840

Course: Educational Psychology (840)
Semester: Autumn, 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Define the term educational psychology in your own words. Also highlight the importance of
educational psychology for a teacher.
One of the things that educational psychology addresses is how people learn. Some of the topics that this field
might cover include individual learning differences, instructional processes, learning outcomes, learning
disabilities, and gifted learners.
Although this psychology branch often focuses on children and adolescents, these psychologists study
cognitive, social, and processes in all age groups. Some of the other disciplines that also play a role include
cognitive, behavioral, and developmental psychology.
How Long Has This Field in Psychology Been Around?
Education-related psychology has seen a large amount of growth, despite its relative newness as a distinct
subfield. Because psychology only achieved status as a separate science in the late 1800s, most psychology
work was related to education.
Some of these early figures include:
 John Locke – Locke was a philosopher who lived between 1632 and 1704 who promoted the theory of
the mind being a blank slate that develops through learning and experience, with beliefs strongly
influenced by Enlightenment ideas
 Johann Herbart – Herbart was a philosopher and early psychologist who lived between 1776 and 1841
emphasized teachers providing instruction according to students’ interests, as well as prior knowledge
when determining an instruction type
 William James – James lived from 1842 to 1910 and was the psychologist most well-known for lectures
that addressed how teachers could help students learn most effectively, as well as the first to teach a
psychology class
 Alfred Binet – Binet, who was born in 1857 and died in 1911, was the inventor of what we now know as
intelligence tests, which helped identify possible developmental delays
 John Dewey – Dewey, who lived from 1859 to 1952, was both an educational reformer and psychologist
who emphasized learning through doing and progressive education
 Jean Piaget – Piaget, who was born in 1892 and died in 1980, was the psychologist best known for
promoting cognitive development theory
 B.F. Skinner – Skinner, who lived between 1904 and 1990, was the behaviorist most responsible for
promoting the theory of operant conditioning
 Benjamin Bloom – Bloom, who was born in 1913 and died in 1999, was the developer of the taxonomy
that describes and categorizes the three primary educational objectives, which are affective, cognitive,
and psychomotor.
Related resource: Top Master’s Degrees in Educational Psychology
1
What Are the Main Subjects That This Subset Focuses On?
Educational psychologists work closely with students, teachers, and administration staff to learn more about the
most effective learning methods. According to The Bureau of Labor Statistics, educational settings represent
one of the biggest markets for jobs in psychology. A few of the responsibilities might include identifying
students having difficulty and developing programs to help them overcome their struggles. New learning
methods may come about as a result of this type of work.
Some of the important career focuses include:
 Educational technology
 Instructional design
 Organizational learning
 Curriculum development
 Special education
 Gifted students
The Role of Education Technology
Educational technology is one field that can help maximize how technology allows students to learn more
effectively. Both hardware and software, as well as theoretical concepts, play crucial roles in education
technology. The use of technology is of vital importance in providing the education that students need in
today’s learning environment. A background in psychology helps fill in where technology cannot work in its
own right. Psychology helps educators understand the impact that certain forms of technology have on the
learning process.
What Instructional Design Does
Another field is instructional design, which relates to learning materials development. Education-related
psychology gives educators the background they need to develop the proper materials for student needs. Both
public and private schools have begun to appreciate the value of adapting learning materials to their students’
needs. One of the things that has come about from schools and educators being more responsive to the needs of
students is better learning outcomes, making this focus of great importance for psychology students.
The Impact of Organizational Learning
Many psychologists with an educational background study the organizational learning process, as well as
curriculum development. The organizational learning process is one of the most critical areas of study in
education-focused psychology. One of the most essential functions that organizational learning serves is helping
educators and psychologists learn more about learning processes in a group setting, which differ somewhat from
individual methods and are worthy of their own study.
Curriculum Development and Its Importance
Developing an effective curriculum is a vital part of ensuring that students get the most out of the learning
process. The backgrounds that psychologists who have studied education have provided them with better
2
knowledge in the ways that students might process information. A more thorough understanding of how
students learn helps educators design the curriculum in more effective ways.
The Role of Psychologists in Special Education
Another setting that many educational psychologists work in is helping students with special or gifted needs.
Special education-focused psychologists help students who need specialized instruction due to developmental or
physical disabilities. An understanding of psychology helps educators tailor the learning experience to the
unique needs of special education students. These students often require learning techniques structured towards
their different abilities.
