Fundamentals of Wireless Communication LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you will be able to: ws Introduce the concept of wireless media, = Study the wireless transmission and switch- a Know the frequency spectrum for wireless ing. technologies. ‘communications. 2 Study the diversity techniques for wireless a Review the principles of coding and systems. modulation schemes. i Discuss the performance improvement tech- = Understand the limitations of wireless niques for wireless communication systems. communication. Know the generations of cellular systems. ireless systems have a unique capability of maintaining the same contact number even W if one moves from one location to another. This has made them increasingly popular. The wireless telephones are not only convenient but also provide flexibility and versatility; there have been a growing number of wireless phone subscribers as well as service providers. A combination of wireless communication and computer technologies has revolutionized the world of telecommunications. Wireless and mobile communications have found usefulness in areas such as commerce, education, defense, etc. According to the nature of a particular application, they can be used in home-based and industrial systems or in commercial and military environment. There can be many novel applications of such a wireless system, for example, a bracelet worn can constantly Monitor the body parameters and take needful actions (like informing the family physician about the problem). In a commercial system, the wireless communications can be pee or selling of goods and services, playing audio and video, payment acral payment of electricity bills, airline/railway/bus reservations, etc. chuiigeabivs Howews, been wiresy and mobile devices is not much and they are used wish digital assistant (Poa). m ‘i le just means portable. A laptop is a mobile device, as is a person? A desktop would be a mobile device if you had the inclination to carry Scanned with CamScannerse" for transmission over channel. The channel {eithe, wire Chapter 1/Fundamentals of Wireless Communication . i un ectivity. A cell phone ; it around with you. A wireless device has some sort of neonate ae Ne gone i wireless, and a laptop or a PDA would be wireless if they ce eee ly, applications are wireless when they connect and exchanged ec cradtgm for connesy Wireless is the next giant leap in information services. oe eee ae enables businesses to operate faster, better, more cost-effectively, and Pate auth the use of always ON, always connected, and always available con oc the tremendous increase in wireless applications, mobile phones, es on er abi devices, the merging of computing and telecommunication techno gies Sere ratory experiment but a fundamental part of modern business. Hi ee mee Be ea of the principles of wireless communication that are_quite extensively use 00) e 1.1 Digital Communications Digital communication refers to the transmission of a sequence of digital messages (a bit stream) or a digitized analog signal. This is in contrast to analog communication. Although analog communication represents one continuously varying signal by another continuously * varying signal, a digital transmission can be broken down into discrete messages, The messages are either represented by a sequence of pulses using a line code or by a limited set of analog wave forms using a digital modulation method. f Transmitting data in digital form allows the following: 1, There is greater signal Processing capability. 2. The errors caused by random processes can be detected and corrected, - Digital signals can also be sampled instead of being monitored continuously. 4. Multiplexing of multiple digital signals is much sit 5. The quality of the signal is enhanced. & The signal is modified as per the netwerk and application requirements. mpler than multiplexing of analog signals. 1.2 Wireless Communication System (The major function of the communication system format appropriate for the transmission medium and " Teceiver picks the si 3 communication systems exchange electronic data among Press ‘the ‘signal. Wireless media. a Scanned with CamScannernT 1.2 Wireless Communication System 3 LJ source Channel| | Source encoder *| encoder al oer ‘Source hannel eer ee ec aa ee Feccher Figure 1.1 | Wireless communication system. continuous stream of bits. Methods for source encoding are waveform coding, linear_predic- tive_coding-etc. The channel encoder encodes the signal for error correction and detection by adding some redundant bits. Methods for channel encoding are haguming codes, cyclic 34 gacodes, block codes, etc. The encoded signal is modulated by using the digital modulation schemes_such as binary phase shift keying (BPSK), quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), minimum shift_keying (MSK), Gaussian MSK (GMSK), etc. The modulated signal is sent over the wireless medium. The receiver demodulates and decodes (channel decoding and source decoding) the signal to obtain the transmitted information. {The main design goals of the transmitter and the receiver are to mitigate distortion and noise from the channel.