ASSIGNMENT No.

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Name of student
Roll no
Tutor name
Course: “Research Methods in Education” (8604)
Semester: Autumn, 2020

Q.1 Does the research design affect the sampling process? Discuss with examples. Draw a tree diagram
of types of sampling techniques.
Sampling definition: Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to
make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling
methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire
population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence
forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can be used in a research survey software for
optimum derivation.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the country’s
population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this case, the
researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her
indicative feedback on the drug’s behavior.
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let’s take a
closer look at these two methods of sampling.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a
few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a
part of the sample with this selection parameter.
Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at
random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all
elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that you can implement
in any market research study.
Types of probability sampling with examples:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population
using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the
population and forms samples based on a fixed process.

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 For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to
be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias in the population and gives all members a fair chance
to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:
 Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time
and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information
where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the
same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building
activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500
employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into
sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on
demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive
effective inference from the feedback.
For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the
Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida,
Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results
will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
 Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members
of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size
that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this
sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000.
He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a
part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
 Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides
the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling,
these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual
income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000,
$21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the
characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups
to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.

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 Uses of probability sampling
There are multiple uses of probability sampling. They are:
 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from a
population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the understanding and the
inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample
appropriately represents the population.
 Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate
representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square would like to
understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of
people across the US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an accurate
sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.
Types of non-probability sampling with examples
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher
or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, the output
of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired
target population. But, there are situations such as the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more useful than the other type.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:
 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying
customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of
the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no
authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness.
This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback.
In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling
is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of
upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out
pamphlets randomly.
 Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the discretion of
the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the
target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in
studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in
…?” and those who respond with a “No” are excluded from the sample.

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 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects
are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal
immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and
derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method in situations where the topic is highly
sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many
victims will readily respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or
volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens
based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created
sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.
Uses of non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is used for the following:
 Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an assumption
when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the immediate return of data and
builds a base for further research.
 Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting qualitative
research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time constraints,
and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick
respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.
How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?
For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The
effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert researchers follow to decide
the best sampling method.
 Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or accuracy.
 Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.
 Test each of these methods and examine whether they help in achieving your goal.
 Select the method that works best for the research.

We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate the whole
discussion, though, the significant differences between probability sampling methods and non-probability
sampling methods are as below:

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 Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique in which samples from a larger technique in which the researcher selects
Definition
population are chosen using a method samples based on the researcher’s subjective
based on the theory of probability. judgment rather than random selection.
Alternatively
Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
Known as
Population
The population is selected randomly. The population is selected arbitrarily.
selection
Nature The research is conclusive. The research is exploratory.
Since there is a method for deciding the Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the
Sample sample, the population demographics are population demographics representation is
conclusively represented. almost always skewed.
Takes longer to conduct since the
This type of sampling method is quick since
research design defines the selection
Time Taken neither the sample or selection criteria of the
parameters before the market research
sample are undefined.
study begins.
This type of sampling is entirely This type of sampling is entirely biased and
Results unbiased and hence the results are hence the results are biased too, rendering
unbiased too and conclusive. the research speculative.
In probability sampling, there is an
In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis
underlying hypothesis before the study
Hypothesis is derived after conducting the research
begins and the objective of this method is
study.
to prove the hypothesis.

Q.2 What type of research tools are used in qualitative research? Mention the characteristics of any
three tools for qualitative research.
The term observational research is used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in
which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. The goal of observational research is to describe a
variable or set of variables. More generally, the goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an
individual, group, or setting. As described previously, observational research is non-experimental because
nothing is manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at causal conclusions using this approach.
The data that are collected in observational research studies are often qualitative in nature but they may also be
quantitative or both (mixed-methods). There are several different types of observational research designs that
will be described below.

