The University of New South Wales

Tall buildings (skyscrapers):

Assessments

Mid-term exam (week 7, 6/04/2019)

closed book
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications worth 20%
Industrial and Commercial Assignment 20%
Final exam
Power Systems closed book
Topic 1 Overview 60% of total marks
Dr. Daming Zhang
Room 317 G17
Ph. 9385-4070
Email: daming.zhang@unsw.edu.au
1 3 5

Course outline A power system: 11 kV Westpac Place

headquarter of Westpac bank in Sydney
Topic 1 Overview
city business district (CBD)
Topic 2 Switchboards 415V 91,000 sqm, 166m tall
Topic 3 Cables and busbar systems 32 floors with 6 basement levels
Topic 4 Distribution transformers house 5000 people
completed in 2005
Topic 5 Fault calculation 11 kV
cost $627 millions
Topic 6 Protection
commercial office building with retail area
Topic 7 Earthing Our main concern 3 substations; total load = 10MVA
Topic 8 Lightning protection ~19000 light fittings, mostly fluorescent
Purpose of this course is to design a power supply system for a
Topic 9 Power quality, reactive power and power factor correction new building, which could be commercial high-rise buildings, office equipment (computers, printers,
residential buildings, large campuses and factory sites with photocopiers etc)
electrical supply at up to 11 kV and with possibility of both 11 kV air conditioning
and extensive 415V distribution systems.
2 4 6
Hot strip mill (a furnace reheats slabs of steel so they can
be shaped according to customer specifications)
Check also:
AS/NZS 3008.1.1:2009 Electrical installations - Selection of
cables - Cables for alternating voltages up to and including
0.6/1 kV - Typical Australian installation conditions
AS/NZS 3008:1.1:1998 Electrical installations – Selection of
cables (for AC up to 0.6/1kV)
AS/NZS 3017:2007 Electrical installations – Verification
2. Calculation of Power
guidelines. Provide methods for verifying that electrical Demand by a New Building
installations comply with safety requirements
AS/NZS 3019:2007 Electrical installations – Periodic verification
AS/NZS 4836:2001 Safe working on low-voltage electrical
installations
AS/NZS 3018:2001 Electrical installations – Domestic
installations

7 9 11

Relevant materials Maximum power demands must be known before details of supply
1. Overview configuration can be determined and designed for a new building,
either factory or residential or office building.
Lecture notes This includes power estimation for the following three types of
Requirements on electrical supply systems: demand
Standards
more energy efficient, better energy management • manufacturing equipment requirements (for factory)
AS/NZS 3000:2007 Wiring Rules
IET BS 7671: 2008, Requirements for safer (including personnel safety, fire and equipment safety) • fixed wiring infrastructure requirements
Electrical Installations • general purpose outlets (GPOs)
adequate power quality (harmonics and over-voltages)
Other Australia standards able to handle modern information technology systems
IEEE Gray Book compliant with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and
Service and Installation Rules (S.I.R.) electromagnetic interference (EMI) regulations for electrical
systems
Publications from manufacturers
etc provide monitoring systems to assess condition of installation

8 10 12
 In estimation of maximum demand, one should make
Two methods for Maximum Demand Calculation
allowance for future growth in power usage. Calculation of maximum demand
calculation using Appendix C of AS/NZS3000 Wiring Rules to
determine demand for domestic and commercial type loads.
Typically: using Appendix C of AS/NZS 3000:2007
residential premises, 10% 100kVA 110kVA
when exact load details are unknown, use an estimate
technique called ‘After Diversity Maximum Demand’ (ADMD) fully air-conditioned offices, 15-20% domestic installation (use Table C1)
• Based on results from similar installations, typical load density values commercial premises, 20-25% single
(VA/m2) are derived for different types of floor area usage. shopping centres, light/medium industrial, 25% multiple
• Data available for commercial (e.g. offices, shopping centres, hotels,
theatres) and light industrial premises non-domestic installation (use Table C2)
Such allowance for future growth should be residential type (e.g. hotel, hospital)
considered at the planning stage in the selection of
others (e.g. factory, shop, business office)
switchboard circuits
transformer capacity
cable sizes for feeder circuits and network of power
13 15 17

Calculation of maximum power demand by using ADMD

For general estimate, the following gives typical power demand
requirements per unit area of floor space: Once incoming supply is specified, requirements
can then be detailed for:
ADMD
WestPac: incoming cable rating
91,000m2, 10MVA main transformer capacity
substation size and capacity
91,000m2 X 110
=10.01MVA
switchboard size and capacity.

With this final design, one can further determine

fault level
proper fuse and switchgear ratings
EnergyAustralia other protection needs.
NS0112 Design standards Table C1 (AS3000: 2007)
for industrial/commercial A. (i):
developments
14 16 15 points: 3A; 50 points: 3A+2A+2A=7A (50=20+20+10). 18
 Notes to Table C1:
a See Clause 2.2.2 for where the maximum demand for consumers mains, and submains, and final
subcircuits, respectively, may be determined by assessment, measurement or limitation.
b For multiphase connections, divide the number of living units by the number of supply phases,
e.g. 16 units on a three-phase supply, 16/3 = 6 units on the heaviest loaded phase (Column 4).
c Where only a portion of the number of units in a multiple domestic electrical installation is
equipped with permanently connected or fixed appliances, such as electric cooking ranges or space
heating equipment, the number of appliances in each category is divided over the number of
phases, and the maximum demand determined as shown in Example 3 of Paragraph C2.3.2.
d Lighting track systems shall be regarded as two points per metre of track.
e A socket-outlet installed more than 2.3 m above a floor for the connection of a luminaire may be
included as a lighting point in load group A(i).
An appliance rated at not more than 150 W, which is permanently connected, or connected by
means of a socket-outlet installed more than 2.3 m above a floor, may be included as a lighting
point in load group A(i).
f In the calculation of the connected load, the following ratings shall be assigned to lighting:
(i) Incandescent lamps 60 W or the actual wattage of the lamp to be installed, whichever is the
greater, except that if the design of the luminaire associated with the lampholder permits only lamps
of less than 60 W to be inserted in any lampholder, the connected load of that lampholder shall be
the wattage of the highest rated lamp that may be accommodated. For multi-lamp luminaires, the
load for each lampholder shall be assessed on the above basis.
Table C1 (cont.) (ii) Fluorescent and other discharge lamps
Full connected load, i.e. the actual current consumed by the lighting arrangement, including the
losses of auxiliary equipment, such as ballasts and capacitors. Table C2
(iii) Lighting tracks (230 V) 0.5 A/m per phase of track or the actual connected load, whichever is
19 the greater. 21 23

g Floodlighting, swimming pool lighting, tennis court lighting and the like.
h For the purpose of determining maximum demand, a multiple combination socket-outlet shall be
regarded as the same number of points as the number of integral socket-outlets in the combination.
i Each item of permanently connected electrical equipment not exceeding 10 A may be included in
load group B(i) as an additional point.
j Where an electrical installation contains 15 A or 20 A socket-outlets covered by load group B(ii) or Table
B(iii), the base loading of load group B is increased by 10 A or 15 A respectively. If both 15 A and 20
A socket-outlets are installed, the increase is 15 A. C2
k Where an electrical installation includes an air-conditioning system for use in hot weather and a (cont.)
heating system for use in cool weather, only the system that has the greater load shall be taken into
account.
l Instantaneous water heaters including ‘quick recovery’ heaters having element ratings greater
than 100 W/L.
m Storage-type water heaters, including ‘quick recovery’ heaters not referred to in footnote l.
n This load group is not applicable to socket-outlets installed in communal areas but connected to
the individual living units. Such socket-outlets should be included in load group B.

