set of elements in H that are integral over o. Hence O is the
maximal o-order in H.
√
Let {1, i, j, ij} be a standard basis of H such that i2 = u and j 2 = π. Let K be F ( u).
Then H = K + Kj and nr|K is the norm NK/F . Since K/F is unramified, π is also a
uniformizer for K. Let oK be the ring of integers of K. Then
oK = {x ∈ K : nr(x) ∈ o}.
Now let α = x + yj ∈ H with x, y ∈ K. Then nr(α) = nr(x) − nr(y)π. Since nr(x) and
nr(y) are of the form π 2m z, where z ∈ o× , we see that nr(α) ∈ o if and only if nr(x) and
nr(y) are in o. Thus α ∈ O if and only if α ∈ oK + oK j. Hence O = oK + oK j.
Now, let y ∈ oK such that {1, y} is a basis of oK over o. Then {1, y, j, yj} is a basis of
O over o. Note that jy = yj and tr(αj) = 0 for all α ∈ K. From this it follows that
d(O) = (y − y)4 π 2 o.
Since K/F is unramified, the reside field of K is a quadratic extension of the reside field of
F . Thus, if y − y is not a unit, then the images of y and y in the residue field of K would
be the same, which means that the image of y is in the residue field of F . However, oK is
equal to o[y], and so the residue fields of K and F must be the same which is impossible.
Therefore, d(O) = π 2 o.2
5.7 Orders in the Global Case

In this subsection, F is a number field and o is the ring of integers in F . Let H be a
quaternion algebra over F . Recall that Ram(H) is the set of places at which H is ramified.
It is a finite set with even number of elements.
Definition 5.27 The discriminant of H, denoted ∆(H), is the product of all the finite
places at which H is ramified.
29
Theorem 5.28 Let O be an o-order in a quaternion algebra H over a number field F .
Then O is a maximal o-order if and only if d(O) = ∆(H)2 . In particular, all maximal
o-orders in H have the same discriminant.
Proof. By Lemma 5.13, O is maximal if and only if Op is maximal for every finite place
p. By Example 5.16 and Theorem 5.26, the discriminant of a maximal op -order in Hp is
either op or p2 according to whether Hp splits or is ramified. Furthermore, orders with these
discriminants are necessarily maximal by Theorem 5.19. The result now follows from the
fact that d(O) is the product of all d(Op ).2

Example 5.29 Let H be the quaternion algebra −1,−1 Q . Then Hp splits for all odd
primes p; see Theorem 3.13. Since |Ram(H)| is even and H ⊗Q R = H, H is ramified at 2.
Thus ∆(H) = 2Z. The discriminant of the Z-order O0 in Example 5.17 is 4Z. Thus O0 is a
maximal Z-order in H.
6 Conjugacy Classes of Maximal Orders

In this section F is a number field. We keep all the relevant notations used in the previous
section. When the ring of integers o of F is a PID, then all the maximal orders in M2 (F )
are conjugate to M2 (o). This does not hold in general and in this section we give a formula
for the number of conjugacy classes of maximal orders in a quaternion algebra over F .
6.1 Idele Group of a Quaternion Algebra

Let H be a quaternion algebra over F , and let O be a maximal o-order in H. The idele
group of H is the set
( )
Y
HA× = (xv ) ∈ Hv× : xv ∈ Ov× for almost all finite places v .
v∈Ω
The elements of HA× are called ideles of H. Clearly HA× is a subgroup of the direct product
Y
Hv× . For each v ∈ Ω, there is an embedding σv : H ,→ Hv = Fv ⊗F H, where σv (x) =
v∈Ω
1 ⊗ x for all x ∈ H. Using this embedding, we can identify H × as a subgroup of Hv× and
we will not make any distinction between x and σv (x). If x ∈ H × , there exists r 6= 0 in F
such that rx−1 ∈ O. Since r ∈ o× ×
v for almost all v, therefore x ∈ Ov for almost all v; hence
× ×
H can be identified as a subgroup of HA .
Let x = (xv ) be an idele of H. Define an order xOx−1 in H by specifying its local
completion at a finite place v as
(xOx−1 )v = xv Ov x−1
v .
This definition is meaningful by Lemma 5.12 since xv ∈ Ov× for almost all finite places v
so that (xOx−1 )v = Ov for almost all v. Since the conjugate of a maximal order in Hv is
again maximal, the order xOx−1 is a maximal order in H by Corollary 5.13.
30
Lemma 6.1 Let O0 be another maximal order in H. Then O0 = xOx−1 for some x ∈ HA× .
Proof. Let S be the set of finite places v for which Ov 6= Ov0 . Then S is a finite set and
S ∩ Ram(H) = ∅. If v ∈ S, then Hv ∼ = M2 (Fv ). Since ov is a PID, Ov0 is conjugate to Ov
×
and hence there exists hv ∈ Hv× such that hv Ov h−1 0
v = Ov . Now define an idele x ∈ HA by