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NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation is an observational method that involves observing people’s behavior in the
environment in which it typically occurs. Thus naturalistic observation is a type of field research (as opposed to
a type of laboratory research). Jane Goodall’s famous research on chimpanzees is a classic example of
naturalistic observation. Dr. Goodall spent three decades observing chimpanzees in their natural environment in
East Africa. She examined such things as chimpanzee’s social structure, mating patterns, gender roles, family
structure, and care of offspring by observing them in the wild. However, naturalistic observation could more
simply involve observing shoppers in a grocery store, children on a school playground, or psychiatric inpatients
in their wards. Researchers engaged in naturalistic observation usually make their observations as unobtrusively
as possible so that participants are not aware that they are being studied. Such an approach is called disguised
naturalistic observation. Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the participants remain
anonymous and the behavior occurs in a public setting where people would not normally have an expectation of
privacy. Grocery shoppers putting items into their shopping carts, for example, are engaged in public behavior
that is easily observable by store employees and other shoppers. For this reason, most researchers would
consider it ethically acceptable to observe them for a study. On the other hand, one of the arguments against the
ethicality of the naturalistic observation of “bathroom behavior” discussed earlier in the book is that people
have a reasonable expectation of privacy even in a public restroom and that this expectation was violated. 
In cases where it is not ethical or practical to conduct disguised naturalistic observation, researchers can
conduct undisguised naturalistic observation where the participants are made aware of the researcher
presence and monitoring of their behavior. However, one concern with undisguised naturalistic observation
is reactivity. Reactivity refers to when a measure changes participants’ behavior. In the case of undisguised
naturalistic observation, the concern with reactivity is that when people know they are being observed and
studied, they may act differently than they normally would. For instance, you may act much differently in a bar
if you know that someone is observing you and recording your behaviors and this would invalidate the study.
So disguised observation is less reactive and therefore can have higher validity because people are not aware
that their behaviors are being observed and recorded. However, we now know that people often become used to
being observed and with time they begin to behave naturally in the researcher’s presence. In other words, over
time people habituate to being observed. Think about reality shows like Big Brother or Survivor where people
are constantly being observed and recorded. While they may be on their best behavior at first, in a fairly short
amount of time they are, flirting, having sex, wearing next to nothing, screaming at each other, and at times
acting like complete fools in front of the entire nation.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant observation.
In participant observation, researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying.
Participant observation is very similar to naturalistic observation in that it involves observing people’s behavior

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in the environment in which it typically occurs. As with naturalistic observation, the data that is collected can
include interviews (usually unstructured), notes based on their observations and interactions, documents,
photographs, and other artifacts. The only difference between naturalistic observation and participant
observation is that researchers engaged in participant observation become active members of the group or
situations they are studying. The basic rationale for participant observation is that there may be important
information that is only accessible to, or can be interpreted only by, someone who is an active participant in the
group or situation. Like naturalistic observation, participant observation can be either disguised or undisguised.
In disguised participant observation, the researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are
observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. In contrast with undisguised participant
observation, the researchers become a part of the group they are studying and they disclose their true identity
as researchers to the group under investigation. Once again there are important ethical issues to consider with
disguised participant observation. First no informed consent can be obtained and second passive deception is
being used. The researcher is passively deceiving the participants by intentionally withholding information
about their motivations for being a part of the social group they are studying. But sometimes disguised
participation is the only way to access a protective group (like a cult). Further, disguised participant observation
is less prone to reactivity than undisguised participant observation. 
Rosenhan’s study (1973)[1] of the experience of people in a psychiatric ward would be considered disguised
participant observation because Rosenhan and his pseudopatients were admitted into psychiatric hospitals on
the pretense of being patients so that they could observe the way that psychiatric patients are treated by staff.
The staff and other patients were unaware of their true identities as researchers.
Another example of participant observation comes from a study by sociologist Amy Wilkins (published
in Social Psychology Quarterly) on a university-based religious organization that emphasized how happy its
members were (Wilkins, 2008)[2]. Wilkins spent 12 months attending and participating in the group’s meetings
and social events, and she interviewed several group members. In her study, Wilkins identified several ways in
which the group “enforced” happiness—for example, by continually talking about happiness, discouraging the
expression of negative emotions, and using happiness as a way to distinguish themselves from other groups.
One of the primary benefits of participant observation is that the researcher is in a much better position to
understand the viewpoint and experiences of the people they are studying when they are apart of the social
group. The primary limitation with this approach is that the mere presence of the observer could affect the
behavior of the people being observed. While this is also a concern with naturalistic observation when
researchers because active members of the social group they are studying, additional concerns arise that they
may change the social dynamics and/or influence the behavior of the people they are studying. Similarly, if the
researcher acts as a participant observer there can be concerns with biases resulting from developing
relationships with the participants. Concretely, the researcher may become less objective resulting in more
experimenter bias.

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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Another observational method is structured observation. Here the investigator makes careful observations of
one or more specific behaviors in a particular setting that is more structured than the settings used in naturalistic
and participant observation. Often the setting in which the observations are made is not the natural setting,
rather the researcher may observe people in the laboratory environment. Alternatively, the researcher may
observe people in a natural setting (like a classroom setting) that they have structured some way, for instance by
introducing some specific task participants are to engage in or by introducing a specific social situation or
manipulation. Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in
that in all cases researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured
observation is on gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data. Researchers using this approach are
interested in a limited set of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other
words, structured observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher
engaged in structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than
recording everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest.
Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in that in all cases
researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured observation is on
gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data. Researchers using this approach are interested in a limited set
of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other words, structured
observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher engaged in
structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than recording
everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest.
Researchers Robert Levine and Ara Norenzayan used structured observation to study differences in the “pace of
life” across countries (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999)[3]. One of their measures involved observing pedestrians in
a large city to see how long it took them to walk 60 feet. They found that people in some countries walked
reliably faster than people in other countries. For example, people in Canada and Sweden covered 60 feet in just
under 13 seconds on average, while people in Brazil and Romania took close to 17 seconds. When structured
observation takes place in the complex and even chaotic “real world,” the questions of when, where, and under
what conditions the observations will be made, and who exactly will be observed are important to consider.
Levine and Norenzayan described their sampling process as follows:
“Male and female walking speed over a distance of 60 feet was measured in at least two locations in main
downtown areas in each city. Measurements were taken during main business hours on clear summer days. All
locations were flat, unobstructed, had broad sidewalks, and were sufficiently uncrowded to allow pedestrians to
move at potentially maximum speeds. To control for the effects of socializing, only pedestrians walking alone
were used. Children, individuals with obvious physical handicaps, and window-shoppers were not timed.
Thirty-five men and 35 women were timed in most cities.” (p. 186). Precise specification of the sampling