|(Performance metric for_analog systems is fidelity, whereas digital systems are analyzed based on data rate and bit error probability 26 as performance metrics. Fidelity describes how close is the received signal to the original signal. Fidelity defines a ity) Data rates over channels with Noise have a fundamental capacity abot rate is limited by signal power, noise power, distortion, and bit error probability. Without distortion or noise, we can have maximum data rate with zero bit error probability. Bit error probability is defined as the ratio of the number of bits, elements, characters, or blocks incorrectly received to the total number of bits, elements, characters, or blocks sent during a specified time interval. For example, if 10 bits are altered when 10,000 bits are transmitted, the bit error probability equals 10/10,000 = 10°.) i An important parameter in communicatam channel is bandwidth, For digital communi- cations, bandwidth of a channel is defined as the maximum number of bits transmitted in a second (bits per second or bps) whereas for analog systems bandwidth is defined in terms of hertz (Hz). Shannon capacity defines maximum possible data rate for systems with noise and distortion, In noisy channel, data rate C is defined as C = B log,(1 + S/N) bps where B is the bandwidth in Hz and S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio, For example, a channel of B = 3000 Hz, S/N = 30 dB (ideal parameters for the analog telephone system) can never transmit much more than 30 kbps. Scanned with CamScannerChapter 1/Fundamentals of Wireless Communication 4 Problem 1.1 , tput S/N power rat In a communication channel, the channel bandwidth is 3.4 kHz and output S/N p tio is 20 dB. Calculate the channel capacity. Solution; Given, channel bandwidth, B = 3.4 kHz. Therefore 10 logyoS/NV = 20dB logioS/N = 2 S/N = 10? = 100 Channel capacity is C = Blog,(1 + S/N) = 3.4 x 10? log,(1 + 100) = 3.4 x 10°(6.66) C = 22,644 bps : Problem 1.2 Calculate the minimum SNR re quired to support information transmission through the telephone channel of bandwidth 3.4 kHe at the data rate of 4800 by pS. Solution: Given, channel data rate, C= 4800bps; bandwidth, B= 3.4 kHz. Therefore channel capacity, C= Blog,(1 + S/N) 4800 = 3.4 x 10? log,(1 + S/N) 1.411 = log,(1+ S/N) 14S/N = 2141 1+ S/N = 2.659 S/N = 1.659 (S/N) (dB) = 10 logyy 1.659 = 2.2dB S/N = 2.248 Problem 1.3 ‘na communication channel, the bandwidth is 10 (a) Determine the channel. capacity, (6) If SNR drops to 10, how much bandwidth is : capacity as in (a), needed to achieve the Same channel MHz and.SNR is 109, Scanned with CamScanner be |1.2 Wireless Communication System 2 Solution: Given, channel bandwidth = 10 MHz. Therefore S/N = 100 Channel capacity is given by C = Blog,(1 + S/N) C = 10 x 10° log,(1 + 100) C = 66.6 Mbps |f the SNR drops to 10, that is, S/N = 10, the bandwidth is B = C/log,(1 + S/N) = C/log,(1 + 10) B=66.6 x 10°/3.47 B= 19.19 MHz Wireless Communication Limitations jandwidth Geach is still a limited resource in wireless environments. When transmitting data, users Must sometimes send smaller bits of data to accommodate within the available bandwidth so that the information movas more quickly. The size of the device that is accessing the information is also still an issue. Most recent phones and PDAS have small screens, often only a couple of inches in diameter, and smaller memory, and it is hard to read large documents on them. These may require information of lesser bandwidth. Larger computing devices. connected in wireless environments_may require more bandwidth information as there is no constraint on the screen and the memory, -— nomen rae {The available wireless local networks in the market operate with a maximum of 55 Mbps whereas some of the users’ applications aggregate demand is 10 Gbps. This imbalance forces Us to have clever wireless networking environmen Many applications need to be reconfigured if théy are going to be used through wireless connections. Most client/server applications rely on a persistent connection, which is not the case with wireless applications. Transactional systems require safeguards for dropped wireless connections (due to bandwidth limitations), Frequency Spectrum The frequency spectrum is limited_and finite. The number of users who can be connected to a wireless network ime. are. limited. However, dynamic channel allocation schemes ‘can be used to opti frequency usage of the given wireless commuUnlCation area th Power ‘The power density from a wireless antenna decreases rapidly with the square of the distance as one moves away from the antenna. However, because radio frequency (RF) Scanned with CamScanner7" Chapter 1/Fundamentals of Witeless Communication energy travels as waves, there are effects from reflections, interactions among waves from multiple antennas, and spikes of intensity due