Table C1 (cont.)

20 22 24
 Example 2:
Example 1:
3. Means & Requirements
A(i)
d.Notes_C1: A(i)
of Electricity Supply
3.1 Voltage levels
e.Notes_C1: A(i)
i.Notes_C1: B(i)
3.2 Quality of supply
3.3 Method of supply
3.4 Type of supply connection
(B-N) (C-N)
(A-N)
3.5 Safety
Note: Assume supply voltage and equipment rating of 230V 3.6 Reliability of supply
3.7 Maintenance
3.8 Backup supply
3.9 DC supply
25 27 29

3.1 Voltage levels

d.Notes_C1 24+2X10+1=45
e.Notes_C1
Supply voltage levels available from electricity
45=20+20+5 distributors for use in commercial and industrial
locations in urban areas:
3000/230=13A

High voltage:
i.Notes_C1 26=20+6 11 kV, 3-phase supply
[by cable or overhead line]
Low voltage:
(a) 230/400V, 3-phase, 4-wire system
(b) single-phase, 230V, 2-wire system
[underground/aerial cable, or overhead line]
26 28 30
 3.2 Quality of supply 3.3 Method of supply
What is an energy distributor? Point of supply
Up to ~200 kVA in demand:
An important consideration because:
Distributors own and manage high and low voltage incoming supply would be obtained directly from
network of 'poles', 'wires' or ‘pipes’ that deliver electricity or distributor’s LV mains. It is commonly a low
increasing use of power electronics has introduced a
gas to your home or business. They are responsible for the
higher harmonic level into supply voltage supply of 3-phase 415/240V.
quality and reliability of your energy service.
much of equipment now in use, especially IT devices, by either overhead or underground connection.
How is that different to an energy retailer? is more susceptible to voltage variation, transient over-
voltages and harmonics.
Energy retailer on the other hand sells you the electricity
and gas for your home or business and bills you for what
you use.

NSW SIR 2009

31 33 35

Electricity distributors for NSW Up to 3000 kVA:

Energy Australia
utility-owned transformer(s) installed in utility-owned
Integral Energy and maintained substation, located on consumer’s
Country Energy premises.
Actew AGL Quality of supply based on consideration of:
ratings of transformers: 11kV/415V and 750 – 1000
frequency of AC supply kVA in power rating.
Energy Australia
supply to consumer’s electrical system from the
Electricity distributor for Sydney, voltage level fluctuation secondary side of the transformers would be at low
Central Coast and Hunter regions of voltage (415/240V).
NSW voltage waveform distortion (harmonics)
oil-filled transformers if installed outdoors or dry-type
Distributes ~ 25,000 GWh of interference with communications and control transformers if installed inside a building. Dry-type
electricity annually, to 1.4 million equipment units reduce fire hazards within buildings.
customers through:
More than 1000km of above ground transient over-voltages
132kV HV cable
Almost 500km of underground
132kV HV cable
More than 400km of 66kV cables.
More than 2200km of 33kV cables.
32 34 36
Greater than 3000 kVA: Aerial lines or overhead lines between point of supply and end Underground cable between point of supply or end of distribution
consumers. mains, and end consumers.
supply to consumer would be at high voltage, most
likely 11 kV
consumer provides and owns HV substation and
switchgear installation
consumer handles maintenance and switching
operations associated with substation
consumer required to employ electrical staff or
contractors adequately trained in maintenance and
operation of high voltage equipment.

37 Ref.: NSW Service and Installation Rules 39 Ref.: NSW Service and Installation Rules 41

3.4 Type of supply connection

Aerial lines or underground cable between point of supply and
end consumers. 3.5 Safety
A. high or low voltage from distributor’s supply, by either: personnel safety
aerial lines (with either bare, covered or bundled conductors) installation requires adherence to all relevant Codes
underground cables (either 3 single phase or 1 three-phase cable)
and Standards.
B. low voltage supply from utility on-site substation, by means of
any of: electrical hazards (electric shocks, equi-potential
low voltage aerial lines areas, anti-static locations).
low voltage underground cables fire hazards (overheating)
low voltage busbar trunking system (> 2000A per phase)
mechanical hazards (rotating machines)
C. dedicated HV line from
utility HV substation. lifts, emergency lighting, fire extinguishing systems,
alarm and evacuation systems
By either overhead line or
underground cable, depending
on location and requirements.
43-46

38 Ref.: NSW Service and Installation Rules 40 42

3.6 Reliability of supply 3.8 Back-up supply 4. Distribution System Close
to End User
Factors to be considered include : Many applications require some form of 4.1 Supply system layout options
level of reliability required depends on back-up, e.g hospital operating theatre 4.2 Substation
application 4.3 Switchboards
basic system or maintenance of full supply.
supply voltage level (HV supply more 4.4. Cables, busbars etc
reliable than LV) un-interruptible supply systems (UPS) are 4.5 Voltage regulation and power factor
redundancy in circuits becoming more common in building services.
proper protection design (discrimination, etc)
use diesel generators or battery operated
proper maintenance of equipment power electronic inverter systems
choice of equipment.

43 45 47 47

3.7 Maintenance 3.9 DC supply 4.1 Supply system layout options

Issues: Simple radial system
Moisture control Rare.
Expanded radial system
Ventilation and cooling Required in some industrial locations, e.g for Primary selective system
adjustable speed motors, electrolysis etc
Corrosion, wear and tear. Primary loop system
Generate DC by modern power electronic
converters Secondary selective system
Approaches:
Older installations may still use rotating Secondary spot network
Testing as required
machine DC generators driven by AC motors Ring bus system
Regular visual inspection and testing or even mercury arc rectifier systems.
Reliability centered monitoring and testing (most
favoured method).
44 46 48
4.1.1. Simple radial system 4.1.3. Primary selective system 4.1.5. Secondary selective system
S1 S2

S1 S1 S2
Tie C.B.
Load break fused switch (Normally open)
Transformer

Low voltage air C/B

(draw-out type)
Air break switch

Pair of substations connected through a normally open secondary

IEEE-Std 315-1979
For small loads. One primary service and distribution supply
transformer supplies all feeders. Simplest possible arrangement,
no duplication or redundancy. Cheapest, least reliable option.
49
Alternative supply from two sources on primary side of
transformer(s). Improved reliability but at higher cost.
Maintenance possible without loss of supply.
51
tie CB. If primary feeder or transformer fails, main secondary
feeder CB is opened and tie CB closes. General operation of
secondaries is as radial systems.
Maintenance is possible; Good reliability; Requires consideration
of loading if sustained loss of one circuit.
53

4.1.2. Expanded radial system 4.1.4. Primary loop system 4.1.6. Secondary spot network
S1
Medium or high-voltage
C/B (draw-out type)