1 if v 6∈ S;
xv =
hv if v ∈ S.
It is clear that xOx−1 = O0 .2
Up to this point, we see that HA× acts on the set of all maximal orders in H by conjugation
and the action is transitive. For every v ∈ Ωf , let N(Ov ) be the normalizer of Ov , that is
N(Ov ) = {xv ∈ Hv× : xv Ov x−1
v = Ov }.
It is easy to see that N(Ov ) is a subgroup of Hv× . Moreover, Ov× ⊆ N(Ov ). Let
N(O)A = {x = (xv ) ∈ HA× : xv ∈ N(Ov ) for all v ∈ Ωf }.
Clearly N(Ov ) is a subgroup of HA× . In fact, N(O)A is the stabilizer of O in HA× .
Proposition 6.2 The set of conjugacy classes of maximal orders in H is in bijection with
the double coset space H × \ HA× /N(O)A .
Proof. Let C be the set of conjugacy classes of maximal orders in H. We shall set up a
bijection Φ from the double coset space H × \ HA× /N(O)A to C.
Suppose that H × xN(O)A = H × yN(O)A . Then x = hyn, where h ∈ H × and n ∈
N(O)A . So xOx−1 = h(yOy −1 )h−1 and thus xOx−1 and yOy −1 are in the same conjugacy
class. This means that we can define a function Φ : H × \ HA× /N(O)A → C such that
Φ(H × xN(O)A ) = conjugacy class that contains xOx−1 .
Lemma 6.1 implies that Φ is surjective.
Now, let x, y ∈ HA× such that xOx−1 and yOy −1 are in the same conjugacy class. Then
xOx−1 = hyO(hy)−1 for some h ∈ H × . So, x−1 hy ∈ N(O)A and hence y ∈ H × xN(O)A .
This shows that Φ is injective.2
6.2 Theorem on Norms

We continue to assume that H is a quaternion algebra over the number field F . Let v be
an infinite place of F . If Hv splits, then clearly nr(Hv× ) = Fv× . If Hv is ramified, then v
must bea realplace and Hv is Hamilton’s quaternions H. If {1, i, j, ij} is a standard basis
of H = −1,−1R , then
nr(x1 + x2 i + x3 j + x4 ij) = x21 + x22 + x23 + x24

and thus nr(Hv× ) = R×2 .
31
Lemma 6.3 If v is a finite place of F , then nr(Hv× ) = Fv× .
Proof. This
is clear if Hv = M2 (Fv ). Thus we assume that Hv is the unique quaternion
π,u
algebra Fv over Fv , where π is a uniformizer for Fv and u is a nonsquare unit of ov so
√ √
that Fv ( u)/Fv is unramified. The restriction of the reduced norm on Fv ( u) is the usual
√ √ √
norm N of the field extension Fv ( u)/Fv . Since [Fv× : N (Fv ( u)× )] = 2 and N (Fv ( u)× )
contains all the units of ov , it remains to show that nr(Hv× ) contains
a uniformizer of Fv .
But this is clear; nr(j) = −π if {1, i, j, ij} is a standard basis for π,u
Fv .2
Let Ram∞ (H) be the set of infinite places at which H is ramified. It is necessary that
Fv ∼
= R for all v ∈ Ram∞ (H). Let
FH× = {a ∈ F × : a is positive in Fv for all v ∈ Ram∞ (H)}.
Proposition 6.4 (Theorem on Norms) Let H be a quaternion algebra over a number field
F . Then nr(H × ) = FH× .
Proof. It is clear that nr(H × ) ⊆ FH× . Let a ∈ FH× . Then a ∈ nr(Hv× ) for all v ∈ Ω by
Lemma 6.3. Since H, when equipped with the reduced norm, is a nondegenerate quadratic
space over F , we can apply Hasse-Minkowski Theorem to the present situation and deduce
that a ∈ nr(H × ).2
The idele group of F is the set
Y
JF = {x = (xv ) ∈ Fv× : xv ∈ o×
v for almost all finite places v}.
v∈Ω
The elements of JF are called the ideles of F . It is clear that JF is indeed an abelian group
under the operation (xv )(yv ) = (xv yv ). For any a ∈ F × , a ∈ o×
v for almost all finite places
v. Therefore, a can be regarded as the idele whose v-component is a itself (of course, here
we identify a with σv (a) where σv : F → Fv is the embedding associated with the place v).
Thus we can identify F × as a subgroup of JF . Since nr(Ov× ) ⊆ o× v for all finite places v, we
can define the reduced norm nr : HA× → JF by nr((xv )) = (nr(xv )).
For each v ∈ Ω, let
nr(N(Ov )) if v ∈ Ωf ;
Nv =
nr(Hv× ) if v ∈ Ω∞ .
Since Z(Hv ) = Fv , Nv contains Fv×2 . Let
JF (O) = {x = (xv ) ∈ JF : xv ∈ Nv for all v ∈ Ω}.
It is clear that JF (O) is the image of N(O)A under the reduced norm, and JF (O) ⊇ J2F .
Proposition 6.5 Let v be a finite place of F . Then

× ×2
ov Fv if Hv splits;
Nv =
Fv× otherwise.
32
Proof. Suppose that Hv is a division algebra. Then Ov is the unique maximal order in Hv .
Thus xOv x−1 = Ov for all x ∈ Hv× . So N(Ov ) = Hv× , and hence Nv = Fv× by Lemma 6.3.
Now suppose that Hv = M2 (Fv ) = End(V ) where V is a 2-dimensional vector space
over Fv . We may assume that Ov = M2 (ov ) = End(L), where L is a complete ov -lattice
in V . In this case, Ov× contains all invertible matrices in M2 (ov ). Therefore, o× ×2
v Fv ⊆ Nv .
For the other inclusion, let σ be an element in N(Ov ). Then
End(L) = σEnd(L)σ −1 = End(σ(L)).
Since End(σL) = End(a σ(L)) for all a ∈ Fv× , we may also assume that σ(L) ⊆ L and, by
choosing a suitably, that there exist a basis {e, f } of L and α ∈ ov such that {e, αf } is a
basis of σ(L). Let τ ∈ End(V ) be the map that sends e to e and f to αf . Then τ σ −1 is
an element in End(σ(L)). Thus nr(σ) = αu for some u ∈ o× v . We claim that α is also in
o×v and this will conclude the proof of this case. For, let β ∈ End(V ) be the element which
switches e and f . Then β ∈ End(L) and hence β is also in End(σ(L))× . But then {f, αe}
×
is also a basis of σ(L), whence α ∈ o× v .2
6.3 Strong Approximation