How Psychologists Help Gifted Students
Psychologists who specialize in education may also help identify gifted students, who are also likely to have
needs that a standard curriculum might not meet. In many cases, these students are at risk of not reaching their
potential if their typical academic program fails to hold their interest. Regardless of the circumstances, these
psychologists will help students try to reach their full potential.
What Are Some of the Major Perspectives in This Field?
All branches of psychology feature different approaches or perspectives that might be used for problem-solving,
and the education-related subfield is no exception. These different perspectives include:
 Behavioral
 Developmental
 Cognitive
 Constructivist
Each of these perspectives brings a new way of looking at psychology in education to key decision-makers.
Although most psychologists who work in an educational setting will not be likely to use all of these
approaches, an understanding of all of them is important. The more educational psychologists understand the
processes, the more they will know how to address these needs in the future.
About the Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach to psychology has its basis in the idea that all behaviors are learned through the
conditioning process. This approach relies heavily on Skinner’s theories of operant conditioning. One example
of this approach is the use of rewards. However, critics feel that those approach does not address intrinsic
motivations, cognitions, or attitudes. The behavioral perspective continues to be a topic of much discussion in
spite of its long-standing acceptance in the world of psychology.
The Developmental Perspective
The developmental perspective draws on Piaget’s cognitive development stages. Knowledge and skills that
children adopt as they grow play an essential role in understanding children’s’ capabilities at different stages.
One of the things that is most helpful for educators about this perspective is that they can adapt both their
3
materials and methods to suit the needs of different age groups. Some educators feel that this approach is one of
the most helpful for adopting a curriculum that adapts to students’ changing educational needs.
The Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach involves understanding more about thinking, learning, remembering, and processing
information. This perspective has become much more popular in recent years. Some of the things that educators
working through this approach do is understand what motivates learning in children or adolescents, how they
remember the information received, and their problem-solving. A better understanding of all these concepts
makes it easier for educators to know how to create materials with the most significant impact.
The Constructivist Perspective
The constructivist perspective in educational psychology is relatively newer, with a focus on children’s active
construction of their world knowledge. This approach treats cultural and social influences as having a
significant impact. Lev Vygotsky was the psychologist who played the most considerable role in advancing this
perspective, and the approach continues to draw a lot of attention today.
Although this psychology subset is relatively new, it has a growing following. A better understanding of how
people learn, instead of only what they learn, is going to keep playing more of a role in teaching on education.
With psychology either being an elective or a requirement in many degree programs, it is likely that interest will
continue to grow in the coming years.
Choosing a career in education-related psychology can be a wise choice for students interested in the
development of curriculum and teaching methods. Career prospects for this field are promising, especially as
educators continually look for ways to refine their techniques for different student groups.
Q.2 Differentiate betwen growth and development. Give example sin support of your answer.
The period of human growth from birth to adolescence is commonly divided into the following stages:
 Infancy: From birth to weaning.
 Childhood: From weaning to the end of brain growth.
 Juvenile: From the end of childhood to adolescence.
 Adolescence: From the start of growth spurt at puberty until sexual maturity.
Growth curves are used to measure growth. The distance curve is a measure of size over time; it records height
as a function of age and gets higher with age. The velocity curve measures the rate of growth at a given time for
a particular body feature (such as height or weight). The height velocity curve is highest in infancy, up to two
years of age, with more consistent annual growth afterwards and increases again at puberty. The height of the
average infant increases by 30% by the age of five months and by 50% by the age of one year. The height of a
five-year-old usually doubles relative to that at birth. The limbs and arms grow faster than the trunk, so that
body proportions undergo marked variation as an infant grows into an adolescent. Different body systems grow
and develop at different rates. For example, if infants grew in height as quickly as they do in weight, the
4
average one-year-old would be approximately 5 ft (1.5m) tall. Thus, weight increases faster than height—an
average infant doubles his birth weight by the age of five months and triples it by the age of one year. At two
years of age, the weight is usually four times the weight at birth.
Physical development
During the growth period, all major body systems also mature. The major changes occur in the following
systems:
 Skeletal system. At birth, there is very little bone mass in the infant body, the bones are softer
(cartilagenous) and much more flexible than in the adult. The adult skeleton consists of 206 bones joined to
ligaments and tendons. It provides support for the attached muscles and the soft tissues of the body. Babies
are born with 270 soft bones that eventually fuse together by the age of 20 into the 206 hard, adult bones.