Load break fused switch

Low voltage air C/B

(draw-out type)
Loads supplied from 1 common secondary busbar with parallel
primary feeders. Use protectors to each secondary connection. If
Greater reliability in case of primary cable failure. Load can be primary feeder fails, protector CB prevents reverse fault in-feed by
Two or more radial systems. For larger loads. supplied from either end of cable. Finding cable fault may be opening in such an event. Most reliable system. Expensive. Used
Similar advantages / disadvantages as simple radial system. difficult or dangerous in some cases (one section may be extensively for high load density applications such as large
50 energized from either end). 52 commercial buildings. 54
 Some substation options from EnergyAustralia
4.1.7. Ring bus system 4.2 Substation
Pole substation
overhead 11kV
Include following items of equipment
general enclosure, HV fuse

transformer(s),
transformer 11kV/415V nominal
Dyn11 winding
switchgear, 25kVA up to 400kVA
600A/phase (400kVA)
protection system, LV fuse

backup battery systems,

LV link
60-64
monitoring equipment for energy,
System will automatically isolate a fault. No interruption of voltage, current, power factor etc.
supply for single fault. High cost (need more components). For more substation options, see:
NS112 Design standards for industrial/commercial developments, EnergyAustralia
Allows safe maintenance without loss of general supply. 55 57 59

Some substation options from EnergyAustralia

315kVA, 22kV/415V
pole-mounted Kiosk substation
transformer underground 11kV radial
or closed network feeder

11kV ring main fuse switch unit

transformer 160kVA (200A/phase)

315kVA (400A/phase) J kiosk
400kVA (600A/phase)
Pad-mounted
LV link
substation 400kVA
600kVA L kiosk
LV fuse 800kVA
1000kVA

One-line diagram of a large industrial plant.

Ref.: Industrial and commercial power system handbook 56 58 Pad-mounted substation 60
Some substation options from EnergyAustralia Some substation options from EnergyAustralia
4.3 Switchboards
(switchgear assemblies)
Kiosk substation (K type) City CBD substations Include following items of equipment
(no other types permitted in CBD)
underground 11kV radial main switch unit,
or closed network feeder
isolating and earthing switch
Incoming feeders (cables or busbars)
11kV ring main circuit breaker switch unit
Outgoing feeders (cables or busbars)
current transformer
transformers: up to 3 x 1500kVA Fault protection using CTs, relays,
transformer 1500kVA (2000A/phase) (5500A/phase) fuses and their coordination
LV air CB Internal arcing detection etc
various LV options up to 2 x 3000A
busbars or cable supplies.

Pad-mounted substation
61 63 65

Some substation options from EnergyAustralia

For more information on substations, refer to
4.4 Cables, busbars, etc
A chamber substation (two transformers) Important factors to be considered:
AS 2067-2008 - Substations and high voltage
installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. current ratings,
voltage drop limit for cables,
insulation ratings
transformers 2 x 750kVA (1400A/phase)
fire performance,
2 x 1000kVA (1600A/phase)
segregation of circuits,
bundling of cables (effect on thermal rating),
various LV fuse options up to 1 x 1600A magnetic fields and any potential interference effects,
per transformer
IP [Ingress Protection] requirements to prevent
bus section link normally open contamination ingress.

62 64 66
 4.5 Voltage regulation 5.2 Voltage drop determination for cables
and power factor For typical length of 50 Hz building power-supplying cables,
5. Voltage Drop the effect of their shunt capacitive reactance is negligible.
For LV supply, nominal voltage is 230/400V +10% / -6%
at 50Hz (AS 60038-2000 Standard Voltages). Calculation of voltage drop along the cables can be done
adequately by use of short line approximation represented
Deviation from nominal voltage can cause problems: 5.1 Voltage drop determination methods
equipment overheating, light dimming or flickering etc. by equivalent circuit:
5.2 Voltage drop determination for cables
AS3000 requires voltage drop between point of supply 5.3 Voltage drop determination for transformers
and any point in electrical installation not to exceed
5% of nominal voltage when conductors are carrying 5.4 Parallel operations
maximum demand.
Voltage drop in utility service line should not exceed 3%
of nominal voltage when at maximum demand. This is
mainly a requirement applied to distributors and their
service cable impedance.

67 69 71

Voltage drop not to exceed 5% 5.1 Voltage drop determination methods

load • Voltage drop determination by calculation with given

consumer
mains
impedance of cables etc, load current and load power factor;
final
subcircuit • Voltage drop determination by referring to Tables.
submains
load

point
of supply main
switchboard
MSB
distribution
board DB

Voltage drop not to exceed 5%

i.e. 1-phase (230V) = 11.5V
3-phase (400V) = 20V
68 70 For a lagging power factor load 72
 5.3 Voltage drop determination for transformers

Transformers are represented

by an impedance Z=R+jX and
so the same formula can be
used to calculate voltage drop
across it:
Accurate enough for general use. Used for voltage
drop calculations extensively.
Require values of R and X which are constant, and where R and X are total R and
values of I and which can vary.
X ( L) referred to either
Regulation is load dependent.
primary or secondary side.
Z=R+jX can also represent a transformer impedance.
So above formulas are also valid to find voltage regulation
of transformers with given load conditions.

73 75 77

Alternatively one can find voltage drop across

transformer at rated kVA from figures:

For a leading power factor load

Figure 13
Approximate voltage drop curves for three-
phase transformers, 225-10 000kVA, 5-25kV

74 76 78
5.4 Parallel operation of transformers and
feeders Taipei 101
The University of New South Wales

School of Electrical Engineering

and Telecommunications
509m; 101 floors;
completed in 2004

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER

SYSTEMS
TOPIC 2

SWITCHBOARDS
79 81 1

OVERVIEW
Switchboard is also called “Switchgear and Controlgear
Assembly” (SCA).

Generally, a power supply may need both a HV

switchboard and one or several LV switchboards.

Parallel lines or transformers share power in inverse

proportion to their impedance.
• Proper control of power flow
Important for transformers to be matched in impedance
when they are operated in parallel.
If not matched, one may be overloaded. Also, voltage
difference causes circulating current and core saturation.
80 2
 Switchgear enclosures and housings for large power
OVERVIEW distribution

Purpose of switchboard is to take power from main

PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
supply source and distribute it to various circuits
within building. Incoming feeders
• Metering either HV or MV/LV
• Proper control of power flow HV cables:
impregnated paper insulation (unlikely these days)
• Protection against damaging effects of faults.
cross linked polyethylene (XLPE), most common
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) – more flexible
LV cables: XLPE or EPR type

3 5 7

One example of home switchboard: PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD

A switchboard may contain several or all of the PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
following items:
Incoming feeders (cables, bar conductors etc) Outgoing feeders
Outgoing feeders (cables, bar conductors etc)
Internal busbars These may be of following types:

Main isolating switches or section switches Insulated cables

Circuit breakers
Insulated busbars
High rupturing capability (HRC) fuses and combined
fuse-switch (CFS) units Busbar trunking systems

Protection relays Fire-resistant cables, such as mineral insulated metal-

sheathed (MIMS) cables
Metering equipment 7-19
Overvoltage surge protection.
4 6 8

PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Internal busbars
Rigid copper (or aluminium) bars (insulated or uninsulated)
in large SWBs or simply insulated single phase cables in
small SWBs.
Bare LV busbars are close together and are subject to high
forces on short circuit. This and resonant force effect must
be considered in determining supports.
9 11
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Main isolating switch or section switches
These allow segregation of switchboard or its component
parts to allow maintenance work on SWB.
10
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Circuit breakers
HV or LV depending on switchboard voltage level.
HV C/B types are oil, SF6 and vacuum units, contained in
withdrawable rack-mounted carriers. Oil C/Bs no longer
used in new installations.
LV/MV (<1000 V) C/Bs are air-break type. Moulded case LV circuit
Large MV CB units may be also rack-mounted but modern breakers of varying ratings
SWB will have moulded-case circuit breakers (MCCBs)
for higher current ratings (> 100 A)
and miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) for lower rating e.g. Eaton Cutler-Hammer series G: ratings up to 2500A with
(< 100 A). MCBs normally used in smaller sub-main and interrupting capacities up to 200kA at 240V.
local SWBs in a building.
13
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
HRC fuses and CFS units
These are also used in MV and LV switchboards for high
level fault protection and, in many cases, there are
combinations of HRC (high rupturing capacity) fuses and
overload switches with limited interrupting capacity used
(combined fuse-switch or CFS units) because of their
economy.
withdrawable parts ABB SF6 C/B
12 14
 60 mm busbar system
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Metering equipment
The metering of SWB will include:
line and phase voltage,
line current in each phase,
total power,
power factor metering.
15 17
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Protection relays
Used for higher voltages, together with associated
instrument transformers [current transformers (CTs) and
voltage transformers (VTs)].
Overcurrent protection units are used to activate timing
relays so as to provide proper fault protection operation.
At lower voltages, circuit breakers normally have in-built fault
detection sensing, thus no separate relaying is required.
16 18
PARTS OF A SWITCHBOARD (CONT’D)
Over-voltage surge protection
Modern switchboards also have some over-voltage surge
protection designed into both HV and LV sides to protect
equipment against effects of any over-voltage transients that
may be generated within the system or conducted in from
external sources.
19
SWITCHGEAR & ITS BUSBAR
REQUIREMENTS
Life of 25-30 years at least
Spare capacity for expansion (20-40%)
Good quality and reliable switchgear in various outgoing
functional units
Proper protection design, particularly in time discrimination
with flexible variation of I-t characteristics possible
Adequate interrupting capacity for future expansion
Residual current (earth leakage) protection
Adequate current carrying capacity
Protection against ingress of contamination
Adequate compartments to limit arc faults
20
SPECIFICATIONS AS/NZS 3000:2000 Electrical Installations IP number uses two numerals to represent specific
Purchaser should specify:
Service and Installation Rules 2005 (Victoria) design requirements to prevent ingress:
Voltage, power, current ratings
Required fault level and protection operating time NS 0112 Design Standards for Industrial / 1st numeral = degree of protection against ingress
Internal structure, segregation of compartments Commercial Developments (EnergyAustralia) of solid objects and thus protection of personnel
Ingress Protection (IP) numbers for protection against dust and against access to hazardous parts.
moisture MORE USEFUL DOCUMENTS
Arc containment requirements … 2nd numeral = degree of protection against harmful
Low voltage electrical work – Code of Practice 2001
ingress of water.
Earthing requirements (NSW WorkCover)
Electrodynamic forces and insulator mechanical strength NSW Service and Installation Rules additional letter (optional) = degree of protection of
requirements
personnel against access to hazardous parts
Thermal features - maximum temperature rises etc.
Testing requirements (Type tests and Routine tests). supplementary letter (optional) = other information

21 23 25

INGRESS PROTECTION (IP) AND IP

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS NUMBER

AS3439.1-2002 Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear It is against:

Assemblies – Part 1: Type-tested and partially type-tested
assemblies
ingress of various contaminants (e.g.
AS/NZS 3439.2:2002 - Particular requirements for busbar particles, dust and moisture)
trunking systems (busways)
AS/NZS 3439.3:2002 - Particular requirements for low- access by personnel to live internal parts
voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies intended
to be installed in places where unskilled persons have
access for their use - Distribution boards (IEC 60439-
3:1990, MOD)
AS 2067-2008 - Substations and high voltage installations
exceeding 1 kV a.c.
22 24 Ref: HB300-2001 26
 ARC FAULT CONTAINMENT
Arcing: caused by insulation failure such as ageing,
moisture, solid particle contamination, etc

7.09E04(V/m) 4.09E05(V/m)

27 29 31

ARC FAULT CONTAINMENT (CONT’D)

Arc fault current is lower than that of bolted fault
condition (because there is an arc voltage when such
IP00 = completely open, no protection fault occurs). +

IP68 = hermetically sealed enclosure It is difficult to predict value of arc voltage. ~ V- ZL

arc

IP21 typical for commercial buildings
IP65 for industrial manufacturing or outdoor SWBs
Electrical installations at UNSW: IP??
Arcing involves significant energy and thus damage is
very destructive.
IEEE 1584-2002 provides method to calculate incident
energy and arc-flash protection boundaries.
Segregation of internal parts limits spreading of
damage.

@ Michael Walz etc

IP43 for interior
IP56 for exterior

28 30 32
NILSEN can have high voltage switchboards tested to 31.5kA.
Switchboard
compartment
forms of segregation

http://www.nilsen.com.au/
enclosure busbar

internal
separation

functional
unit

terminals

Fig. D2 AS3439.1:2002
33 35 37

INTERNAL SEGREGATION OF SWITCHBOARD DESIGN

CIRCUITS
Insulation Design
SWBs have many internal components, thus susceptible
• Power frequency insulation level
to faults.
• Lightning impulse insulation level (BIL)
High impedance arcing fault is a major problem. • Creepage distance (surface tracking)
Thermal Design
Segregating chambers will assist in containing Protection against electric shock
faults. Testing of Switchboards

34 36 38
 The University of New South Wales

SWITCHBOARD DESIGN
Testing of Switchboards
• Two test categories:
• Type Tests: done only on one unit representative of
the design School of Electrical Engineering
• Routine Tests: done on every manufactured unit and Telecommunications

• Testing laboratories in Sydney

• Testing and Certification Australia (TCA) INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER SYSTEMS
• TestSafe Australia (associated with NSW WorkCover)
TOPIC 3

CABLES AND BUSBARS

TTA: type-tested assemblies;
PTTA: partially type-tested assemblies. SYSTEMS
39 41 1

Olex MV cables
UNSW HV Electrical Services (3.8/6.6 – 19/33kV single core screened and PVC sheathed)

40 42 http://www.olex.com.au
2
2C: Two-core cable

Olex MV cables
3
(3.8/6.6 – 19/33kV three core individually screened and PVC sheathed)
3 5 7
http://www.olex.com.au

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

AS/NZS 3000:2007 Electrical Installations

AS/NZS 3008.1.1:1998 Electrical Installations -
Selection of Cables Part 1.1: Cables for alternating
voltages up to and including 0.6/1 kV – Typical
Australian installation conditions
AS/NZS 5000.1:1999 Electric cables - Polymeric
insulated - For working voltages up to and including
0.6/1 kV
AS/NZS 3198:1996 Approval and test specification -
Electric cables - XLPE insulated - For working
voltages up to and including 0.6/1 kV (superseded)
AS/NZS 1429.1:2000 Electric cables - Polymeric
insulated - For working voltages 1.9/3.3 (3.6) kV up
to and including 19/33 (36) kV
4 6