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process in this way makes data collection manageable for the observers, and it also provides some control over
important extraneous variables. For example, by making their observations on clear summer days in all
countries, Levine and Norenzayan controlled for effects of the weather on people’s walking speeds. In Levine
and Norenzayan’s study, measurement was relatively straightforward. They simply measured out a 60-foot
distance along a city sidewalk and then used a stopwatch to time participants as they walked over that distance.
As another example, researchers Robert Kraut and Robert Johnston wanted to study bowlers’ reactions to their
shots, both when they were facing the pins and then when they turned toward their companions (Kraut &
Johnston, 1979)[4]. But what “reactions” should they observe? Based on previous research and their own pilot
testing, Kraut and Johnston created a list of reactions that included “closed smile,” “open smile,” “laugh,”
“neutral face,” “look down,” “look away,” and “face cover” (covering one’s face with one’s hands). The
observers committed this list to memory and then practiced by coding the reactions of bowlers who had been
videotaped. During the actual study, the observers spoke into an audio recorder, describing the reactions they
observed. Among the most interesting results of this study was that bowlers rarely smiled while they still faced
the pins. They were much more likely to smile after they turned toward their companions, suggesting that
smiling is not purely an expression of happiness but also a form of social communication.
When the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers—as in Kraut and Johnston’s study—this
process is often described as coding. Coding generally requires clearly defining a set of target behaviors. The
observers then categorize participants individually in terms of which behavior they have engaged in and the
number of times they engaged in each behavior. The observers might even record the duration of each behavior.
The target behaviors must be defined in such a way that different observers code them in the same way. This
difficulty with coding is the issue of interrater reliability, as mentioned in Chapter 4. Researchers are expected
to demonstrate the interrater reliability of their coding procedure by having multiple raters code the same
behaviors independently and then showing that the different observers are in close agreement. Kraut and
Johnston, for example, video recorded a subset of their participants’ reactions and had two observers
independently code them. The two observers showed that they agreed on the reactions that were exhibited 97%
of the time, indicating good interrater reliability.
One of the primary benefits of structured observation is that it is far more efficient than naturalistic and
participant observation. Since the researchers are focused on specific behaviors this reduces time and expense.
Also, often times the environment is structured to encourage the behaviors of interested which again means that
researchers do not have to invest as much time in waiting for the behaviors of interest to naturally occur.
Finally, researchers using this approach can clearly exert greater control over the environment. However, when
researchers exert more control over the environment it may make the environment less natural which decreases
external validity. It is less clear for instance whether structured observations made in a laboratory environment
will generalize to a real world environment. Furthermore, since researchers engaged in structured observation
are often not disguised there may be more concerns with reactivity.

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Q.3. Discuss different data analysis techniques when you have quantitative data for a research study.
Analyzing numeric information produces results from data.
Interpreting data through analysis is key to communicating results to stakeholders. The type of analysis depends
on the research design, the types of variables, and the distribution of the data.
This section will focus on the two types of analysis: descriptive and inferential.
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
Descriptive analysis provides information on the basic qualities of data and includes descriptive statistics such
as range, minimum, maximum, and frequency. It also includes measures of central tendency such as mean,
median, mode, and standard deviation.
There are many ways to describe data, and descriptive analysis can describe what the data look like. Below are
some common ways to describe data. Using the set of scores below, the following are examples of descriptive
statistics.

Common Descriptive Statistics Example

The difference between the

Range Above, the range is 15 (20 - 5)
highest score and lowest score

The lowest/smallest score in a

Minimum (Min) Above, the minimum is 5
data set

Maximum The highest/largest score in a data

Above, the maximum is 20
(Max) set

Above, the frequency of 20 is 3; expressed

The number of times a certain
Frequency as a percentage, the score 20 appears 33% of
value appears in a set
the time

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

The measures of central tendency can give a snapshot of how participants are responding in general. These
measures include mean, median, and mode.