 Lymphatic system . The lymphatic system has several functions. It acts as the body's defense
mechanism by producing white blood cells and specialized cells (antibodies) that destroy foreign organisms
that cause disease. It grows at a constant and rapid rate throughout childhood, reaching maturity just before
puberty. The amount of lymphatic tissue then decreases so that an adult has approximately 50% less than a
child.
 Central nervous system (CNS). The CNS consists of the brain, the cranial nerves, and the spinal cord . It
develops mostly during the first years of life. Although brain cell formation is almost complete before birth,
brain maturation continues after birth. The brain of the newborn is not yet fully developed. It contains about
100 billion brain cells that have yet to be connected into functioning networks. But brain development up to
age one is more rapid and extensive than was previously realized. At birth, the brain of the infant is 25% of
the adult size. At the age of one year, the brain has grown to 75% of its adult size and to 80% by age three,
reaching 90% by age seven. The influence of the early environment on brain development is crucial. Infants
exposed to good nutrition , toys, and playmates have better brain function at age 12 than those raised in a
less stimulating environment.
During the first year of life, a baby goes through a series of crucial stages to develop physical coordination. This
development usually proceeds cephalocaudally, that is from head to toe. For example, the visual system reaches
maturity earlier than do the legs. First, the infant develops control of the head, then of the trunk (sitting up), then
of the body (standing), and, finally, of the legs (walking). Development also proceeds proximodistally, that is
from the center of the body outward. For example, the head and trunk of the body develop before the arms and
legs, and infants learn to control their neck muscles before they learn to direct their limbs. This development of
physical coordination is also referred to as motor development and it occurs together with cognitive
development, meaning the development of processes such as knowing, learning, thinking, and judging.
The stages of motor development in children are as follows:
5
 First year. The baby develops good head balance and can see objects directly in his line of vision . He learns
how to reach for objects and how to transfer them from one hand to the other. Sitting occurs at six months of
age. Between nine and 10 months, the infant is able to pull himself to standing and takes his first steps. By
the age of eight to 24 months, the baby can perform a variety of tasks such as opening a small box, making
marks with a pencil, and correctly inserting squares and circles in a formboard. He is able to seat himself in
small chair, he can point at objects of interest, and can feed himself with a spoon.
 Second year. At 24-36 months, the child can turn the pages of a book, scribble with a pencil, build towers
with blocks up to a height of about seven layers, and complete a formboard with pieces that are more
complex than circles or squares. He can kick a ball, and walks and runs fairly well, with a good sense of
balance. Toilet training can be started.
 Third year. The child can now draw circles, squares, and crosses. He can build 10-block towers and imitate
the building of trains and bridges. He is also achieving toilet independence. Hand movements are well
coordinated and he can stand on one foot.
 Four years. At that age, a child can stand heel to toe for a good 15 seconds with his eyes closed. He can
perform the finger-to-nose test very well, also with eyes closed. He can jump in place on both feet.
 Five years. The child can balances on tiptoe for a 10-second period, he can hops on one foot, and can part
his lips and clench his teeth.
 Six years. The child can balance on one foot for a 10-second period, he can hit a target with a ball from 5 ft
(1.5 m), and jumps over a rope 8 in (20 cm) high.
 Seven years. He can now balance on tiptoes for a 10-second period, bend at the hips sideways, and walk a
straight line, heel-to-toe for a distance of 6 ft (1.8 m).
 Eight years. The child can maintain a crouched position on tiptoes for a 10-second period, with arms
extended and eyes closed. He is able to touch the fingertips of one hand with his thumb, starting with the
little finger and repeating in reverse order.
 The development of motor skills in the child goes hand in hand with the development of cognitive skills, a
process called cognitive development. Cognitive development can be divided into four stages:
 Sensorimotor stage. At this stage, infants discover their environment using a combination of sensory
impressions (sight, smell , hearing , taste , and touch) and motor activities.
 Preoperational stage. At this stage, children are not able to use information in rational and logical ways,
rather they use images and symbols. They learn how to associate cause and effect and to represent
something with something else. Speech development begins.
 Concrete operational stage. At this stage, children understand elementary logical principles that apply to
concrete external objects. They learn to sort things into categories, reverse the direction of their thinking,
and think about two concepts (such as length and width) simultaneously.
6
 Formal operational stage. This stage is reached at adolescence. The individual can think in the abstract and
speculate about probabilities and possibilities as well as reflect on their own thinking activities.
Q.3 Describe in your own words the general principles of growth and development.
Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task of the
adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are
“Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect
for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This
is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.
As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes
very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents,
most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and
healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and
fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005).