4 6 8
 CABLE CONDUCTOR (CONT’D) Major considerations in selecting cables:
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS Cu has higher conductivity than Al. To achieve same current carrying as Cu
conductor, Al needs 1.6 times cross section area. This results in more space current carrying capacity [determined by maximum
required to terminate Al conductor.
AS/NZS 1125:2001 Conductors in insulated electric permissible steady state temperature rise].
Termination of Al conductor requires great care to avoid formation of Al oxide
cables and flexible cords on metal surface, which could deteriorate conductivity of the termination.
AS 1531:1991 Conductors - Bare overhead -- voltage drop and regulation at full load
Aluminium and aluminium alloy Al conductors cost less.
AS 1746:1991 Conductors - Bare overhead - Hard-
drawn copper
.
Al conductors have about half specific gravity as Cu conductors
short circuit rating [determined by maximum permissible
transient temperature rise]
AS 3158:2004 Electric cables - Glass fibre insulated - insulation requirements and associated factors [jointing and
For working voltages up to and including 0.6/1 (1.2) kV termination].
AS/NZS 3560.1:2000 Electric cables - Cross-linked
polyethylene insulated - Aerial bundled - For working required level of fire resistance of cable and busbar systems .
voltages up to and including 0.6/1(1.2)kV - Aluminium
conductors
AS/NZS 3187:1995 Approval and test specification -
Mineral-insulated metal-sheathed cables

9 11 13

CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
CABLE CONDUCTOR Very important criterion
Mainly copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al).
Al conductors of cross section < 16 mm2 are difficult to terminate due to its
tendency to 'cold flow'. Therefore below 16 mm2, Al cables are not generally
Requirements Temperature of cable insulation must be kept
below well-defined values to limit ageing
used.
of Minimum rating for cables of consumer mains
Cold flow characteristic of aluminium metal: The common problem with
aluminium wiring occurs as the aluminium wire is screwed to a wall receptacle
or switch plate and becomes loose due to expansion and contraction caused
cable system design is 32A; for cables of sub-mains it is 25A.
by the flow or non flow of electric current.
This produces an illumination oxidation layer as it breathes. Oxide, being an
insulator of high resistance, produces enormous heat that deteriorates the
contact and eventually breaks down.
Copper, on the other hand, does not have cold flow properties.

10 12
14
CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY (CONT’D)

Tables 3 to 21 of AS3008.1 give ratings for a Effect of installing circuits in groups:

variety of cable types and enclosures. Table 9
Allowance must be reserved for future AS3008.1.1 very common situation
Current-carrying
expansion. capacities of cables cables no longer independently cooled
Current carrying capacity of neutral conductor Ambient air
also needs be considered. temperature: 40oC. need to reduce current-carrying capacity
Ambient soil
temperature: 25oC. appropriate derating factors given in
Thermal resistivity of Tables 22 to 26 of AS3008.1
soil: 1.2 (0C m/W).

17 19
15

Limiting temperatures for insulated cables IET standard BS 7671:2008 – Table 4C4: de-rating factor for cable
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON CABLE CAPACITY group applications
Table 1 AS3008.1.1
Grouping of cables
Ambient temperature
Depth of laying
0.84
Thermal resistivity of soil
Varying load conditions 0.75
Effect of thermal insulation
Effect of direct sunlight . 0.72

Ambient air temperature: 40oC.

Table 9
Ambient soil temperature: 25oC.
18
16 Thermal resistivity of soil: 1.2 (0C m/W). 20
Effect of ambient temperature:

Tables 3 to 21 in AS3008.1 based on

ambient air temperature of 40oC
ambient soil temperature of 25oC
If ambient temperature differs, cable capacity
needs to be adjusted using rating factor
given in Table 27 of AS3008.1
24-25

Table 29 AS3008.1.1
21 25
23

VOLTAGE DROP AND REGULATION

Effect of thermal resistivity of soil:
Tables 3 to 21 in AS3008.1 are based on soil
thermal resistivity of 1.2oC.m/W
Large variation in resistivity: 0.8oC.m/W for
some clay or peat soil, 2.5oC.m/W for well-
drained sand.
Appropriate rating factors given in Table 29.
Wiring Rules allow maximum of 5% voltage
drop between point of supply and end of
longest sub-circuit.
Allocation of voltage drop in consumer's circuits
consumer mains: 0.5 - 1 %
sub-mains: 0.75 -1.5%
final sub-circuit connections: 2 - 3 %

Table 27 AS3008.1.1 22 24 26
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) VOLTAGE DROP AND REGULATION (CONT’D)
for single-phase cable for three-phase cable (Cont’d) L
Calculation of voltage drop along the cable under different loading
+ V1 -

Single-phase voltage drop:

+
I
+
+
+ V1 -
+
conditions by referring to Tables 30 39 of AS3008.1.
VS VR where Z is the IA
- VS VR
-
V2 + - equivalent impedance -
-
IB
+
- For single-phase cable:
of each conductor. V2
L IC
L
Given unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) for three-phase + + (P.73 of Topic 1.)
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) given in cable, the voltage drop across it is given by VS VR
standard for single-phase cable: - -
For three-phase cable:

where rpm and xpm are per meter values referred to each
conductor and can be calculated from the values given
where zpm is the equivalent per-meter impedance of each of two in Tables 30 39.
conductors in the single-phase cable and zpm= rpm + jxpm. +
L
+ One can see that the voltage drop depends on
Given unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) for single-phase VS VR Load power factor
cable, the voltage drop across it is given by - -
29 Current level
Cable or conductor resistance and reactance
27 29
Length of cable. 31

-
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) + V1 IET Wiring Regulations, BS 7671_2008: See T3_18
for three-phase cable L
- V2 +
+ V1 -
Three-phase voltage drop: +
IA
+
VS VR V1 -
IB IA +
- -
- +
V2 IB
(m /m)
IC V1+V2 - V2 +
IC
V2
where Z is the equivalent impedance of each -IB One can see from the last two columns of the table below that such
IC
conductor or in the one-phase equivalent circuit. V1
relationship holds.
IA
IB
Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) given in
standard for three-phase cable:

where zpm is the equivalent per-meter impedance referred to Per unit length impedance for the chosen cable referred to each conductor :
each conductor of the cable and zpm= rpm + jxpm. Single phase:
28 30
Three phase: 32
 For a chosen three-phase cable under certain operating condition, the voltage drop is
calculated by L
V1
SHORT CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE RISE
+ -
+ +
VOLTAGE DROP AND REGULATION (CONT’D) IA
where V
-
IB V
-
S
-
V2 +
R Maximum permissible short-circuit temperatures (duration
Unbalanced 3-phase circuits:
IC up to 5 seconds) are detailed in Tables 52-54 of AS3008.1.
rpm and xpm are per meter values referred to each conductor.
Voltage drop calculations performed on 1 basis by Both r and x can be found from Table 4D1B.
geometrically summing voltage drop in heaviest loaded
is load power factor angle. It is always positive no matter for lagging or
phase and voltage drop in neutral conductor. leading load.
Alternatively, assume balanced 3 load conditions and or
Table 52
perform calculations using current in heaviest loaded where
phase.
Maximum voltage drop across a three-phase cable with a given current:

where Vc(3 ) or z can be found from Table 4D1B for 3 cable, and 35
33
Maximum occurs when load power factor angle is equal to , lagging. 37