to each antenna pattern. This produces g * pattern of peaks and valleys in field intensity as one moves away from the source, The intensity of RF energy depends on several factors, including design characteristics of the antenna, power transmitted to the antenna, height of the antenna, and distance from the antenna. & typical mobile node transmitter power in a wireless local environment ranges from 230 mW to 2 W (GSM 1800 specifications) in 1850-1880 MHz range (uplink) that covers a distance of 8 km. For a typical wireless local area network (WLAN) transmit power required 's 27 dbm (dbm implies power ratio in decibels of the measured power referenced to 1 mw whereas dbW jis referenced to 1 W) in frequency range 2.400-2.480 GHz. The transmitted Power level of the devices is limited by their size and the type of applications used. 1.3 Wireless Media Cowireless” means transmitting signals over invisible radio waves instead of wires. Garage door openers and television remote controls were the first wireless devices to become a part of everyday life. Wireless technologies are used for things as simple as making a phone call or as complex as control of war planes). i, 's successful in establishing the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company Limited, the first radio factory in the world. In 1901, signals were received across the Atlantic and in 1905, the first wireless distress signal was sent by 4 using Morse code.) Wireless and Radio Radio waves are extensively used in wireless TESST does not always require radi modulation (AM) radio reception. wirelessly over short distances using causing electrical interference does mn tive schemes of radio waves help us A radio may be defined as one of the following: 1. A method of communicating over a distance by an intelligence bearing signal and radiating the: and a receiver. 2, A device or pertaining to a device that transmits or receives electromagnetic waves in the frequency bands that are between 10 kHz and 3000 GHz. '¥ modulating electromagnetic waves using se modulated waves by using a transmitter Scanned with CamScanner13 Wireless Media 7 Before the “Birth of Radio,” between 1867 and 1896, there were several experiments trans- ferring information through electromagnetic waves. Some of the experiments are as follows: 1, 1867: Maxwell predicted existence of electromagnetic (EM) waves. 2. 1887: Hertz proved existence of EM waves; first spark transmitter generated a spark in a receiver several meters away. 3. 1890: Branly developed coherer (the apparatus he devised for detecting radio waves). 4, 1896: Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated wireless telegraph to English telegraph office. After the “Birth of Radio,” using radio waves the following applications were extensively developed: 1, 1897: "Birth of Radio” — Marconi started wireless telegraph. 2. 1897; First “Marconi station” was established on Needles Island to communicate with the English Coast, 3. 1898: Marconi experimented on tuned communication. 4, 1898: Wireless telegraphic connection between England and France established. ‘Transoceanic communication was established by Marconi, which gave him a tremendous Success and made him rich. Some of his milestones are as follows. 1, 1901: Marconi successfully transmitted radio signals across Atlantic Ocean from Cornwall to Newfoundland. 2. 1902: First bidirectional communication across Atlantic. 3, 1909: Mafeoni awarded Nobel prize for Physics. Voice OverRadio In the early 20th century, there were several experiments transmitting the voice data over the radio. Some of them are as follows: 1, 1914: First voice over radio transmission. 2. 1920s: Mobile receivers installed in police cars in Detroit, US, 3, 1930s: Mobile transmitters developed; radio equipment occupied most of the pi trunk. 4, 1935: Frequency modulation (FIM) demonstrated by Armstrong, 5. 1940s: Majority of police systems converted to FM. car's Radio, thus, requires 2 modulated signal within the radio spectrum, using a transmitter and a receiver. Modulation is a two-part process: a current called the carrier and a signal that bears information. A continuous, high-frequency carrier wave is modulated or varied in accordance with the signal to be transmitted. Notice how a voice signal varies the carrier wave in Fig. 1.2. Birth of Mobile Telephony Mobile telephone started gaining importance in 1940s. Developments of mobile telephony in chronological order are as follows: Scanned with CamScannerot Fundamentals of Wireless Communication Chopter Loading the voice on carrier Unmodulated Modulated carrier Figure 1.2 | Modulated carrier. 1. 1946: First interconnection of mobile users to public switched telephone network (PSTN), 2. 1960s: Improved mobile telephone service (IMTS) introduced; supports full-duplex, auto- dial, and auto-trunking. Cellular mobile telephony. Mobile telephony covering a larger area could not accommodate many users Because of the limitations of the frequency band. Thus, larger area was split into smaller areas called cells, where each area was equipped with a communication system to cover the mobile users in the area, 1, 1979: First cellular communication 5 Corporation (NTT), Japan. 