It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously suggested
by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major
conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a
study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that
conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends.
These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).
Social Changes
Parents. Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships remain important
too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent–child relationships. As
adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time, different aspects of parenting become
more salient. For example, parents’ distal supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents
spend more time away from parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide
range of behaviors such as parents’ attempts to set rules and know their adolescents’ friends, activities, and
whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’ willingness to disclose information to their parents (Stattin & Kerr,
2000[1]). Psychological control, which involves manipulation and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and
cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways
(Barber, 1996[2]), is another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to
more problematic adolescent adjustment.
Peers
As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their
families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults. Children’s notions of friendship
often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate
7
exchanges of thoughts and feelings. During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to
mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which
has been explained as being a function of homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to
spend time together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents who spend time
together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes). One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer
influence is known as deviant peer contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011[3]), which is the process by which peers
reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of
future problem behavior.
Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can lead
adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the
presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and
commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family. However, peers
also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with
positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have
conflictual peer relationships.
Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which are
reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently),
crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions (Brown & Larson,
2009[4]). These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with
adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors.
Romantic relationships
Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. Initially,
same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more
characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups
(Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000[5]). Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-
lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents
spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more
tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman &
Shaffer, 2003[6]). Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and
peer relationships, and adolescents’ emotional and behavioral adjustment.
Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents’ emerging sexuality. Parents,
policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents’ sexuality, in large part
because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However,
sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are
8
lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, & Clary, 2009 [7]).
Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities.
Behavioral And Psychological Adjustment
Identity formation
Theories of adolescent development often focus on identity formation as a central issue. For example, in
Erikson’s (1968[8]) classic theory of developmental stages, identity formation was highlighted as the primary
indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an
indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence). Marcia (1966 [9]) described identify formation
during adolescence as involving both decision points and commitments with respect to ideologies (e.g., religion,
politics) and occupations. He described four identity statuses: foreclosure, identity diffusion, moratorium, and
identity achievement. Foreclosure occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring
options. Identity diffusion occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities. Moratorium is
a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. Identity
achievement occurs when individuals have explored different options and then made identity commitments.
Building on this work, other researchers have investigated more specific aspects of identity. For example,
Phinney (1989[10]) proposed a model of ethnic identity development that included stages of unexplored ethnic
identity, ethnic identity search, and achieved ethnic identity.
Aggression and antisocial behavior
Several major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an important period.
Patterson’s (1982[11]) early versus late starter model of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior
distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late
starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends
into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to
experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during
adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers,
which in turn promotes adolescents’ own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when
changes in the environment make other options more appealing. Similarly, Moffitt’s (1993[12]) life-course
persistent versus adolescent-limited model distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood
versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a “maturity gap”
between adolescents’ dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from
adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become
available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these
antisocial behaviors.
9
Anxiety and depression
Developmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important period, especially in
terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood (Rudolph,
2009[13]). Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice
as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013 [14]).
Although the rates vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly
higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are
about 5% in children and 3%–5% in adults but 16% in adolescents. Anxiety and depression are particularly
concerning because suicide is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence. Developmental models
focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g.,
Rudolph, 2009[15]). Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the
stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such problems generate stress in
their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more
maladaptive social contexts (e.g., “misery loves company” scenarios in which depressed youths select other
depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating
negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have
more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to
disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships,
which in turn contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.
Academic achievement
Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context (Eccles & Roeser, 2011[16]). Academic
achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (e.g., parental engagement in adolescents’
education), intrapersonal (e.g., intrinsic motivation), and institutional (e.g., school quality) factors. Academic
achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also
because academic achievement sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities. The most
serious consequence of school failure, particularly dropping out of school, is the high risk of unemployment or
underemployment in adulthood that follows. High achievement can set the stage for college or future vocational
training and opportunities.
Diversity
Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals. Certain features of
adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated with puberty and cognitive changes
associated with brain development, are relatively universal. But other features of adolescence depend largely on
circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For example, adolescents growing up in one country
might have different opportunities for risk taking than adolescents in a different country, and supports and
sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values that might be specific to where
10
adolescents live. Likewise, different cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents’
experiences in these domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents’ parents are expected to retain
control over major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking
control of decision making.