Let v be a place of F , and let B be a basis of Hv over Fv . Using B, Hv can be identified
with Fv4 , and we can make Hv into a topological space by transporting the product topology
from Fv4 . It is not hard to see that different bases for Hv produce the same topology on Hv .
Moreover, with respect to this topology, Hv becomes a locally compact topological ring,
that is, the addition and multiplication in Hv are continuous operations. We impose the
subspace topology on Hv× . Let x ∈ Hv× . Then x−1 =x/nr(x), where x is the conjugation
α,β
on Hv . Let {1, i, j, ij} be a standard basis for Hv = Fv . If x = a0 + a1 i + a2 j + a3 ij,
then nr(x) = a20 − αa21 − βa22 + αβa23 and x = a0 − a1 i − a2 j − a3 ij. Hence x 7→ x−1 is a
continuous map, whence Hv× is in fact a locally compact topological group.
Now suppose that v is a finite place of F and pv is the associated prime ideal. Let L
be the ov -lattice spanned by B. Since L ∼ = o4v and ov is both compact and open, L itself is
also both compact and open. The collection of compact-open sets {pnv L} is a fundamental
system of compact neighborhoods of 0. For every x ∈ Hv× , the set x + pnv L is contained in
Hv× for all sufficiently large integers n.
Let O be a maximal order in H. For each finite place v of F , the group Ov× is a compact-
open subgroup of Hv× . It is because nr : Ov → ov is a continuous map and Ov× = nr−1 (o×v ) is
both closed and open in the compact space Ov . We now make HA× into a topological group
by specifying a fundamental system of neighborhoods of the identity in HA× consisting of
the sets of the form Y
Uv ,
v∈Ω
where each Uv is an open neighborhood of 1 in Hv× with Uv = Ov× for almost all finite places
v. We call this topology the restricted product topology of HA× . If S is a finite subset of Ω
33
containing Ω∞ , let Y Y
HA× (S) = Hv× × Ov× ,
v∈S v6∈S
which is a subset of HA× . Then the restricted product topology on HA× (S) coincides with
the product topology. Since Ov× is compact for all v ∈ Ωf , HA× (S) is locally compact. Since
HA× is the union of all these HA× (S), HA× is a locally compact topological group.
Example 6.6 The restrictedQproduct topology on HA× is not the subspace topology induced
by the product topology on v∈Ω Hv× . The set
Y Y
U= Hv× × Ov×
v∈Ω∞ v∈Ωf
is
Q open in HA× . If the restricted product topology were the subspace topology induced from
×
v∈Ω Hv , then U must contain a set of the form
 
\ Y Y
WS = HA×  Wv × Hv× 
v∈S v6∈S
where S is a finite subset of Ω and Wv is an open subset of Hv× for each v ∈ S. But it is
clear that for U does not contain any such WS .
For each v ∈ Ω, let Hv1 = {xv ∈ Hv× : nr(xv ) = 1}. Define
HA1 = {x = (xv ) ∈ HA× : xv ∈ Hv1 for all v ∈ Ω}.
It is clear that HA1 is the kernel of the reduced norm nr : HA× → JF . Thus HA1 is a normal
subgroup of HA× . Moreover, it contains the commutator subgroup of HA× . We give HA1 the
subspace topology induced by the restricted product topology on HA× . For any finite subset
S of Ω, let
HS1 = {x = (xv ) ∈ HA1 : xv = 1 for all v 6∈ S}.
Theorem 6.7 (Strong Approximation Theorem for H 1 ) Let H be a quaternion algebra

over a number field F , and let S be a finite subset of places of F containing Ω∞ such that
Hv splits for at least one place in S. Then H 1 HS1 is dense in HA1 .
Here is a consequence (in fact, equivalent version) of the Strong Approximation Theorem
which will be used. Fix a positive integer N and a complete o-lattice L in H. Let T be a
finite subset of Ωf which is disjoint from S. Suppose that xv ∈ Hv1 is given for each v ∈ T .
Let
Uv = {z ∈ Hv : z ≡ xv mod pN v Lv },
and set  
Y Y Y
U = HA1 ∩  Hv× × Uv × Ov×  ,
v∈S v∈T v6∈T ∪S
34
which is an open neighborhood of x in HA1 , where x is idele such that its v-th component
is xv for all v ∈ T and 1 eleswhere. So, there exists h ∈ H 1 and y ∈ HS1 such that hy ∈ U.
This implies
(1) h ≡ xv mod pN
v Lv for all v ∈ T ;
(2) h ∈ Ov× for all v 6∈ T ∪ S.
We shall apply the Strong Approximation Theorem to the case where S = Ω∞ . Thus it
is useful to introduce the following standard notion to cover the circumstances under which
the Strong Approximation Theorem will be applied.
Definition 6.8 A quaternion algebra H over a number field F is said to satisfy the Eichler
condition if there is at least one infinite place of F at which H splits.
There is the restricted product topology on JF which is defined similarly to the one on
HA× . For each v ∈ Ω, Fv× is a locally compact; and for each v ∈ Ωf , o× v is compact. The
restricted topology on JF is defined by specifying a fundamental
Q system of neighborhoods
of the identity in JF consisting of the sets of the form v∈Ω Uv , where each Uv is an open
neighborhood of 1 in Fv× with Uv = o× v for almost all finite places v. With this topology,
JF is a locally compact topological group.
6.4 Type Number