2. 1983: Advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) deployed in the United States in a 900 Mz band that supports 666 duplex channels, 3, 1989: Group Special Mobile defines Euro 4. 1991: Digital cellular phone system intro 5, 1993: IS-95 code division multiple acces: deployed in the United States, 6. 1994: GSM system deployed in the Unit Mobile Communications.” 'ystem introduced by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone pean digital cellular standard, GSM. duced in the United States. Ss (CDMA) spread spectrum digital cellular system ited States, relabeled as the “Global System for PCS and Beyond me of the major developments are a8 follows: z 1, 1995: PCS established with frequency band at 1.8 GHz for mobile telephony, — saison Scanned with CamScanner1.3 Wireless Media a 2. 2000: Third-generation (3G) cellular system standards, Bluetooth standards, etc., were established. 3. 2003: Work started toward 4G standards to set up heterogeneous mobile networks with varieties of multimedia services. Wireless and Infrared Infrared_(IR) is basically invisible light. 1R networking works by communicating using IR light ulses, This is how our television remote control warks. IR systems use very high frequencies, just below the visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum, to_carry data. IR waves are longer than -visible lis jes and shorter than radio waves, They cannot pass through walls or ceilings,-but can_bounce_off flat surfaces_and pass ‘through. open_doorways. IR_ networking allows for-wireless, Jing-of sight (LOS) connection between computers, PDAs, and anything else equipped with an IR port. ~ IR devices use IR light and they depend on being in direct invisible beam of light carries a stream of digital_Os and 1s to_convey instructions. IR connections use—direct LOS beam creating a point-to-point connection between two devices. Unlike communicating via radiotrequencies, one can choose an IR connection partner by simply_pointing the invisiblebeam at a particular device. Figure 1.3 presents the electromagnetic spectrum of IR along with other waves. Some of the requirements for infrared wireless communicat LOS with each other. IR’s Most ition are as follows: 4. IR devices are required to transmit data using the IR frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. . . . 100 10-2 nm um “fone: 10-6 nm 100 nm_1 pm Gamma rays Figure 1.3 | Electromagnetic spectrum. lei Scanned with CamScanner |Wireless Communication “Chapter 1/Fundamentals of Wireless Communication Connection of ClasstOOMS _ Going of classroom 2 Caling of classroom 1 ——— ~ 1 ——T Reese point | ny] LAY Lap < | ? IR connected wireless nodes Figure 1.4 | Students connected to computers through IR wireless. 2. 1R less communication must have a device capable of understanding and translating incoming IR signal (just as a compatible device to listen to a radio broadcast). 3: All sending and receiving IR devices contain small, dark windows called the In ports, Uses of Infrared Wireless nd Open up their computers, they are i i ; ; Ir 5 ected to the school’s network through the CAPs, Students are allowed to access the Ie nd programs that reside on the school server, hange business cards at meetings and conferences (Fig, 1.5), BE Messag Scanned with CamScanner1.4 Frequency Spectrum u 4 Computer Printer Digital Joystick camera “Keyboard = Mouse r, © a @) Figure 1.5 | IR connected devices. Some of the advantages of IR wireless communication are as follows: 1, Simple to implement. 2. Low power consumption. 3. Invulnerability to interference from traditional sources such as RF. 4, Signals cannot be jammed (diffused). 5. User can move his/her station without reconfiguring the network. 6. IR frequencies are free and available to anyone who wants to use them. 7. One time cost of equipment and installation. The disadvantages are as follows: 1. Cannot penetrate through walls or other solid object. 2. Usually requires direct line of sight. 3, Range is typically 3 ft (directed). 1.4 Frequency Spectrum * An ordered array of the components of an emission or wave is called spectrum. A frequency spectrum is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from zero to infinity. The lectromagnetic spectrum was, by custom and practice, formerly divided into 26 alphabeti- cally designated bands. This usage still prevails to some degree. However, the International Jelecommunications Union (ITU) formally recognizes 12 bands, from 30 Hz to 3000 GHz. New bands, from 3 to 3000 THz, are under active consideration for recognition. Radio Frequency Spectrum The entire spectrum of electromagnetic frequencies is used for communications including frequencies used for radio, radar, and television. The frequency spectrum is generally mea- sured in Hz. (Note that Hz stands for hertz or