Even within the same country, adolescents’ gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion, sexual orientation,
socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents behave and how others respond to them,
creating diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents. For example, early puberty (that occurs
before most other peers have experienced puberty) appears to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than
boys, likely in part because girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is
associated with early sexual behavior and substance use. For adolescents who are ethnic or sexual minorities,
discrimination sometimes presents a set of challenges that nonminorities do not face.
Finally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in adolescence. Current approaches
emphasize gene X environment interactions, which often follow a differential susceptibility model (Belsky &
Pluess, 2009[17]). That is, particular genetic variations are considered riskier than others, but genetic variations
also can make adolescents more or less susceptible to environmental factors. For example, the association
between the CHRM2genotype and adolescent externalizing behavior (aggression and delinquency)has been
found in adolescents whose parents are low in monitoring behaviors (Dick et al., 2011[18]). Thus, it is important
to bear in mind that individual differences play an important role in adolescent development.
Q.4 Describe the nature of moral development.
Moral development focuses on the emergence, change, and understanding of morality from infancy through
adulthood.[1] Morality develops across a lifetime and is influenced by an individual's experiences and their
behavior when faced with moral issues through different periods' physical and cognitive development. In short,
morality concerns an individual's growing sense of what is right and wrong; it is for this reason that young
children have different moral judgement and character than that of a grown adult. Morality in itself is often a
synonym for "rightness" or "goodness". It refers to a certain code of conduct that is derived from one's culture,
religion or personal philosophy that guides one's actions, behaviors and thoughts.
Notions of morality development have been developed over centuries, the earliest came from philosophers
like Confucius, Aristotle, and Rousseau, who all took a more humanist perspective and focused on the
development of the conscience and sense of virtue. In the modern day, empirical research has explored morality
through a moral psychology lens by theorists like Sigmund Freud and its relation to cognitive development by
theorists like Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, B. F. Skinner, Carol Gilligan and Judith Smetana.
The interest in morality spans many disciplines (e.g., philosophy, economics, biology, and political science) and
specializations within psychology (e.g., social, cognitive, and cultural). In order to investigate how individuals
understand morality, it is essential to consider their beliefs, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors that contribute to
their moral understanding. Additionally, researchers in the field of moral development consider the role of peers
11
and parents in facilitating moral development, the role of conscience and values, socialization and cultural
influences, empathy and altruism, and positive development, in order to understand what factors impact
morality of an individual more completely.
A hallmark of moral understanding is intentionality which can be defined as an attribution of the target's
intentions towards another.[10] Five components make up people's concept of intentionality: an action is
considered intentional if a personal has (a) a desire for an outcome, (b) a belief that the action will lead to the
outcome, (c) an intention to perform the action, (d) skill to perform the action, and (e) awareness while
performing it.[11] Recent research on children's theory of mind, ToM, has focused on when children understand
others' intentions (Wellman & Lui, 2004[12]). The moral concept of one's intentionality develops with
experience in the world. Yuill (1984) presented evidence that comprehension of one's intentions plays a role in
moral judgment, even in young children.[13] Killen, Mulvey, Richardson, Jampol, and Woodward (2011) present
evidence that with developing false belief competence (ToM), children are capable of using information about
one's intentions when making moral judgments about the acceptability of acts and punishments, recognizing
that accidental transgressors, who do not hold negative intentions, should not be held accountable for negative
outcomes.[14] In this study, children who lacked false belief competence were more likely to attribute blame to
an accidental transgressor than children with demonstrated false belief competence. In addition to evidence
from a social cognitive perspective, behavioral evidence suggests that even three-year-olds have the capacity to
take into account a person's intention and apply this information when responding to situations. Vaish,
Carpenter, and Tomasello (2010), for instance, present evidence that three-year-olds are more willing to help a
neutral or helpful person than a harmful person.[15] Beyond the ability to identify one's intentionality, mental
state understanding plays a crucial role in identifying victimization. While obvious distress cues (e.g. crying)
allow even three year olds to identify victims of harm (Zelazo, Helwig, & Lau, 1996 [16]), it is not until around
six years of age that children are able to appreciate that a person may be an unwilling victim of harm even in the
absence of obvious distress (Shaw & Wainryb, 2006).[17] In their study, Shaw and Wainryb (2006) discovered
that children older than six interpret compliance, resistance, and subversion to illegitimate requests (e.g., clean
my locker) from the perspective of a victim. That is, they judge that victims who resist illegitimate requests will
feel better than victims who comply.