If x, y are elements of HA× , then xHA1 = HA1 x, and the fact that HA1 contains the commutator
subgroup of HA× implies that xyHA1 = yxHA1 ; hence the set xyHA1 is independent of the order
of HA1 , x and y. From this it follows that the set HA1 H × N(O)A is independent of the order
of HA1 , H × and N(O)A , and that this set is actually the group generated by HA1 , H × and
N(O)A . This group is a normal subgroup of HA× and we can form the quotient group
HA× /HA1 H × N(O)A .
Lemma 6.9 Let v be a finite place of F , and Ov0 be a maximal order in Hv . If x ∈ Hv× ,
there exists an open neighborhood U of x such that yOv0 y −1 = xOv0 x−1 for all y ∈ U .
Proof. It suffices to prove the lemma for x = 1. For every y ∈ U = 1 + pv Ov0 ⊆ Ov0 , nr(y) is
a unit. So, y −1 ∈ Ov0 and yOv0 y −1 = Ov0 .2
Lemma 6.10 If H satisfies the Eichler condition, then
(∗) H × xN(O)A → H × xHA1 N(O)A
is a well-defined bijection from H × \ HA× /N(O)A to HA× /HA1 H × N(O)A .

Proof. Suppose that H × xN(O)A = H × yN(O)A . Then there exist h ∈ H × and n ∈ N(O)A
such that y = hxn. Thus
H × yHA1 N(O)A = H × xnHA1 N(O)A = H × xHA1 nN(O)A = H × xHA1 N(O)A .
35
This shows that (∗) is a well-defined function. Clearly it is surjective.
Now suppose that H × xHA1 N(O)A = H × yHA1 N(O)A . Then there exist h ∈ H × , α ∈ HA1
and n ∈ N(O)A such that
hx = αyn.
For the sake of convenience, we let [z]O be the order zOz −1 for z ∈ HA× , and [zv ]Ov be the
order zv Ov zv−1 for all zv ∈ Hv× with v ∈ Ωf . Let
T = {v ∈ Ωf : [hxv ]Ov 6= [yv ]Ov }
and
J = {v ∈ Ωf \ T : [yv ]Ov 6= Ov }.
Both T and J are finite subsets of Ωf .
Let W be an open set of HA1 of the form
Y Y Y
Hv1 × Uv × Ov1
v∈Ω∞ v∈T ∪J v∈Ωf \(T ∪J)
where Uv is an open neighborhood of αv (resp. 1) in Hv1 if v ∈ T (resp. v ∈ J). By the

Strong Approximation Theorem, with suitably chosen Uv , there exists σ ∈ H 1 such that
(1) [σ]Ov = Ov for all finite places v outside T ∪ J;
(2) [σyv ]Ov = [αv yv ]Ov for all v ∈ T ;
(3) [σyv ]Ov = [yv ]Ov for all v ∈ J.
If v is a finite place outside T ∪ J, then
[σyv ]Ov = [σ]Ov = Ov = [hxv ]Ov .
If v ∈ T , then
[σyv ]Ov = [αv yv ]Ov = [hxv ]Ov ,
while if v ∈ J we have
[σyv ]Ov = [yv ]Ov = [hxv ]Ov .
Therefore, y −1 σ −1 hx ∈ N(O)A and thus H × xN(O)A = H × yN(O)A . This proves that (∗)
is injective.2
Recall that JF (O) is the image of N(O)A under the reduced norm. Let
θ : HA× → JF /F × JF (O)
be the homomorphism induced by the reduced norm.
36
Theorem 6.11 Let H be a quaternion algebra over a number field F . Suppose that H
satisfies the Eichler condition. Then the number of conjugacy classes of maximal orders in
H is equal to the group index [JF : F × JF (O)].
Proof. It suffices to show that the homomorphism θ is surjective with H × HA1 N(O)A as the
kernel.
Let a be an element in JF . By the Weak Approximation Theorem for F , there exists
α ∈ F × such that av α is positive in Fv for every v ∈ Ram∞ (H). So we can assume that
av > 0 for every v ∈ Ram(H). Thus for every v ∈ Ω∞ , av = nr(xv ) for some xv ∈ Hv× .
For almost all finite places v, Hv splits and av is a unit in ov . At any one of these v, the
maximal order Ov is isomorphic to M2 (ov ); hence nr(Ov× ) = o× v . Therefore, av = nr(xv ) for
×
some xv ∈ Ov . For the remaining finitely many places v, it follows from Lemma 6.3 that
av = nr(xv ) for some xv ∈ Hv× . Then x = (xv ) is an element in HA× and nr(x) = a. This
proves that θ is surjective.
It is clear that H × HA1 N(O)A is a part of the kernel of θ. Now, suppose that nr(x) ∈
F JF (O). Then there exists n ∈ N(O)A such that nr(xn) ∈ F × . Since nr(Hv× ) = Fv×2
×
whenever v ∈ Ram∞ (H), it follows that nr(xn) ∈ FH× . By Theorem 6.4, there exists
h ∈ H × with nr(hxn) = 1. As a result, hxn ∈ HA1 and hence the kernel of θ is precisely
H × HA1 N(O)A .2
Definition 6.12 The type number of a quaternion algebra H over a number field is the
number of conjugacy classes of maximal orders in H.
For our convenience, we let h be the set Ram∞ (H). Let
JhF = {x ∈ JF : xv > 0 for all v ∈ h and xv ∈ o×
v for all v ∈ Ωf }.
Let IF be the group of fractional ideals of F , and let PFh be the subgroup of principal
fractional ideals that are generated by a ∈ F × with a positive in Fv for all v ∈ h.
Let PF+ be the set of principal fractional ideals that are generated by totally positive
elements in F . Then PF2 ⊆ PF+ , and so PF /PF+ is an elementary 2-group whose order is less
than 2r , where r is the number of real places of F . Thus the quotient IF /PF+ is a finite
abelian group, called the narrow class group of F , and its order is the narrow class number
of F . Since PF+ ⊆ PFh ⊆ PF , the quotient IF /PFh is also a finite abelian group and its order
divides the narrow class number of F .
For any x ∈ JF , let (x) be the fractional ideal
Y
(x) = pordp (xp ) .
p∈Ωf
The class of (x) in the quotient IF /PFh is denoted by [x]. Given an x ∈ JF , there exists
a ∈ F × such that axv > 0 for all v ∈ h. If b is another element in F × such that bxv > 0 for
all v ∈ h, then [ax] = [bx] in IF /PFh . Hence we have a well-defined homomorphism
x ∈ JF /F × 7−→ [ax] ∈ IF /PFh .
It is clear that this homomorphism is surjective.
37
Lemma 6.13 [JF : F × JhF ] = |IF /PFh |.
Proof. It suffices to show that the kernel of the above homomorphism is F × JhF /F × . Take
an idele x ∈ JhF . Then xv ∈ o× v for all finite places v, whence (x) is trivial. Therefore,
F × JhF /F × is in the kernel. Conversely, suppose that x is in the kernel. Let a ∈ F × be
chosen so that axv > 0 for all v ∈ h. Then there exists b ∈ F × such that b > 0 in Fv for all
v ∈ h and (ax) = (b). Let β = axb−1 . Then βv ∈ o× v for all finite places v, and βv > 0 for
h × h
all v ∈ h. Hence β ∈ JF and x ∈ F JF . Therefore the kernel of the above homomorphism
is F × JhF and the lemma is proved.2
Corollary 6.14 Let H be a quaternion algebra over a number field F . If H satisfies the
Eichler condition, then its type number is finite; it divides the narrow class number of F .
Proof. Let O be a maximal order in a quaternion algebra H over F . Then JF (O) contains
JhF , hence [JF : F × JF (O)] divides [JF : F × JhF ] and the latter divides the narrow class
number of F .2
Corollary 6.15 Let H be a quaternion algebra over a number field F . If H satisfies the
Eichler condition, then its type number is a power of 2.
Proof. It is clear because JF (O) contains J2F .2
Corollary 6.16 Let H be a quaternion algebra over Q which splits at the infinite place.
Then the type number of H is 1.
Remark 6.17 The type number of a quaternion algebra which does not satisfy the Eichler
condition is also finite.
7 Sum of Three Squares