vibrations per second; kHz stands for kilohertz or thousands of cycles per second; and MHz stands for megahertz or millions of cycles per second.) The commercial FM radio band operates between 88 and 108 MHz or between 88 million cycles per second and 108 million cycles per second. The RF spectrum is commercially used in the form of low band, midband, commercial band, etc. Figure 1.6 illustrates operating frequency of all the bands. . am a Scanned with CamScannerSett gamma rays Laser and guided misstes Microwave emitors Linear Accelerators Bacto ant iovion yma monelinersenacesores —S Xap apes Elocione fectronics bes ayerene ermal sight Synchronous, Iicgrtedcrcuas _$ frstons Incandescent and foreseen ight Megahertz [TTT] Giganenz | Teranenz Photon energy Yi elecron van Tory s00/ + soft 100] 4 4a 100] + 45 100 n {| TF cnneee i r t 10? 103 494 108 108 107 498 10? 1010 yon 10% 1013 O18 10° 1016 yq17 * 10% 108 1022 1920 Frequency in Hz (cycles per second) Electromagnetic spectrum Figure 1.6 | Frequency spectrum, 0% ET TS Won Baim Scanned with CamScanner5 Technologies in Digital Wireless Communication za ; radio | area | utavoir | Gamma rays | Mictowave — Visble. == (ays Cosmirays Figure 1.7 | Electromagnetic spectrum of IR. Infrared Frequency Spectrum Light waves that are slightly longer than visible light waves are IR waves. They are found to the right of visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum. IR rays create most of the heat from sunlight and incandescent light bulbs (Fig, 1.7). The length of these waves ranges from 10-1 to 10? m long; this is known as the wavelength. 1.5 Technologies in Digital Wireless Communication The various technologies used in digital wireless communications are: radio transmissions, coding, modulation, and physical channel creation. In this section, we mention in brief all these technologies and explain about them in the following subsections. Coding There are two types of coding technologies that characterize a wireless communications system: source coding and channel coding. Source Coding r Source coding deals with the time and amplitude discretization of the analog source signal. Typical analog source signals in communication systems are speech and image signals. Thus, source coding techniques can be classified into speech and image.coding. Speech coding. Speech coding techniques are broadly classified into the following two main categories: 1. Waveform coding. 2. Linear predictive coding (LPC). Waveform coding. In the waveform coding techniques, the waveform of the source signal is approximated by mimicking the amplitudes-vs-time waveform. In this technique, the-speech coding consiéts of sampling the amplitude of the waveform, approximating the sampled value by the quantization process, and representing, or digitally encoding, the quantized amplitude value by a number of binary bits for transmission. At the sink, the received digital signal is eh Scanned with CamScannerstandard values oo Ne ay 3 values sige Page TT AT a a Figure 1.8 | Pulse code modulation of a quantized wave (32 bits). decoded to reconstruct the criginal waveform as faithfully as possible. The following is a list Of different types of wavefo rm coding techniques: 1. Pulse code modulation (PCM): The signal is sampled, quantized, and digitally encoded, It needs the sampling frequency, /,, to be greater than the Nyquist frequency (which 's twice the maximum frequency of the signal). For n bits Per sample, the dynamic range is £2"~* and the. quantization noise is 1/12. Total bit rate is n x non-uniform quantization or variable | values is shown in Fig. 1.8. The ra levels = 16). The first sampled valu: values with digital encoding (e.g, 8 channel. system against which other speech PCM is the simplest, low-complexi speech signal is sampled at 801 sampling frequency = 8 kH2), and the dyna |, 8 bits are rey 2. Differential PCM (DPCM): It predicts the next sam samples. This minimizes mean squared error Scanned with CamScanner15 Technologies in Digital Wireless Communication 15 As discussed earlier, in the PCM, the total amplitude of a new sample is quantized, coded, and transmitted. In the DPCM, however, this new value is first compared with the predicted value and the differ@ncereferred to as the prediction error, Is quantized, coded, and transmitted. As the prediction error has a much smaller dynamic range than the absolute signal amplitude itself, a performance gain may be achieved by the DPCM for the same number of quantization levels. 3. Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM): It is the same as the DPCM except that, unlike in the DP( where the predictor coefficients are constants, in the ADPCM, the predictor coeffi: cients are updated at each sampling instant and therefore are a function of time. In 2 typical ADPCM, the Sampling rate of the source signal is 8000 samples/s and the quantized value of the prediction error is coded using fours bits, that is, R=4 (R bits/sample). Therefore, the number of quantization levels is N =-16. Compare this with the number of quantization levels, N, for the PCM, which is 256. The N for the ADPCM is only 1/16 of that for the PCM. The bit transmission rate of the saurce signal encoded by the ADPCM is fee b = (8000 samples/s)(4 bits/sample) = 4, Delta modulation (DM): It is an extreme case of the DPCM and may be regarded as the one-bit DPCM, where a single bit is used to code the signal at each sampling instant. The basic concept is as follows: The source signal is approximated by a staircase function with a fixed step size. At each sampling instant, the sign of this step change is determined based on the difference between the sample at that sampling instant and the latest step- function approximation of the signal. In the DM, therefore, only the sign of the quantity needs to be coded, which takes a single bit: 1 for the positive difference and 0 for the negative difference. ; ° Problem 1.4 Cbtain 8-bit PCM representation of the following samples. x(0) = 4, x(1) = 8, x(2) = 32, x(3) = 16. - * Solution: x(0) = 00000100 . x(1) = x(2) x(3) = 00010000 Linear predictive coding (LPC). Adaptive filters are at the heart of most speech coding tech- niques, such as LPC, which is required for low-bit-rate communication, In the LPC technique, the human vocal tract_is_mode del is sed on the individual speech signal. These parameters are coded and transmitted to the sink. The sink employs a replica of the vocal tract model used at the source and synthesizes the speech signal by using the model parameters sent from the source. The amplitude-amplitude Scanned with CamScanner/, fet = Chapter 1/Fundamentals of Wireless Communication a ‘ ith a handful of model discretization is realized by representing the continuous speech signal eet Parameters. Some of the different types of the LPC techniques are as fol a 1, Residual-excited linear predictive (RELP) coding: RELP coding is oe of a fee based vocoders. Its compression rate is moderate because the a ie ore encode a sequence of residual signals for exciting the vocal tract model nae ae m speech signals. However, the quality of synthesized speech is superior . omer nes a LPC vocoders. The system is robust as there is no need to analyze whethe! is voiced or unvoiced nor to analyze the pitch period. i 2. Code-excited linear predictive (CELP) coding: CELP is a lossy compression al ae ae for low-bit-rate speech coding. CELP vocoders have been adopted as standards for digital transmission of voice on cellular radio systems in North America, Europe, and Japan. CELP coding is a frame-oriented technique that breaks a sampled input signal into blocks of samples (i.e., vectors) that are processed as a single unit. , 3. Vector sum excited linear predictive (VSELP) coding: VSELP is a speech coding method used in several cellular standards. It is a type of speech coding using an excitation signal generated from three components: the output of a long-term pitch filter and two code- books. VSELP was used in the IS-54 standard and operated at a rate of 8 kbps. 4. Regular-pulse excitation-Long-term prediction (RPE-LTP) coding: RPE-LTP is a type of speech coding using regularly spaced pulses in an excitation frame and a long-term Predictor to model the fine structure (pitch). RPE-LTP is chosen as the standard voice compression algorithm for the European digital mobile radio system. Image coding. Some of the image coding techniques are sub-band coding, transform coding using _fast Fourier transform (FFT) and discrete cosine transform (DCT), wavelet transform coding, predictive fing (DPCM, ADPCM), Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG) |, and MPEG. Sub-band coding is given as an example of an encoding algorithm that can neatly map onto hierarchical coding. This is very much used in image coding. Sub-band coding is based on the Scanned with CamScanner1.5 Technologies in Digital Wireless Communication 7 typical 8 x 8 sample block from a typical source image, most of the spatial frequencies have zero or near-zero amplitude and need not be encoded. In principle, the OCT introduces no loss to the source image samples; it merely transforms them to a domain in which they can be more efficiently encoded, Channel Coding The output of the transmitter encoder is further digitally processed and encoded for the error control during the transmission through the communication channel. This process is called channel coding. The following are examples of commonly used error detection and error correction techniques: cyclic redundancy check (CRC), block coding, and interleaving. Cyclic redundancy check. CRC is probably the most reliable scheme for error detection. With CRC, approximately 99.95% of all transmission errors are detected. Given a k-bit block of binary data, an n-bit CRC sequence is generated, which is appended to the k-bit data block. The n-bit CRC is determined in such a way that the resulting (k +1)-bit sequence is exactly divisible by some predetermined bit string (generator polynomial) that is (n+ 1)-bit