Moral questions tend to be emotionally charged issues which evoke strong affective responses. Consequently,
emotions likely play an important role in moral development. However, there is currently little consensus
among theorists on how emotions influence moral development. Psychoanalytic theory, founded by Freud,
emphasizes the role of guilt in repressing primal drives. Research on prosocial behavior has focused on how
emotions motivate individuals to engage in moral or altruistic acts. Social-cognitive development theories have
recently begun to examine how emotions influence moral judgments. Intuitionist theorists assert that moral
judgments can be reduced to immediate, instinctive emotional responses elicited by moral dilemmas.
12
Research on socioemotional development and prosocial development has identified several "moral emotions"
which are believed to motivate moral behavior and influence moral development. [18] These moral emotions are
said to be linked to moral development because they are evidence and reflective of an individual's set of moral
values, which must have undergone through the process of internalization in the first place (Kochanska &
Thompson, 1997).[19] The manifestation of these moral emotions can occur at two separate timings: either
before or after the execution of a moral or immoral act. A moral emotion that precedes an action is referred to as
an anticipatory emotion, and a moral emotion that follows an action is referred to as a consequential emotion
(Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek, 2007).[20] The primary emotions consistently linked with moral development
are guilt, shame, empathy, and sympathy. Guilt has been defined as "an agitation-based emotion or painful
feeling of regret that is aroused when the actor actually causes, anticipates causing, or is associated with an
aversive event" (Fergusen & Stegge, 1998).[21] Shame is often used synonymously with guilt, but implies a
more passive and dejected response to a perceived wrong. Guilt and shame are considered "self-conscious"
emotions, because they are of primary importance to an individual's self-evaluation. Moreover, there exists a
bigger difference between guilt and shame that goes beyond the type of feelings that they may provoke within
an individual. This difference lies in the fact that these two moral emotions do not weigh the same in terms of
their impact on moral behaviors. Studies on the effects of guilt and shame on moral behaviors has shown that
guilt has a larger ability to dissuade an individual from making immoral choices whereas shame did not seem to
have any deterring effect on immoral behaviors. However, different types of behaviors in different types of
population, under different circumstances might not generate the same outcomes (Tangney, Stuewig, &
Mashek, 2007). In contrast to guilt and shame, empathy and sympathy are considered other-oriented moral
emotions. Empathy is commonly defined as an affective response produced by the apprehension or
comprehension of another's emotional state which mirrors the other's affective state. Similarly, sympathy is
defined as an emotional response produced by the apprehension or comprehension of another's emotional state
which does not mirror the other's affect, but instead causes one to express concern or sorrow for the other.
Children's interactions and experiences with caregivers and peers have been shown to influence their
development of moral understanding and behavior[31] Researchers have addressed the influence of interpersonal
interactions on children's moral development from two primary perspectives: Socialization/Internalization
(Grusec & Goodnow, 1994;[32] Kochanska & Askan, 1995;[33] Kochanska, Askan, & Koenig, 1995[34]) and
social domain theory.[35][36][37]
Research from the social domain theory perspective focuses on how children actively distinguish moral from
conventional behavior based in part on the responses of parents, teachers, and peers.[38] Social domain suggests
that there are different areas of reasoning co-existing in development those include societal (concerns about
conventions and grouping), moral (fairness, justice and rights) and psychological (concerns with personal goals
and identity).[39] Adults tend to respond to children's moral transgressions (e.g. hitting or stealing) by drawing
the child's attention to the effect of his or her action on others, and doing so consistently across various contexts.
13
In contrast, adults are more likely to respond to children's conventional misdeeds (e.g. wearing a hat in the
classroom, eating spaghetti with fingers) by reminding children about specific rules and doing so only in certain
contexts (e.g. at school but not at home).[40][41] Peers respond mainly to moral but not conventional
transgressions and demonstrate emotional distress (e.g. crying or yelling) when they are the victim of moral but
unconventional transgressions.[40]
Research from a socialization/internalization perspective focuses on the ways in which adults pass down
standards or rules of behavior to children through parenting techniques and why children do or do not
internalize those values (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Kochanska & Askan, 1995). From this perspective, moral
development involves children's increasing compliance with and internalization of adult rules, requests, and
standards of behavior. Using these definitions, researchers find that parenting behaviors vary in the extent to
which they encourage children's internalization of values, and that these effects depend partially on a child
attributes, such as age and temperament (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). For instance, Kochanska (1997) showed
that gentle parental discipline best promotes conscience development in temperamentally fearful children but
that parental responsiveness and a mutually responsive parent-child orientation best promote conscience
development in temperamentally fearless children.[42] These parental influences exert their effects through
multiple pathways, including increasing children's experience of moral emotions (e.g. guilt, empathy) and their
self-identification as moral individuals (Kochanska, 2010[43]). Development can be divided up to multiple stages
however the first few years of development is usually seen to be formed by 5 years of age. According to Freud's
research, relationships between a child and parents early on usually provides the basis forth personality
development as well as the formation of morality.