Measures of Central Tendency Example

Mean The average or the sum of the values dividedAbove, the mean is 11.1

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 by the number of values (5+5+5+5+10+10+20+20+20)/9)

The middle score of data when set in numerical

order. To find the middle position, order the
Median Above, the median is 10
scores, count the number of scores, add 1, and
divide by 2

The most frequently occurring score in a data

Mode Above, the mode is 5
set

STANDARD DEVIATION
When we think about how participants are responding in general (e.g., mean, median, mode), we also need to
consider how far apart or close together participants’ responses are. To understand more about the nature of the
data, you can consider standard deviation.
As a measure of how close the scores are centered around the mean score, standard deviation shows how well
the mean represents all of the data. A standard deviation represents the average amount that a given score
deviates from the mean score.
INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
Once the data have been appropriately described, inferences can be made based on that data.
Inferential analysis uses statistical tests to see whether an observed pattern is due to chance or due to the
program or intervention effects. Research often uses inferential analysis to determine if there is a relationship
between an intervention and an outcome as well as the strength of that relationship.
This section provides an overview of things to consider before starting inferential analysis, examples of
common statistical tests, and the meaning of statistical significance.
One of the first steps in inferential analysis is to answer the question what does the distribution of data look
like? The type of test used will be guided by the distribution of the data. Distributions fall into two
categories: normal and non-normal. The distribution of data should always be checked before beginning
inferential analysis.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
This type of distribution looks like the Bell Curve. The graph below is an example of what a normal distribution
looks like.

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Looking at the distribution, a curve could be drawn over it that would fit the data. If the distribution looks like
the one in the image below (or close to it), it is normal. This type of distribution shows that the majority of the
data is clustered around one number or value. Usually if the data is normal, statistical tests called parametric
tests are used.

NON-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
There are several ways a distribution can be non-normal; a small sample size or unusual sets of responses are
common causes of non-normal distributions. Usually if the data is non-normal, statistical tests called non-
parametric tests are used.
Skewed
This type of distribution does not take the shape of the familiar Bell Curve and can be skewed positively or
negatively.
Negatively Skewed

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The bar chart below shows negatively skewed data; the majority of the scores are at the higher end of possible
scores.

Positively Skewed
The bar chart below shows positively skewed data; the majority of the scores are at the lower end of possible
scores.

Kurtosis
Kurtosis describes a distribution that is either too peaked (pointy) or too flat.

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Q.4. Discuss Observation as a research tool covering the following concepts; its construction,
different forms and process to conduct an observation.
The term  observational research is used to refer to several different
types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. The goal of
observational research is to describe a variable or set of variables. More generally, the goal is to obtain a
snapshot of specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting. As described previously, observational
research is non-experimental because nothing is manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at
causal conclusions using this approach. The data that are collected in observational research studies are often
qualitative in nature but they may also be quantitative or both (mixed-methods). There are several different
types of observational research designs that will be described below.

14
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation is an observational method that involves observing people’s behavior in the
environment in which it typically occurs. Thus naturalistic observation is a type of field research (as opposed to
a type of laboratory research). Jane Goodall’s famous research on chimpanzees is a classic example of
naturalistic observation. Dr. Goodall spent three decades observing chimpanzees in their natural environment in
East Africa. She examined such things as chimpanzee’s social structure, mating patterns, gender roles, family
structure, and care of offspring by observing them in the wild. However, naturalistic observation could more
simply involve observing shoppers in a grocery store, children on a school playground, or psychiatric inpatients
in their wards. Researchers engaged in naturalistic observation usually make their observations as unobtrusively
as possible so that participants are not aware that they are being studied. Such an approach is called disguised
naturalistic observation. Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the participants remain
anonymous and the behavior occurs in a public setting where people would not normally have an expectation of
privacy. Grocery shoppers putting items into their shopping carts, for example, are engaged in public behavior
that is easily observable by store employees and other shoppers. For this reason, most researchers would
consider it ethically acceptable to observe them for a study. On the other hand, one of the arguments against the
ethicality of the naturalistic observation of “bathroom behavior” discussed earlier in the book is that people
have a reasonable expectation of privacy even in a public restroom and that this expectation was violated. 
In cases where it is not ethical or practical to conduct disguised naturalistic observation, researchers can
conduct undisguised naturalistic observation where the participants are made aware of the researcher
presence and monitoring of their behavior. However, one concern with undisguised naturalistic observation
is reactivity. Reactivity refers to when a measure changes participants’ behavior. In the case of undisguised
naturalistic observation, the concern with reactivity is that when people know they are being observed and
studied, they may act differently than they normally would. For instance, you may act much differently in a bar
if you know that someone is observing you and recording your behaviors and this would invalidate the study.
So disguised observation is less reactive and therefore can have higher validity because people are not aware
that their behaviors are being observed and recorded. However, we now know that people often become used to
being observed and with time they begin to behave naturally in the researcher’s presence. In other words, over
time people habituate to being observed. Think about reality shows like Big Brother or Survivor where people
are constantly being observed and recorded. While they may be on their best behavior at first, in a fairly short
amount of time they are, flirting, having sex, wearing next to nothing, screaming at each other, and at times
acting like complete fools in front of the entire nation.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant observation.
In participant observation, researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying.
Participant observation is very similar to naturalistic observation in that it involves observing people’s behavior