long. The steps in CRC generation are as follows: 1. For the binary data of D and generator polynomial G with g bits, a string of ¢ — 1 zero bits is appended to D. 2. Then D (appended with zero bits) is divided by the generator G, the division is of type modulo-2 3. The quotient of this division is discarded, but the remainder is called CRC. 4, The CRC value is appended to D (without appended zero bits) and transmitted. At the receiver, the received message is divided by the same generator G used by the transmitter. Here also the division is of type modulo-2. The quotient of this division is discarded, but if the remainder is 0, the receiver knows that the data have no errors; otherwise, there is an error. Preblem 1.5 Consider that the data to be transmitted, D, is 101110 using CRC error checking method. Suppose the generator polynomial G is chosen as 1001. Find the final value that the trans- mitter sends and show the error detection process at the receiver. Solution: Here D is 101110, G is 1001, and the number of zero bits needed to append to D is three (y—1=43), as the generator has four bits (g = 4). Figure 1.9 shows the details of the process at the transmitter side. Here, after appending the three zero bits to D, the dividend is 101110000. The divisor is G = 1001. Using modulo-2 arithmetic, the quo- tient turns out to be 101011 and the remainder is CRC = 011. Therefore, the transmitter transmits 101110011, Scanned with CamScannerChapter 1/Fundamentals of Wireless Communication 18 % 10.1011 Quotient Divisor 1001[ 10 Dividend (Generator) (Pata with appended zeros) -7---22222 27S] 011 Remainder (CRC) Figure 1.9 | An example of CRC: At transmitter, At the receiver, as shown in Fig. 1.10, 101110011 is treat divided by the same divisor, G = 1001. As the remaind knows that there is no error in the data and hence can 101011 Quotient Prisor 1001{TO0TT1TOO1T Dividend 7 (Generator) (Data with CRC) Scanned with CamScanner1.5 Technologies in Digital Wireless Communication 19 Block coding. Block coding is an error correction technique. Here, the data are grouped into A-bit blocks. To each of the k_bits for a block, (um — 4) redundant bits called parity bits are appended. The resulting n-bit Sequence for transmission is called (n,k) block code; for every n-bits transmitted, only & bits are information bearing. The code rate is defined as k/n. At the sink, the received bit string is decoded by calculating the hamming distances (Ham- ming distance between binary strings of equal length is the number of positions for which corresponding symbols are different; for example, Hamming distance between 1001 and 1000 is 1). For a (n,k) block code, 2k Hamming distances must be computed to determine the smallest Hamming distance and the corresponding information bits. Interleaving Interleaving is the process by which the natural transmission order of the bit sequence is deliberately altered at the transmitting end in such a way that the burst of bit errors that are consecutive in the altered order are in fact separated from each other when the bit sequence is “de-interleaved” to its original natural order. interleaving is neither an error detection capa- bility nor an error correction capability but it indirectly enhances the coder’s error correction capability. The bit errors due to the random noise, such as the thermal noise of the circuit, tend to occur as isolated errors scattered in time with a random inter-arrival time. These single isolated errors are easily detectable and correctable by the error detection/correction techniques as discussed above. In wireless communications system, an important cause of the bit error is fading. When the system experiences fading, a burst of bit errors may occur during the fading period. When bit error occurs consecutively in bursts, the effectiveness of the error detection/correction schemes is severely reduced. When fading hits a stream of interleaved bits, a burst of bit errors may occur consecutively. However, these erred bits are in fact separated in the natural order after the de-interleaving. Wireless Modulation Schemes arriers are called symbols, or equivalently, the groups of bits rep- The different modulation c: presentations for resented by modulated carriers are called symbols. Consider the following re modulation schemes: AM, FM, and phase modulation (PM). Table 1.1 depicts four different modulation carriers and four different symbols; each of the f AM, four symbols use different amplitudes <1, lated by using these amplitudes. For FM, differ- that is, symbols 1, 2, 3, and 4 use four symbols represent two bits. In the case of Az, As, and Ag, that is, carrier wave is modul ent carrier frequencies are used for each of the symbols, Table 1.1 | Wireless modulation schemes symbols Bits AM FM PM 1 00 A, sin (wt + Q) Asin (wy(t) + QI Asin(wt + Qi) 2 01 Az sin (wt + Q) Asin [wa(t) + QI) A ea 7 a Ib Asin [ws(t) + Q) Asin (wt + Q3! 3 10 Asin (wt + Q) sin [ws(t) a ad Asin (walt) + Q) 1 Agsin (wt + Q) Scanned with CamScanner FS