Resource allocation is a critical part of the decision making process for individuals in positions of public
responsibility and authority (e.g., health care providers).[76] When resources become scarce, such as in rural
communities experiencing situations when there is not enough food to feed everyone, authorities in position to
make decisions that affect this community can create conflicts on various levels (e.g., personally, financially,
socially, etc.).[77] The moral conflict that arise from these decisions can be divided into a focus of conflict and a
focus of moral conflict. The locus, or the place where conflict occurs, can develop from multiple sources which
include “any combination of personal, professional, organizational, and community values. [78] The focus of
conflict occurs from competing values held by stakeholders and financial investors. As K. C. Calman (1994)
stated in regards to the reallocation of resources in a medical setting, resources must be thought of not only as
money, but also in the form of skills, time, and faculties.[
Q.5 Explain the true meaning of personality.
The personality implies psychological and social character that an individual acquires by hereditary biological
endowment which provides him the basis for development and social growth of environment within which he
springs forth. Personality is the product of social interaction in group life. In society every person has different
traits such as skin, color, height and weight. They have different types of personalities because individuals are
14
not alike. It refers to the habits, attitudes as well as physical traits of a person which are not same but have vary
from group to group and society to society, everyone has personality, which may be good or bad, impressive or
unimpressive. It develops during the process of socialization in a culture of a specific group or society. One
cannot determine it of an individual exactly because it varies from culture to culture and time to time. For
example, a killer is considered criminal in peace time and hero in war. The feeling and actions of an individual
during interaction moulds the personality. It is the sum of total behaviors of the individual and covers both overt
and covert behaviors, interests, mentality and intelligence. It is the sum of physical and mental abilities and
capabilities. Personality has been derived from the Latin word “persona” which means “mask” used by the
actors to change their appearance. It is the combination of an individual thoughts, characteristics, behaviors,
attitude, idea and habits. The Meaning of Personality: The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word
‘persona’ which means a mask. According to K. Young, “Personality is a …. patterned body of habits, traits,
attitudes and ideas of an individual, as these are organised externally into roles and statuses, and as they relate
internally to motivation, goals, and various aspects of selfhood.” G. W. Allport defined it as “a person’s pattern
of habits, attitudes, and traits which determine his adjustment to his environment.” According to Robert E. Park
and Earnest W. Burgess, personality is “the sum and organization of those traits which determine the role of the
individual in the group.” Herbert A. Bloch defined it as “the characteristic organization of the individual’s
habits, attitudes, values, emotional characteristics……. which imparts consistency to the behavior of the
individual.” According to Arnold W. Green, “personality is the sum of a person’s values (the objects of his
striving, such as ideas, prestige, power and sex) plus his non- physical traits (his habitual ways of acting and
reacting).” According to Linton, personality embraces the total “organised aggregate of psychological processes
and status pertaining to the individual.” Personality, as we understand it, says MacIver, “is all that an individual
is and has experienced so far as this “all” can be comprehended as unity.” According to Lundberg and others,
“The term personality refers to the habits, attitudes, and other social traits that are characteristic of a given
individual’s behaviour.” By personality Ogburn means “the integration of the socio psychological behaviour of
the human being, represented by habits of action and feeling, attitudes and opinions.” Davis regards personality
“a psychic phenomenon which is neither organic nor social but an emergent from a combination of the two.”
According to Anderson and Parker, “Personality is the totality of habits, attitudes, and traits that result from
socialization and characterizes us in our relationships with others.” According to N.L. Munn, “Personality may
be defined as the most characteristic integration of an individual’s structure modes of behaviour, interests,
attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes.” According to Morton Prince, “Personality is the sum total of all the
biological innate dispositions, impulses tendencies and instincts of the individual, and the acquired disposition
and tendencies acquired by experience.” According to Young, “Personality is the totality of behaviour of an
individual with a given tendency system interacting with a sequence of situations.” Lawrence A. Pewin has
given a working definition of personality in these words, “Personality represents those structural and dynamic
properties of an individual or individuals as they reflect themselves in characteristic responses to situations.”