Summary For a chosen single-phase cable under certain operating condition, the voltage
L
drop is calculated by L
Unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) for three-phase +
+ V1 -
+ where
cable IA
VS IB VR
- -
- +
V2
IC Table 53
zpm is per-meter impedance of each conductor. rpm and xpm are per meter values referred to each conductor.
z is the value found from Table 4D1B for three-phase
cable. Both r and x can be found from Table 4D1B.
is load power factor angle. It is always positive no matter for lagging or
Unit value of voltage drop in mV/(A m) for single-phase leading load.
cable Maximum voltage drop across a single-phase cable with a given current:
+ V1 - + V1 -
+ + + +
I I
VS VR VS VR
zpm is per-meter impedance of each conductor. -
- + -
-
- + -
Table 54
V2 V2
z is the value found from Table 4D1B for single-phase
cable. L where Vc(1 ) or z can be found from Table 4D1B for L
single-phase cable, and
34 36
Maximum occurs when load power factor angle is equal to , lagging.
Limited by material in contact
34 36 38
Calculation of permissible short-circuit current for the
cables
where:
I = short-circuit current (rms over duration), in amps
t = duration of short circuit, in secs
S = cross-sectional area of conductor, in mm2
K = constant depending on the material of the current-carrying
conductor, the initial temperature and the final temperature;
independent of conductor dimension.
c = specific heat conductivity of the conductor material
20 = electrical resistivity of conductor at 20oC
= conductor material density
0, 1 = initial and final temperatures
= temperature coefficient of resistance
Values for the constant K can be readily obtained from Table 51
of AS3008.1.
CABLE INSULATION
The particular type and thickness of insulation of cables and
conductors will depend on the voltage of operation and also on the
application.
For modern high voltage distribution systems, cross-linked
polyethylene (XLPE) is almost exclusively used.
For low voltage applications, there are many insulation types in use.
These include:
PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene)
Elastomeric (ethylene propylene rubber [EPR])
Mineral insulated metal sheathed (MIMS) cables
Other factors that need to be considered in the insulation choice
are flexibility, hardness, resistance to mechanical effects, effects
of moisture and contamination etc. A major factor in the choice
of insulation used is the effects of fire on the cable insulation.
39
CABLE TYPES IN USE
Aerial cables or lines
They are used between buildings or as service lines to buildings
They could be bare lines with no insulation covering; or insulated
overhead cables, which may be either aerial bundled cables
(ABC) or simply covered conductors.
For those used outdoors, their insulation degrades due to
ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Indoor distribution cables
paper, XLPE(cross-linked polyethylene), PVC (polyvinyl
chloride), EPR (ethylene propylene rubber )
44-53
PVC or PE (polyethylene) sheathing
Fire resistant cables
mineral insulated metal sheathed (MIMS) cables
Radox (Radox is a halogen free polyolefin-copolymer based
compound crosslinked by e-beam technology to eliminate melt
and flow of the material when subjected to extreme heat such as
overload, short circuit or high ambient temperatures.)
Firestop: It is fire resistant cables which can resist the effects of
fires.
Other types of cables for control and communication applications
41 43

FIRE HAZARDS
I2t=K2S2 CABLE ENCLOSURES AND CONDUITS
1. The cables may provide substantial flammable material in the
chemical structure of their insulation. Conduits: steel, rigid PVC, corrugated
2. They generate significant smoke and soot when they burn and this flexible PVC
can cause considerable damage to equipment otherwise unaffected
by the fire heat. Tubes and pipes: metal, non-metal plastic,
earthenware etc
3. Many of the fire products from insulation combustion are toxic
V75 and thus represent a significant health hazard. Ducts: metal or non-metal
4. Many products of the insulation combustion are corrosive and can Cable support systems: cable trays, cable
substantially damage electronic equipment for example. ladders troughs etc
5. The cables should ideally be able to operate after significant Trunking systems: mainly for busbars.
damage by a fire; however this is not possible if the polymeric
insulation burns away. There may be total loss of insulation integrity
in this case. -

Table 51, AS3008.1.1 40 42 44

CABLE ENCLOSURES AND CONDUITS
Busbars
halogen-free, if made of insulating material, for
fire damage minimisation BUSBARS Orientation influences natural convection flows so it can
have significant effect on thermal dissipation.
Insulation of sections to prevent eddy current
heating & Matt (non-shiny) surface with high radiative emissivity
earthed to prevent problems of electric shock by also enhances current rating substantially.
indirect contact BUSBAR TRUNKING Electro-dynamic forces, 100 Hz resonant effects.
have appropriate IP numbers to prevent ingress
of moisture and dust
SYSTEMS
impact of the enclosure on thermal dissipation

47
45 49

Busbar trunking systems (BTS)

Busbars Max Wright Ltd
tightly packaged sandwich of 3 busbars and neutral, with
insulating foil (melinex) between layers.
for high current capacity applications
may require external fins for cooling
rigid Al or Cu rectangular sections
outer metal enclosure must be earthed, precautions for
insulated or un-insulated eddy currents
normally segmented (laminated): may require protection against moisture ingress
improve heat loss by providing greater surface area for thermal
dissipation plug-in systems for ease of connections
limit increase of resistance due to skin effect.
limit eddy current generation level
DC systems are not affected in this way

dbts™

48
Ref.: General Cable Australia catalogue 46
50
 Example 1:
3 load
consumer 30A
Flexible copper straps mains
1 loads
easily shaped on site to match installation requirements Point of
supply MSB
1 load
Example: Simel bars which consist of a number of 30A
adjacent conducting bare copper laminates coated with a
90m
black self-extinguishable PVC compound
final subcircuit

The line-to-line voltage at point of supply is 400V.

Assume: 3 voltage drop in consumer mains: Vd = 3V
balanced loads, i.e. disregard current in neutral

Subcircuits wired with multi-core V75 insulated and sheathed copper

conductors, installed in single circuit configuration, unenclosed in air,
clipped to a wall.
55

51 53 Choose conductor size to satisfy voltage drop and current requirement.

Three-phase circuit:

EXAMPLES

54 Final choice: 10mm2. 3.86[mV/(Am)]*90*30=10.4V 56

52
Single-phase circuit: Example 3: 3) What is the conductor operating temperature when they carry the
3- circuit is to supply a load of 125A per phase. Use two V-75 load of 125A?
four-core Cu conductor, insulated and sheathed cables bunched Current by each conductor circuit is 125/2=62.5A.
together on a surface in a confined ceiling space where ambient
temperature is 50oC.
1) Determine minimum conductor size and maximum route length if
allowable voltage drop is 3%.
2) With the chosen cable, determine how high the current could be
without exceeding 750C operating temperature.
3) What is the conductor operating temperature when they carry the 35mm2 cable, • two circuits are in parallel;
load of 125A? • ambient temperature is 500C.
Solution:
1) Table 12 gives the current carrying capacity under two
conditions: A) one circuit but in this case there are two 125A
Final choice: 16mm2 parallel circuits; B) ambient temperature is 400C but in
this case it is 50 C.
0
61
Derating factor for cable bunching = 0.8 (Table 22, col.5)
57
Derating factor for 50oC ambient = 0.82 (Table 27.1, col.9) 59 61

Example 2: Required minimum current-carrying capacity: Example 4*:

for two parallel cables

or 95.25A per cable. From Table 12, column 4, the conductor

510 X 6 X 0.57=1744>1530
minimum size is 35mm2.
510 X 4 X 0.65=1326<1500
3- permissible voltage drop:
(See T3_5) 125A
Item No. 2 (See T3_10)
Unit voltage drop (Table 42): for 35mm2 cable.