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in the environment in which it typically occurs. As with naturalistic observation, the data that is collected can
include interviews (usually unstructured), notes based on their observations and interactions, documents,
photographs, and other artifacts. The only difference between naturalistic observation and participant
observation is that researchers engaged in participant observation become active members of the group or
situations they are studying. The basic rationale for participant observation is that there may be important
information that is only accessible to, or can be interpreted only by, someone who is an active participant in the
group or situation. Like naturalistic observation, participant observation can be either disguised or undisguised.
In disguised participant observation, the researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are
observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. In contrast with undisguised participant
observation, the researchers become a part of the group they are studying and they disclose their true identity
as researchers to the group under investigation. Once again there are important ethical issues to consider with
disguised participant observation. First no informed consent can be obtained and second passive deception is
being used. The researcher is passively deceiving the participants by intentionally withholding information
about their motivations for being a part of the social group they are studying. But sometimes disguised
participation is the only way to access a protective group (like a cult). Further, disguised participant observation
is less prone to reactivity than undisguised participant observation. 
Rosenhan’s study (1973)[1] of the experience of people in a psychiatric ward would be considered disguised
participant observation because Rosenhan and his pseudopatients were admitted into psychiatric hospitals on
the pretense of being patients so that they could observe the way that psychiatric patients are treated by staff.
The staff and other patients were unaware of their true identities as researchers.
Another example of participant observation comes from a study by sociologist Amy Wilkins (published
in Social Psychology Quarterly) on a university-based religious organization that emphasized how happy its
members were (Wilkins, 2008)[2]. Wilkins spent 12 months attending and participating in the group’s meetings
and social events, and she interviewed several group members. In her study, Wilkins identified several ways in
which the group “enforced” happiness—for example, by continually talking about happiness, discouraging the
expression of negative emotions, and using happiness as a way to distinguish themselves from other groups.
One of the primary benefits of participant observation is that the researcher is in a much better position to
understand the viewpoint and experiences of the people they are studying when they are apart of the social
group. The primary limitation with this approach is that the mere presence of the observer could affect the
behavior of the people being observed. While this is also a concern with naturalistic observation when
researchers because active members of the social group they are studying, additional concerns arise that they
may change the social dynamics and/or influence the behavior of the people they are studying. Similarly, if the
researcher acts as a participant observer there can be concerns with biases resulting from developing
relationships with the participants. Concretely, the researcher may become less objective resulting in more
experimenter bias.

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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Another observational method is structured observation. Here the investigator makes careful observations of
one or more specific behaviors in a particular setting that is more structured than the settings used in naturalistic
and participant observation. Often the setting in which the observations are made is not the natural setting,
rather the researcher may observe people in the laboratory environment. Alternatively, the researcher may
observe people in a natural setting (like a classroom setting) that they have structured some way, for instance by
introducing some specific task participants are to engage in or by introducing a specific social situation or
manipulation. Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in
that in all cases researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured
observation is on gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data. Researchers using this approach are
interested in a limited set of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other
words, structured observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher
engaged in structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than
recording everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest.
Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in that in all cases
researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured observation is on
gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data. Researchers using this approach are interested in a limited set
of behaviors. This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. In other words, structured
observation is less global than naturalistic and participant observation because the researcher engaged in
structured observations is interested in a small number of specific behaviors. Therefore, rather than recording
everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest.
Researchers Robert Levine and Ara Norenzayan used structured observation to study differences in the “pace of
life” across countries (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999)[3]. One of their measures involved observing pedestrians in
a large city to see how long it took them to walk 60 feet. They found that people in some countries walked
reliably faster than people in other countries. For example, people in Canada and Sweden covered 60 feet in just
under 13 seconds on average, while people in Brazil and Romania took close to 17 seconds. When structured
observation takes place in the complex and even chaotic “real world,” the questions of when, where, and under
what conditions the observations will be made, and who exactly will be observed are important to consider.
Levine and Norenzayan described their sampling process as follows:
“Male and female walking speed over a distance of 60 feet was measured in at least two locations in main
downtown areas in each city. Measurements were taken during main business hours on clear summer days. All
locations were flat, unobstructed, had broad sidewalks, and were sufficiently uncrowded to allow pedestrians to
move at potentially maximum speeds. To control for the effects of socializing, only pedestrians walking alone
were used. Children, individuals with obvious physical handicaps, and window-shoppers were not timed.
Thirty-five men and 35 women were timed in most cities.” (p. 186). Precise specification of the sampling