15
Characteristics of personality (i) Personality is not related to bodily structure alone. It includes both structure
and dynamics (ii) Personality is an indivisible unit. (iii) Personality is neither good nor bad. (iv) Personality is
not a mysterious phenomenon. (v) Every personality is unique.(vi) Personality refers to persistent qualities of
the individual. It expresses consistency and regularly. (vii) Personality is acquired. (viii) Personality is
influenced by social interaction. It is defined in terms of behaviour. Types of Personality Following are the
three types of personality 1. Extrovert Personality This type has the tendency to live mostly outside the like to
live with others. Those individuals are highly socialized and have contact with outside people in the society.
They want to join other groups who are more in number. These type of people are drivers, excessive drinkers,
smokers, robbers, thieves, wicked persons etc. 2. Introvert Personality Introvert is opposite to extrovert. Those
people are always live alone in their rooms and do not want to go outside. They have their own imaginary
world. They are teachers, scientists, thinkers and philosophers. 3. Ambivert Personality Between extrovert and
introvert personalities there is a third one type called ambivert. People belonging to this type enjoy both the
groups and attend them. They have middle mind and want to live in both parties. Sometimes they join outside
people but sometimes they live in their own rooms. Factors of Personality Enormously the following five
factors of personality are contributing to the formation and development of human personality. 1.Biological
Factors 2.Social Factors 3.Cultural Factors PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT TIPS 1.Should be a better
listener 2.Good conversation 3.Be positive in outlook and attitude 4.More reading and building interest
5.Should be a good courteous 6.Interaction with new people 7.Helpful to other people 8.Give respect if you
want respect 9.Confident about yourself 4.Physical Environment 5.Situational Factors 1. Biological Factors of
Personality Biological factors of personality are very important for the formation of human personality.
Children are born in a family; inherit many traits and features from their parents. Children get physical and
psychological characteristics from their parents which becomes a part of their personalities. Some of the
inherited traits are courage, coward, intelligence, weakness etc. For example it was experimented on the negro
that they are biological inferior. A normal healthy man has some physical similarities such as two hands five
senses, two eyes and these biological similarities help to explain some of the similarities in the behavior. It
separates individuals from one another and their various physical characteristics except identical twins having
the same physical qualities. So, biological factors of personality are responsible for the development of
personality. 2. Social Factors of Personality When an individual interact with other persons in his/her group
give and take relationship takes place and it affects the personality of an individual social factors of personality
are responsible for the formation of personality, when an individual has group experience and contact with
others personality of an individual is influenced by others may be bad or good but depends on the association in
which he/she keeps. In a society every person plays a specific role and status. For example in our society
younger are expected to be respectful for elders. Many other social factors like environment, group life, family,
media with which an individual interact in his/her society daily life mold their personalities. We can say that
whatever comes in contact with an individual’s social life affects personality of that individual and develop
16
good or bad personality. 3. Cultural Factors of Personality Both material as well as non-material culture affects
personality of an individual. An individual living in his/her culture adopts the traits consciously or
unconsciously and acts accordingly. Culture of any society determines the behaviors and personality of an
individual and he/she is expected to act according to the culture. A person follows all the social norms of a
culture which results in the formation of good personality while non-conformity to the cultural rules develops
abnormal or bad personality. So, the culture in which an individual seeks satisfaction adjusts himself/herself and
develops personality. 4. Physical Environment Physical environment also determines the personality of an
individual. Environmental factors include land, river, mountains, hills, forests, plain area, atmosphere etc which
affect the personality to be good or bad, healthy or weak. All the feelings, emotions, ideas, attitudes, habits and
behavior as well as body structure is the result of physical environment of to which an individual belongs. For
example, body structure, physique, color and health of the rural people are different from urban people. These
people have different environment due to which they develop variety of personalities. The people living in cities
have facilities and modern ways of life which creates to develop delicate bodies and minds as compare to the
rural people who are deprived of these facilities. 5. Situational Factors of Personality Situational factors of
personality also have a complete share in the formation of personality of an individual. situational factors of
personality are charging according to the social situations. Every person face may situations in his life which
enables him/her to change his/her behavior. For example, a teacher may be rigid and strict with students but
may not with his/her family. An officer may behave with the subordinates differently as compare to his/her
friends. Personality is not the result of only one factor but every factor is responsible to give complete share in
its formation. A person behave and his/her personality exists when interacts with environment, culture, society,
parents, friends and to those who come in contact by chance.
17

840

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

840

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course: Educational Psychology (840)

Semester: Autumn, 2020

You might also like