This section contains Venkov’s proof of the following Theorem of Gauss. However, the proof
we shall present is the modernized version by Rehm.
Theorem 7.1 Let m > 1 be a squarefree √ integer such that m ≡ 1, 2 mod 4, h(m) be the
class number of the quadratic field Q( −m), and ψ(m) be the number of integer solutions
to the equation x2 + y 2 + z 2 = m. Then ψ(m) = 12 h(m).
7.1 The Hurwitz Quaternions

Throughout this section, we let H be the quaternion algebra −1,−1 Q . The reduce norm
on H is the sum of four squares, and its restriction on H0 is the sum of three squares. Let
{1, i, j, k} be a standard basis of H such that i2 = j 2 = −1. Since it is an orthonormal basis
of H, we can identify H, as a quadratic space over Q, with the space Q4 in such a way that
{1, i, j, k} becomes the canonical basis of Q4 .
38
Lemma 7.2 Let u be a nonzero element in H. Then u, iu, ju, and ku are mutually orthog-
onal.
Proof. Let p and q be two different elements from {1, i, j, k}. Then
tr(puqu) = tr(pnr(u)q) = nr(u)tr(pq) = 0.
2
So, when u 6= 0, the set Z[i, j, k]u, which is a complete Z-lattice onpH, produces a grid
of 4-dimensional cubes in Q4 . The side of any one of these cubes is nr(u). Let x ∈ H.
Then x must be in one of these cubes. Let su, s ∈ Z[i, j, k], be a corner of this cube that is
closest to x. Then
1
x − su = (a0 + a2 i + a3 j + a4 k)u, |ai | ≤ for all i.
2
So, nr(x − su) < nr(u) unless x happens to be the midpoint of the cube, in which case all
the ai are equal to 12 and so nr(x − su) = nr(u). This shows that the order Z[i, j, k] does
not have any division algorithm (with respect to nr).
Now, let O be the order Z[i, j, k, δ], where δ = (1+i+j+k)
2 . We have seen in Example 5.29
that O is a maximal order in H. This order O is called the Hurwitz order of quaternions.
Note that as a set, O is obtained by adding all the midpoints of the cubes formed by Z[i, j, k].
Moreover, nr(δ) = nr(i) = nr(j) = nr(k) = 1. Therefore, the elements in O are vertices of
a grid of 4-dimensional rhombohedrons in H. If u is a nonzero Hurwitz quaternion, then
the principalpleft ideal Ou of O produces a grid of 4-dimensional rhombohedrons in H with
side length nr(u). Let x be an arbitrary element in H. Then x falls into one of these
rhombohedrons. Let su be one of the closest corner. It is easy to see that nr(x−su) < nr(u)
and so O has a division algorithm.
Proposition 7.3 Let x ∈ H and u be a nonzero element of the Hurwitz order O. Then
there exist s, r ∈ O such that x = su + r with nr(r) < nr(u).
It is clear that in the above discussion one can consider left multiplication of u and
obtains an analogous division algorithm.
A nonzero ideal I in H is said to be a fractional O-ideal if its left order is O. In other
words, I is a fractional O-ideal if
O = {x ∈ H : xI ⊆ I}.
Corollary 7.4 Every left fractional O-ideal in H is principal, that is, it is of the form Ou
for some u ∈ H.
Proof. Let A be a nonzero left fractional O-ideal in H. Since A is a finitely generated
Z-module, there exists a nonzero integer m such that all the elements in mA are integral
over Z. So, we may assume at the outset that all the elements in A are integral over Z.
In particular, the set of reduced norms of nonzero elements in A contains only positive
39
integers and hence it must have a minimum. Let 0 = 6 u ∈ A be chosen such that nr(u) is
this minimum.
For any x ∈ A, by Proposition 7.3 there exists s ∈ O such that nr(x − su) < nr(u).
Since x − su is in A, therefore x − su must be zero. This shows that A = Ou.2
Lemma 7.5 The unit group of O is generated by i, j, δ, and it contains exactly 24 elements.
Proof. This can be verified directly, using the fact that x ∈ O× if and only if nr(x) = 1.2
√
Let m > 1 be a positive integer, and K be the quadratic field Q( −m). If µ ∈ H0 such
2
√ to µ = −m, then we have an embedding φµ from K
that nr(µ) = m, which is equivalent
to Kµ := Q(µ) ⊆ H which maps −m to µ.
Now, suppose that m is a positive integer such that m ≡ 1, 2 mod 4. The set of integer
solutions of the diophantine equation x2 + y 2 + z 2 = m is in bijective correspondence with
the set
Rm (or simply R) = {µ ∈ O : µ2 = −m}
which we call the set of roots of m. So, |R| = ψ(m), which is always positive by a theorem
of Legendre.
Let µ ∈ R and let oµ = O ∩ Kµ . Then oµ is an order in Kµ , and all its elements are
integral over Z. Thus oµ is contained in the ring of integers of Kµ . However, since m ≡ 1, 2
mod 4, it is not hard to show that the ring of integers of Kµ is Z[µ], and µ is clearly in oµ .
Thus oµ is precisely the ring of integers of Kµ .
Proposition 7.6 If a is a fractional ideal of oµ , then Oa ∩ Kµ = a.