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process in this way makes data collection manageable for the observers, and it also provides some control over
important extraneous variables. For example, by making their observations on clear summer days in all
countries, Levine and Norenzayan controlled for effects of the weather on people’s walking speeds. In Levine
and Norenzayan’s study, measurement was relatively straightforward. They simply measured out a 60-foot
distance along a city sidewalk and then used a stopwatch to time participants as they walked over that distance.
As another example, researchers Robert Kraut and Robert Johnston wanted to study bowlers’ reactions to their
shots, both when they were facing the pins and then when they turned toward their companions (Kraut &
Johnston, 1979)[4]. But what “reactions” should they observe? Based on previous research and their own pilot
testing, Kraut and Johnston created a list of reactions that included “closed smile,” “open smile,” “laugh,”
“neutral face,” “look down,” “look away,” and “face cover” (covering one’s face with one’s hands). The
observers committed this list to memory and then practiced by coding the reactions of bowlers who had been
videotaped. During the actual study, the observers spoke into an audio recorder, describing the reactions they
observed. Among the most interesting results of this study was that bowlers rarely smiled while they still faced
the pins. They were much more likely to smile after they turned toward their companions, suggesting that
smiling is not purely an expression of happiness but also a form of social communication.
When the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers—as in Kraut and Johnston’s study—this
process is often described as coding. Coding generally requires clearly defining a set of target behaviors. The
observers then categorize participants individually in terms of which behavior they have engaged in and the
number of times they engaged in each behavior. The observers might even record the duration of each behavior.
The target behaviors must be defined in such a way that different observers code them in the same way. This
difficulty with coding is the issue of interrater reliability, as mentioned in Chapter 4. Researchers are expected
to demonstrate the interrater reliability of their coding procedure by having multiple raters code the same
behaviors independently and then showing that the different observers are in close agreement. Kraut and
Johnston, for example, video recorded a subset of their participants’ reactions and had two observers
independently code them. The two observers showed that they agreed on the reactions that were exhibited 97%
of the time, indicating good interrater reliability.
One of the primary benefits of structured observation is that it is far more efficient than naturalistic and
participant observation. Since the researchers are focused on specific behaviors this reduces time and expense.
Also, often times the environment is structured to encourage the behaviors of interested which again means that
researchers do not have to invest as much time in waiting for the behaviors of interest to naturally occur.
Finally, researchers using this approach can clearly exert greater control over the environment. However, when
researchers exert more control over the environment it may make the environment less natural which decreases
external validity. It is less clear for instance whether structured observations made in a laboratory environment
will generalize to a real world environment. Furthermore, since researchers engaged in structured observation
are often not disguised there may be more concerns with reactivity.

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CASE STUDIES
A case study is an in-depth examination of an individual. Sometimes case studies are also completed on social
units (e.g., a cult) and events (e.g., a natural disaster). Most commonly in psychology, however, case studies
provide a detailed description and analysis of an individual. Often the individual has a rare or unusual condition
or disorder or has damage to a specific region of the brain.
Like many observational research methods, case studies tend to be more qualitative in nature. Case study
methods involve an in-depth, and often a longitudinal examination of an individual. Depending on the focus of
the case study, individuals may or may not be observed in their natural setting. If the natural setting is not what
is of interest, then the individual may be brought into a therapist’s office or a researcher’s lab for study. Also,
the bulk of the case study report will focus on in-depth descriptions of the person rather than on statistical
analyses. With that said some quantitative data may also be included in the write-up of a case study. For
instance, an individuals’ depression score may be compared to normative scores or their score before and after
treatment may be compared. As with other qualitative methods, a variety of different methods and tools can be
used to collect information on the case. For instance, interviews, naturalistic observation, structured
observation, psychological testing (e.g., IQ test), and/or physiological measurements (e.g., brain scans) may be
used to collect information on the individual.
HM is one of the most notorious case studies in psychology. HM suffered from intractable and very severe
epilepsy. A surgeon localized HM’s epilepsy to his medial temporal lobe and in 1953 he removed large sections
of his hippocampus in an attempt to stop the seizures. The treatment was a success, in that it resolved his
epilepsy and his IQ and personality were unaffected. However, the doctors soon realized that HM exhibited a
strange form of amnesia, called anterograde amnesia. HM was able to carry out a conversation and he could
remember short strings of letters, digits, and words. Basically, his short term memory was preserved. However,
HM could not commit new events to memory. He lost the ability to transfer information from his short-term
memory to his long term memory, something memory researchers call consolidation. So while he could carry
on a conversation with someone, he would completely forget the conversation after it ended. This was an
extremely important case study for memory researchers because it suggested that there’s a dissociation between
short-term memory and long-term memory, it suggested that these were two different abilities sub-served by
different areas of the brain. It also suggested that the temporal lobes are particularly important for consolidating
new information (i.e., for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory).
Observations are an important research method for managers, businesses, and researchers alike to determine
how people interact and behave in different environments. Observations can help researchers better determine
what people do given different scenarios and environmental factors.
1. Identify Objective
Determine what you want to observe and why. Are looking to see how students respond to a new environment?
How customers interact with employees? How bosses interact with subordinates? When conducting