Maximum route length:

(See T3_19) 2) From Table 12, one can see that 35mm2 cable can carry 110A.
As there are two circuits in parallel and ambient temperature is 500C, (Col. 6)
different from standard 400C,
Derating factor for cable bunching = 0.8 (Table 22, col.5)
Derating factor for 50oC ambient = 0.82 (Table 27.1, col.9)
60
Hence the maximum current that can be carried by each cable without
58 exceeding 750C temperature limit: 110A X 0.8 X 0.82=72.16A 60 62
 Formula for calculating permissible short-circuit current of cable: Solution:
Example 4: From question, one can see that the cable size is 95mm 2 and cable type belongs to column 4.
Then one can find
r=0.47mV/(A m)=0.47m /m; x=0.18mV/(A m)=0.18m /m; z=0.50mV/(A m)=0.50m /m.
where K=111, t=1s and I=10kA. • Per-meter impedance, per-meter resistance and per-meter reactance of each conductor

Therefore, the minimum cable size would be 95 mm2.

(b) XLPE insulated X-90 cable:
Initial temperature is 900C from Table 1(P.16). The final operating • Resistance and reactance of each conductor
temperature limit is 2500C as can be read from Table 52 (P.37).
From Table 51(P.40), the value of K can be selected as 143 for a
copper conductor. • Resistance and reactance of two conductors + +
Formula for calculating permissible short-circuit current of cable: VS I VR
- -

where K=143, t=1s and I=10kA. • Voltage regulation along the cable L
65

Therefore, the minimum cable size would be 70 mm2.

63 65
where 67

Example 5: Example 6: Example 7:

Select the minimum size conductor based on thermal consideration,
for a copper cable with compression joints connected to a supply
where protection is provided by an air circuit-breaker with a
clearance time of 1s and a breaking capacity of 10kA which is based
on fault current calculation.
Calculate the minimum conductor size for the following two types
of cable:
(a) PVC insulated V-75 cable with cross sectional area less than
300mm2.
(b) XLPE insulated X-90 cable.
Solution:
(a) PVC insulated cable:
Initial temperature is 750C from Table 1 (P.16). The final operating
temperature limit is 1600C as can be read from Table 52 (P.37). 64
From Table 51(P.40), the value of K can be selected as 111 for a
copper conductor.
A three phase cable with the size of 185mm2 from column 7 of Table 4D1B is selected to
A single phase cable with the size of 95mm2 from column 4 of Table 4D1B is selected to
supply power to a three phase load of 320A. The cable has a length of 80m.
supply power to a single phase load of 180A. The cable has a length of 120m.
• Determine per meter resistance and reactance of each of two conductors of the cable;
• Determine per meter resistance and reactance of each of three conductors of the cable;
• Determine resistance and reactance in referred to each conductor;
• Determine total resistance and reactance in of the two conductors of the cable;
• Calculate the voltage regulation with a load current of 320A and load power factor of
• Calculate the voltage regulation with a load current of 180A and load power factor of
0.85 lagging.
0.85 lagging.
Use the following approximate formula to calculate voltage regulation :
where is the power factor angle of the load and is positive for both leading and lagging
power factor. (m /m)
66
64 66
68
Solution: I=320A
The University of New South Wales
From question, one can see that the cable size is 185mm2 and cable type belongs to column 7.
Then one can find
r=0.21mV/(A m)=0.21m /m; x=0.145mV/(A m)=0.145m /m; z=0.26mV/(A m)=0.26m /m.
• From the conversion given in the derivation of appendix on page 74 of Topic 5 Fault
analysis, we have per meter impedance in magnitude, per meter resistance and per
meter reactance for each conductor:

School of Electrical Engineering

and Telecommunications

• Resistance and reactance of each conductor

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Topic 4
• Voltage regulation along the cable
+ IA +
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
VS IB VR
- -
IC
Range of EA standard substation transformers
L=80m
69 1 3

315kVA 22kV Standard specifications

pole-mounted
transformer
(Wilson Transformer) AS60076.1-2005: Power transformers – General
AS2374.7-1997: Power transformers - Loading guide for
oil-immersed power transformers
Pad-mounted AS2374.8-2000: Power transformers - Application guide
substation
AS60076.11-2006: Power transformers - Dry-type
transformers
AS3953-1996: Loading guide for dry-type power
Types of transformers: transformers 5-24
Oil AS60044.2-2003: Instrument transformers - Voltage
Cast resin transformers
140MVA 132kV Open-type
generator transformer SF6
2 4

1 bubbles and to provide good thermal circulation for heat
LIQUID INSULATION
Oil insulated distribution transformer
ONAN cooled type (Oil Natural Air Natural)
Liquid-insulated transformers
Kraft paper wound around winding conductors
paper impregnated with liquid dielectric to exclude air
dissipation.
Use mineral oil in most applications
Such oil is highly flammable. Transformers are generally
limited to Class A materials temperature rise limits of
about 60-70oC. Outdoor use only.
Moisture is a major problem.
5 7
Mineral oil
Refined from petroleum
Hydrocarbon compounds: paraffinic, napthenic, aromatic.
Additives sometimes added:
Inhibitors to retard oxidation of oil
Passivators to retard formation of copper sludge
Examples:
Shell Diala Oil B: straight mineral napthenic solvent refined oil
Shell Diala Oil BX: Diala B with added oxidation inhibitor
6 8
Askarel
essentially a polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
artificial insulating oil which is almost non-
flammable.
toxic effects, particularly if heated or burnt
now banned from use in most countries
some PCB insulated transformers still in service
9
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Mixtures of synthetic organic chemicals with same basic
chemical structure and similar physical properties ranging
from oily liquids to waxy solids.
Non-flammable, chemically stable, high boiling point and
electrical insulating properties.
Used in many industrial and commercial applications
including electrical, heat transfer, and hydraulic
equipment; as plasticizers in paints, plastics and rubber
products; in pigments, dyes and carbonless copy paper
and many other applications
Health effects: carcinogenic (cancer) and non-
carcinogenic (effects on immune system, nervous
system)
10
Silicone oil Open winding type

tetrachloro-benzyl toluene with ~40% trichlorobenzene windings in open air

essentially non-flammable and no toxicity problems paper-insulated or nomex-insulated windings
most favoured synthetic transformer insulating oil or insulating varnish coating applied to windings.

convective heat dissipation coefficient not so good problem with moisture ingress
electrical properties very similar to mineral oil increase dielectric losses in insulation (dielectric
dissipation factor)
more expensive reduce insulation strength