Proof. We may assume that a ⊆ oµ . It is clear that Oa is a left O-ideal in H. AS 1 ∈ O
and a ⊆ Kµ , we have Oa ⊇ a.
For the other inclusion, note that aa−1 = oµ . Clearly, (Oa ∩ Kµ )oµ = Oa ∩ Kµ , hence
Oa ∩ Kµ = (Oa ∩ Kµ )a−1 a
⊆ (Oaa−1 ∩ Kµ a−1 )a
= (Ooµ ∩ Kµ )a
= (O ∩ Kµ )a
= oµ a = a.
Proposition 7.7 Let µ ∈ H, µ 6∈ Q, then the centralizer of Kµ in H is Kµ itself.

Proof. By the Noether-Skolem Theorem, there exists t ∈ H such that 1, µ, t, µt form a
standard basis of H. Then a direct computation shows that the centralizer of Kµ must be
Kµ itself.2
Corollary 7.8 If µ, η ∈ H and µ2 = η 2 = −m, then {α ∈ H : αµ = ηα} is a one

dimensional right Kµ -vector space.
40
Proof. Again, by the Noether-Skolem Theorem, the two embeddings φµ and φη are conju-
gate inside H, that is there exists x ∈ H × such that φµ (a) = x−1 φη (a)x for all a ∈ K. In
particular, xµ = ηx, and αµ = ηα if and only if x−1 α centralizes Kµ . By Proposition 7.7,
x−1 α ∈ Kµ , or equivalently, α ∈ xKµ .2
7.2 Class Groups and Root Bundles

We continue to assume that m > 1 is a positive integer congruent to 1 or 2 mod 4. Let IK
√
be the group of fractional ideals of K = Q( m). For any a ∈ IK , let aµ = φµ (a) ⊆ Kµ . By
Corollary 7.4, there exists κ = κ(a, µ) ∈ H such that
Oaµ = Oκ.
Note that κ is determined by a and µ up to left multiplication of units of O. So, κµκ−1 is

determined up to inner automorphisms induced by units of O.
Moreover,
Oκµκ−1 = Oaµ µκ−1 = Oµaµ κ−1 ⊆ Oaµ κ−1 = Oκκ−1 = O.
Therefore, κµκ−1 ∈ O and hence κµκ−1 is also a root.

We call the set B(µ) := {µ−1 : ∈ O× } bundle of the root µ. For any a ∈ IK , the
root bundle B(κµκ−1 ) does not depend on the κ we choose for a. Therefore, if we let
W = {B(µ) : µ ∈ R}
be the set of all root bundles, then we have a map
∆ : IK × W → W
defined by
∆(a, B(µ)) = B(κµκ−1 ),
where κ = κ(a, µ) is chosen such that Oaµ = Oκ.
Lemma 7.9 The map ∆ defines an action of the group IK on the set W.
Proof. Let a, b be two fractional ideals of K. Let λ = κ(b, µ) µ κ(b, µ)−1 ; that is,
B(λ) = ∆(b, B(µ)).
Then φλ is φµ followed by the inner automorphism given by κ(b, µ). Therefore, it must be
that aλ = κ(b, µ)aµ κ(b, µ)−1 and
Oκ(a, λ) = Oaλ
= Oκ(b, µ)aµ κ(b, µ)−1
= Obµ aµ κ(b, µ)−1 ;
41
that is, Oκ(a, λ)κ(b, µ) = O(ba)µ = O(ab)µ . So, we may choose κ(ab, µ) to be the product
κ(a, µ)κ(b, µ), and find that
κ(a, λ) λ κ(a, λ)−1 = κ(ab, µ) µ κ(ab, µ)−1 .
This shows that ∆(a, ∆(b, B(µ))) = ∆(ab, B(µ)), which proves the proposition.2
Let µ, ν ∈ R, and let
Tµ,ν = {λ ∈ O : λµ = νλ}.
By Corollary 7.8, Tµ,ν is the intersection of O with a two dimensional Q-vector space; so it
is a rank 2 Z-submodule of O. In particular, it is nonzero and hence OTµ,ν is a complete
Z-lattice in H. So, OTµ,ν is an ideal in H. It is easy to see that OTµ,ν is in fact a left
fractional ideal of O.
Lemma 7.10 For any roots µ, ν, we have OTµ,ν = O.