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observations, you are trying to learn habits, patterns, behaviors, reactions, and general information about people
in a particular environment to better understand what they do and, hopefully eventually, why they do it (though
observations alone often won’t tell you the “why”).
2. Establish Recording Method
To make observations most effective, it’s important that you minimize or eliminate any disruptive or unfamiliar
devices into the environment you wish to observe. For example, it is often least effective to videorecord
observations in situations where the people being observed know they are being filmed (but it’s usually
unethical to film without telling them. Note-taking is the most common method, though in some public spaces
you can take photographs, audio recordings, and other methods.
3. Develop Questions and Techniques
Determine whether you are conducting an informal or a formal observation (see explanations to the far right.)
Knowing your objective, determine if there are specific questions you have or if you are going in completely
open-minded. What you hope to learn will help you know what specifically to look for. Be prepared when
entering an observation space by having a sound understanding of the type of information you are trying learn.
4. Observe and Take Notes
Visit the space you are hoping to get information from. Be as unobtrusive as possible, taking notes,
photographs, audio, and film, only where it is allowed, you have permission, and it makes sense for the research
without disrupting the environment. If you are doing formal observations, will you need to code certain
behaviors, actions, words, visuals, and other observed data.
5. Analyze Behaviors and Inferences
Separate the difference between what you observed (which are factual behaviors) and why what you observed
happened. Typically, to make some sense of your observed data, you will need to interview people in the
environment you are observing, either during the observation itself, or afterwards. Make connections between
interactions, responses, behaviors, and other phenomena.

Q.5 Enlist the components of a research proposal. Develop a research proposal on following topic:
"Comparison of 8th grade students' achievements in mathematics at elementary level in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad.
1. Curriculum Reforms in Pakistan • Review of Curriculum Reforms in Pakistan in line with the National
Education policies.
2. What is curriculum?  According to Johnson; (1967)  Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning
outcomes.  According to J.F Kerr; (1968)  All the activities which are planned and guided by the schools
whether carried on in groups or individually, inside and outside the school.  Curriculum may be defined as: 

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The document that provides the detailed objectives and contents for each paper in a particular course is termed
as the curriculum.
3. Education system in Pakistan  In Pakistan we have Education system divided into the following levels. 
Primary: 1st to 5th class  Middle: 6th to 8th class  Secondary: 9th to 10th  Higher Secondary: 11th to 12th 
Tertiary (University): 13 Onward.  Various Policies have been drafted to improve curriculum at different
levels.  Here is a Review Of The Curriculum Reforms recommended by different National Educational
Policies.
4. Sharif Commission Report: 1959  As the curricula at secondary and post secondary level was theoretical
and it was not adequately catered for all the talents of the pupils, so this commission recommended some basic
reforms which are as follows.  It was urged that scientific knowledge must be included up to 10 to 12 years of
education.  General Education also needs to be included up to age of 17.  It was also urged that those who
terminate their education earlier must be in position to take up a career.
5. Recommendations of 1959 Policy:  The Education Commission 1959 recommended the following Reforms;
◦ First the Compulsory subjects must provide adequate information ◦ Secondly the additional subjects will be
included in such a way that it could prepare the students for a definite career. ◦ The curriculum should be
flexible so that it could be changed according to the social needs and interest. ◦ The curriculum should be
designed according to the mental abilities and interest of the students. ◦ Religious subjects should be made
compulsory throughout the primary stage. ◦ Due emphasis should be placed on teaching of the national
language. ◦ Ministry of Education set up a text book board.  Text Book Board  A small autonomous body
comprising of the representatives from the provinces, working with text book committees operating within the
sphere of each education authority.  Responsibilities:  To frame the syllabus according to the
recommendation made in this report.  To lay down policy for the preparation, printing, and publication of text
books.
6. Reforms of the National Education Policy: (1978)  Enough content on Islam and Islamic Ideology will be
included to ensure it is protected and maintained so that to promote national cohesion and integration.  At the
primary level more importance will be given to practical and creative activities so that children could gain
desired attitudes and skills.  The text book board will be reorganized to improve their efficiency. Effective
liaison (link)will be established between the national book foundation and the text book boards.  The process
of curriculum development will be improved by proper emphasis on research. Field testing will be given more
importance.  Supplementary reading materials; guides/manuals for children and for teachers will be prepared
for enrichment the experience of students and teachers.
7. Reforms:….. (1978)  The revised curricula will be implemented in phased manner.  National/ Provincial
curriculum development agencies will work in close collaboration with adequate number of students and
teachers.  To make teaching and learning more effective, laboratory equipment and instructional aids/kits will