Proof. By Corollary 7.4, there exists ρ ∈ O such that OTµ,ν = Oρ. We claim that ρ is a
unit of O. It suffices to show that nr(ρ) is not divisible by any prime in Z. Let us suppose
that m ≡ 1 mod 4 for the moment.
We first show that 2 - nr(ρ). It is enough to exhibit an element ω ∈ Tµ,ν such that
2 - nr(ω). Since µ2 = ν 2 = −m, αµ + να ∈ Tµ,ν for all α ∈ O. Let µ = x1 i + x2 j + x3 k and
ν = y1 i + y2 j + y3 k with xi , yi ∈ Z for all i. Since m = x21 + x22 + x23 ≡ 1 mod 4, we may
assume that x1 ≡ x2 ≡ 0 mod 2 and x3 ≡ 1 mod 2. As to ν, it is enough to consider two
cases
(1) y1 ≡ y2 ≡ 0 mod 2, and y3 ≡ 1 mod 2;
(2) y1 ≡ y3 ≡ 0 mod 2, and y2 ≡ 1 mod 2.
In (1), it is direct to check that nr(µ + ν) ≡ nr(iµ + νi) ≡ 0 mod 4, but nr(µ + ν) −
nr(iµ + νi) ≡ 4 mod 8. Hence either nr(µ + ν) or nr(iµ + νi) is not divisible by 8. Then we
can take ω to be either (µ + ν)/2 or (iµ + νi)/2. Note that ω will be in O.
For (2), we use γ = (1 + j)µ + ν(1 + j), which is
−(x2 + y2 ) + (x1 + x3 + y1 − y3 )i + (x2 + y2 )j + (x3 − x1 + y3 + y1 )k.
Notice that all the coefficients in this linear combination are odd. Therefore, ω := γ/2 is in
O, and hence ω ∈ Tµ,ν . It is also easy to see that 2 - nr(ω).
Now, suppose that nr(ρ) is divisible by an odd prime p. Since ρ is a right divisor of
ω0 := µ + ν and ω1 := iµ + νi, therefore it is also a right divisor of i(ω0 + i(ω1 )) = iν − νi
whose reduced norm is 4(y22 + y32 ). We may conclude that y22 + y32 ≡ 0 mod p. Using j,
k instead of i, we obtain y12 + y32 ≡ 0 ≡ y12 + y22 mod p. These three congruences have
only one common solution mod p, namely y1 ≡ y2 ≡ y3 ≡ 0 mod p. This shows that
m = y12 + y22 + y33 ≡ 0 mod p2 , which is impossible.
The case m ≡ 2 mod 4 can be done by a similar argument.2
42
Proposition 7.11 The action of IK on W is transitive. Moreover, the stabilizer of any
B(µ) ∈ W is the subgroup of principal fractional ideals of K.
Proof. Let µ, ν ∈ R. We have indicated earlier that Tν,µ is a Z-module of rank 2. Let {ξ, η}
be a Z-basis of Tν,µ ., and set
b := oµ ξη + oµ nr(η).
Note that α ∈ Tν,µ if and only if α ∈ Tµ,ν . Hence ξη centralizes Kµ , and so ξη ∈ Kµ by
Proposition 7.7. Thus ξη ∈ Kµ ∩ O = oµ . This shows that b is an ideal of oµ . By Lemma
7.10,
Ob = O(oµ ξη + oµ ηη) = Oξη + Oηη = (Oξ + Oη)η = OTν,µ η = Oη.
So, if we use a = φ−1
µ (b) and η = κ(a, µ), then aµ = b, Oaµ = Oη, and η ∈ Tµ,ν , that is
−1
ηµη . Hence
∆(a, B(µ)) = B(ν),
which means that the action of IK on W is transitive.
For the second assertion, let α ∈ K × and a be the principal fractional ideal of K
generated by α. Then φµ (a) = oµ β, where β = φµ (α). We may then choose β ∈ Kµ to be
κ(a, µ) and obtain
∆(a, B(µ)) = B(βµβ −1 ) = B(µ).
Conversely, suppose ∆(a, B(µ)) = B(µ). Then we may select κ(a, µ) such that κµκ−1 =
µ. It follows from Proposition 7.7 that κ ∈ Kµ . Hence
Oaµ = Oκ = Ooµ κ.
By Proposition 7.6, we have
aµ = Oaµ ∩ Kµ = Ooµ κ ∩ Kµ = oµ κ,
and so a is principal.2
We have shown that the root bundle ∆(a, B(µ)) depends only the ideal class of a. So,
given an ideal class C ∈ IK , we can define a function ΠC : W → W by ΠC (B(µ)) =
B(a, B(µ)), where a is any fractional ideal in C. By Proposition 7.11, this function ΠC is a
permutation on W, and the map C 7→ ΠC is an isomorphism sending the ideal class group
of K onto a sharply transitive permutation group of W. As a result, |W| = h(m).
Finally, let us give a proof of Theorem 7.1. We need to count the number of roots
belonging to a bundle B(µ). Let the group O× act on the set of roots R by conjugation.
The stabilizer of a root µ is
{ ∈ O× : µ−1 } = O× ∩ Kµ = o×
µ = {±1}.
The last equality is from the hypothesis that m > 1 and m ≡ 1, 2 mod 4. Hence |B(µ)| =
|O× |/2 = 12, and thus
ψ(m) = |R| = 12|W| = 12h(m).
43