21
be provided  A standing committee for the National Education Counsel on curriculum and textbooks will be
considered to review the existing curricula and textbooks for improving and identifying textbooks which can be
prescribed throughout the country.
8. Reforms of National Education Policy: (1992)  A new cycle of curriculum development will be initiated and
major effort will be directed towards improving the imparting of the education  The curricula shall encourage
enquiry, creativity, and progressive thinking through project oriented education.  The linkages among
curriculum, textbook writing, teacher training, and examination will be reinforced.  Science curricula will be
revised and made compatible with demands of new knowledge.  The weightage of mathematics and science
shall be increased. Specially mathematics will be progressively included as a compulsory subject up to F.Sc
level.
9. Reforms:…..(1992)  Crash programs will be announced with the help of different universities for the
training of science and mathematics teachers.  A special mathematics course shall be introduced for the social
science students.  The teaching of languages will be improved in order to enhance communication skills. 
The teaching of social sciences will be improved in content quality.
10. Reforms of National Education Policy (1998-2010) Uniform curricula for all the public and private sectors
shall be adopted gradually All curricula (1-12) shall be re-vamped , making it a systematic whole and linking it
to teacher training and textbook reforms. Emerging key issues such as computer literacy, population and
environmental education, health education, AIDS, education and value education etc, shall be introduced and
integrated in curricula. Kachi class shall be institutionalized in the primary cycle gradually and progressively.
The span of primary/lower elementary education including kachi class shall be of six years.
11. Reforms Curriculum at secondary stage will be based on two principals 1. Compulsory subjects The
knowledge that is useful for a developing society 2. Additional subjects To prepare the students for a definite
career Revision of intended learning outcomes e.g. Developing insight (Problem solving ability) Independent
thinking Introducing innovative design in textbooks Integration of technical Education into General Education
Developing the quality of instructions (Teacher Education)
12. Curriculum Reforms 2000-2009 – Milestones Achieved & Planned 2000 - review of Basic Science Subjects
under Education Sector Reforms Action Plan 2001-06 and production of textbooks 2002 - review of Social
Science Subjects under ESR and production of textbooks 2005 - comprehensive review of all subjects 
2006/7- completion of review National Curriculum 2006/7 and its publication  2007 - National Textbook and
Learning Materials Policy and Plan of Action – 2007-  2010 Implementation of National Curriculum 2006/7 
2007-9 - Development of textbooks in phases. Phase I = Grades I, VI, IX & XI  2010- (April) New Textbooks
Planned to be in Schools
13. Curriculum Authorities: The Federal Government has nominated two authorities for curriculum
development ; (Notification: 1976) ◦ Curriculum Wing Grades Early Childhood Education to XII ◦ Higher

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Education Commission Grades XII - Onwards  In each province the following institutions are in direct link
with the Ministry of Education for inputs to curriculum reforms: 1. Bureau of Curriculum 2. Textbook Boards 3.
Teacher Training Institutions (in-service and pre-service) 4. Boards of Intermediate & Secondary Education
( BISE) X & XII 5. National Education Assessment System (IV & VIII) and provincial education assessment
centers (PEAC) 6. Punjab Examination Commission (PEC) (V & VIII) restricted to the province of Punjab.
The first five institutions are present in each province of Pakistan. Punjab is the only province which has
launched its own examination commission for grades V and VIII.
14. Higher Education Commission Higher Education Commission has been appointed as the Competent
Authority for Curriculum Revision Work beyond Class XII. HEC has also been entrusted to maintain the
standards of education in keeping with the nation’s changing social and economic needs which are compatible
with the basic national ideology. The Curriculum Section guides all Degree colleges, Universities and other
Institutions of higher learning in designing curricula that provides appropriate content regarding Basic Sciences,
Social Sciences, Humanities along with Engineering and Technology. According to the decision of the 44th
Vice-Chancellors’ Committee in 2001. ◦ Curriculum of a subject must be reviewed after every 3 years.. 
Educational programs are thus designed not only to meet the needs of the employment market but to promote
the study of Basic and Applied Sciences in every field of national and international importance.
15. General Recommendations for Curriculum development process: Curriculum should be based on the native
research not on the basis of opinions and experts. Some of the enthusiast working teachers should be involved
in curriculum development. The objectives must be spelt out in specific behavioral terms.  While setting the
objectives equal weight age must be given to all the domains such as cognitive, effective and psychomotor.
Curriculum should be future oriented to meet the needs of 21st century which is expected to be scientific and
technological. There should be a vertical and horizontal articulation among different concepts.  Curriculum
should be activity based. Curriculum must provide a higher level of understanding, inductive reasoning and
application of knowledge in life situation.
16. General Recommendations: Instead of product based instruction, there should be emphasis on processes of
learning. Curriculum should be according to the social, cultural and economic conditions of the country.
Teachers should be highly trained to provide quality instructions. Curriculum planners must suggest a proper
criteria for evaluation. The test items must posses a high content validity. The test items must help in the
achievement of desired goals. The test items should be objective valid and reliable. curriculum must be career
oriented and must be economical. Curriculum should provide materials for career counseling, so as to enable
the students to advance in a particular field of their interest.

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