(Lecture Notes) Wai Kiu Chan - Arithmetic of Quaternion Algebra 2012 (2012)

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(Lecture Notes) Wai Kiu Chan - Arithmetic of Quaternion Algebra 2012 (2012)

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Arithmetic of Quaternion Algebra 2012

1.1 Basic Definitions

Example 1.2 In M2 (F ), let

Example 1.3 Another familiar example of quaternion algebras is Hamilton’s quaternions

i2 = −1, j 2 = −1, ij = k = −ji.

Since k is invertible in H, we must have β = δ = 0. Similarly, γ = 0. Hence x is in F .

Theorem 1.6 (Wedderburn’s Structure Theorem) Let A be a finite dimensional simple

Theorem 1.7 (Skolem-Noether Theorem) Let A be a finite dimensional central simple

(a) Either H is a division algebra or H ∼

(b) Let E be a subfield of H which is a quadratic extension of F , and τ be the nontrivial

Proposition 1.10 A nonzero element x ∈ H is a pure quaternion if and only if x 6∈ F and

x2 = (a20 + aa21 + ba22 − aba23 ) + 2a0 (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k).

If x is in the F -space spanned by i, j and k, then a0 = 0 and hence x 6∈ F but x2 ∈ F .

(iv) rx = rx for all r ∈ F .

(v) x = x if and only if x ∈ F .

Equivalently, if M ∈ M2 (F ), M = adj(M ), the adjoint of M .

1.2 The Matrix Algebras

Definition 1.12 A nonzero element x in H is said to be isotropic if nr(x) = 0.

(b) H is not a division algebra.

(c) H has an isotropic element.

(d) H0 has an isotropic element.

(e) The equation ax2 + by 2 = 1 has a solution (x, y) ∈ F × F .

Proof. We have seen in Theorem 1.8 that (a) is equivalent to (b).

Proof. Apply (d) and (e) of Theorem 1.13.2

2 Quaternion Algebras as Quadratic Spaces

(a) Q(ax) = a2 Q(x) for all a ∈ F and all x ∈ V ;

The function Q is called a quadratic form on V . Note that B determines Q by B(x, x) =

vi∗ (vj ) = δij (Kronecker’s delta).

The function B̂ : V → V ∗ defined by B̂(v)(u) = B(v, u) is obviously a linear transformation.

which is what is needed to be shown.2

Lemma 2.3 If W is a subspace of V , then W ⊥ = ker(π ◦ B̂) where π : V ∗ → W ∗ is the

Corollary 2.5 If W is a nondegenerate subspace of V , then V = W ⊥ W ⊥ (orthogonal

B(v, z) = B̂(v)(z) = f (z) = B̂(w)(z) = B(w, z).

So, v − w ∈ W ⊥ and we can write v = w + (v − w). Thereby W ⊥ W ⊥ = V .2

Theorem 2.6 Every quadratic space has an orthogonal basis.

(a) σ is a vector space isomorphism;

(b) Q0 (σ(x)) = Q(x) for all x ∈ V .

Theorem 2.7 (Witt’s Cancellation Theorem) If V, V1 and V2 are nondegenerate quadratic

2.2 The Norm Form

nr(x + yi + zj + wk) = x2 − ay 2 − bz 2 + abw2 ,

and so {1, i, j, k} is an orthogonal basis of H. Moreover, since ab 6= 0, H is nondegenerate as

3.1 Local Fields

(c) all its nonzero prime ideal are maximal.

(2) v(xy) = v(x)v(y) for all x, y ∈ F .

(3) v(x + y) ≤ v(x) + v(y) for all x, y ∈ F .

pv (or simply p) = {x ∈ Fv : v(x) < 1}.

Every nonarchimedean valuation of F is coming from a nonzero prime ideal of o in the

The converse now is obvious.2

3.2 Quaternion Algebras over p-adic fields

by w(x) = v(nr(x)). Note that w(π) = v(π)2 .

Lemma 3.6 The function w is a nonarchimedean valuation on H

(b) w(xy) = w(x)w(y) for all x, y ∈ H;

(c) w(x + y) ≤ max{w(x), w(y)} with equality when w(x) 6= w(y).

w(x + y)w(y)−1 = w(xy −1 − 1) ≤ max{w(xy −1 ), w(1)}

Corollary 3.7 Let O = {x ∈ H : w(x) ≤ 1} and P = {x ∈ H : w(x) < 1}.

(b) nr(O) ⊆ o and nr(P) ⊆ p.

Proposition 3.8 The quotient O/P is a finite field.

and O is a (necessarily) free o-module of rank 4. It follows that O/πO is a 4-dimensional

Theorem 3.9 Up to isomorphism, u,π

Theorem 3.10 Let L/F be a quadratic field extension. Then u,π

since L/F is ramified. On the other hand,

[M : F ] = [M : K][K : F ] = 2[M : K].

So, [M : L] = 2 and M/L is unramified. Let ρ be a uniformizer for L such that π = ρ2 t,

But t is a norm of an element in M since M/L is unramified. Thus u,t