Ref: ABB Biotemp fluid

11 13 15

Ester

Organic compounds that result from interaction of acids

and alcohol
Natural or synthetic 2
Bio-degradable, no adverse toxic environmental or
aquatic side-effects. DRY TYPE INSULATION
Higher flash and fire points than mineral oil.
More hygroscopic than mineral oil, less affected by
moisture.
Becoming more popular as alternative fluids for
transformers
12 14 Dry-type transformer, open winding. 16
Cast resin type
cast solid epoxy resin structure
much less susceptible to moisture ingress and
absorption.
differential expansion or contraction can cause
cracking.
more costly than open structure dry-type
transformer and often more expensive than
silicone oil transformers.
Dry-type transformer, cast resin.
SF6 gas insulated transformer Reduction of insulation life
non-flammable
loading effect on operating temperature
used increasingly in buildings and in high-density areas
very expensive but very reliable.
increased temperature causes increased
chemical reactions in insulation and lead to
SF6 is a non-toxic gas with very good electrical insulation
properties and thermal transfer properties. deterioration by changing insulation composition
typically operate at ~2Atm where dielectric strength is rule of thumb: increase of continuous operating
similar to oil.
temperature by 10oC causes reduction of
greenhouse problems insulation life by ~50%.
SF6-N2 mixture as alternative
details in loading guides, e.g. AS 2374.7-1997
(oil-filled transformers) and AS 3953-1996 (dry-
17 19
type transformers). 21
Transformer impedance and S/C
effect of transformer impedance on prospective
fault current is significant
typically around 5%
usually, leakage inductance component is major
contribution to impedance
18 SF6 gas insulated transformer 20 22
 Diagram of common winding connections:

Transformer impedance and S/C A B C A B C

a b c
a b c

A B C A B C

a b c a b c

Transformer with on-load tap changing Ref: Annex D, AS60076.1-2005

[rating about 5000kVA]
23 25 27

HV winding phase ‘A’ phasor VAg (voltage VAC

between phase A and ground) points at 12
Tappings on windings Connections o’clock.
VA

LV winding phase ‘a’ phasor Vag is oriented Van

many possible variations of winding connections.
for adjusting voltage level according to induced voltage relation which 300
affect magnitude of voltages and phase shift between primary results from the connection. -VC
A B C
tapping points normally on HV windings. and secondary.
common winding connections: + Vag =Van
allow ~10% voltage variation, in ~1% steps. DYn11 (most common, HV delta, LV star, neutral VAC
brought out, LV leads HV by 30o) -
manually change while transformer is de-energised DY1
VC VB
and isolated) DY5
c
a b
DY7
Normally on-load tap changer (OLTC) is not available +
star-connected on LV side to eliminate circulating triplen VAg
for distribution transformers used in buildings Van
harmonics. Vag
- n Dy1
HV side is almost always in delta connection.
For this case, connection type is Dy1
since Vag at low voltage side points at 1
on the face of clock.
24 26 28
HV winding phase ‘A’ phasor VAg VAB
points at 12 o’clock.
VA
A B C
+
VAB
Van
300 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
-VB
-
Vag =Van Core and winding structure of a single phase transformer:
(a) Core type, (b) Shell type
a b c
PART 2 Core Form is the most prevalent type in use.
+ VC
Van
VB OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
-
n VAg AND EFFICIENCY
Vag
Dy11
For this case, connection type is Dy11
since Vag at low voltage side points at 11 Core construction of 3-phase transformer
on the face of clock. (a) Core type (b) Shell type or 5 limb core
29 31 33

Parallel Operation
If transformers are used in parallel, ensure they have:
same voltage ratios
If not, will cause circulating current, overheating
same tap points in use (i.e. same voltage)
1
same vector diagram (same phase shift)
If not, line and phase voltages will be intermixed.
Overstress insulation. CONSTRUCTION
same internal impedance (preferable)
If not, will cause unequal loading Types of transformer winding
(a) Concentric, (b) Sandwich – made up of disc sections.

30 32 34
 Equivalent circuit:

2
Lumped equivalent circuit referred to the primary side:
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Equivalent circuit referred to the primary side:

35 37 39

Equivalent circuit:

Full equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side:

Parameters in the circuit are determined by open-circuit and

short-circuit tests.

Phasor diagram
36 38 40
 (iv) Core loss and winding (load) loss in case b) of (iii)
Solution: (iii) b) I2=25A at 0.8 lagging PF

Thus
When the secondary side is short-circuited, impedance Z determines the Total loss = 1616 W
fault current. This is the method to determine transformer impedance Z
(Short Circuit Test). (v) Efficiency at full load at unity power factor
Secondary is shorted and primary volts are raised until rated current I2 flows
in secondary. Then
Full load |S|=10kVA
Unity power factor p.f.=1
Since I1 is rated current value [1 per unit or 100%], then Z%=V1(test) [p.u.]
X value can be found from
The transformer nameplate normally gives a percentage value for Z, which 4000/400V
is termed the “Impedance Voltage”. 10 kVA transformer
R is total winding resistance and can be measured with a resistance meter.
Very temperature dependent. Thus it should be measured at normal Normally V2=400V, V2’=4000V.
operating temperature. Difference between R at ambient and operating
temperature may be as much as 30%. 41 43 45

Example: (iii) Input current a) Secondary is open-circuit; b) I2=25A at 0.8 lagging PF.
4000/400V 10kVA transformer:
Primary winding resistance: Rp=13 (in phase with V1) (lag V1 by 90o)
Secondary winding resistance: Rs=0.15
Total leakage reactance referred to primary: X=45
Magnetizing reactance referred to primary: X m=6k Hence
Core loss resistance referred to primary: Rc=12k

Determine:
When
3
Thus, referred to primary:

Hence TRANSFORMER LOSSES

Normally V2=400V.

4000/400V
10 kVA transformer

42 44 46
 Core loss:
Two components of transformer losses:
load (copper) loss in resistance of windings
load-dependent
scales as square of load current 4
temperature-dependent
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
core (iron) loss in the core material
comprise hysteresis and eddy current losses
constant whenever transformer is energised
and independent of load

47 49 51

Efficiency
Copper loss: Power efficiency

For a load with voltage V2, current I2 and power factor cos ,

48 50 52
 MEPS Harmonics problem from

Efficiency (Cont’d) AS2374.1.2-2003 Power Transformer Part 1.2: non-sinusoidal supply voltage;
Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS) non-sinusoidal current due to non-linear loads.
Very efficient, typically 95 – 99% requirement for distribution transformers. Both core loss and copper loss in transformer are frequency
Varies with load dependent.
Power efficiency determined at 50% of rated load
For a given power factor, maximum efficiency occurs when at unity power factor. Effect of load current harmonics on voltage across transformer
core loss =copper loss. is negligible. Hence core loss is still treated as constant. Pure
Apply to dry-type and oil- sinusoidal supply voltage is assumed in the analysis.
immersed type, 1 and 3
power transformers, 10kVA Only copper loss increase is considered when de-rating
to 2.5MVA, used in 11kV calculations are performed for the transformer.
and 22kV networks. 2 methods can be used to calculate de-rating factor:
Standard also defines Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturer’s Association
minimum efficiency levels (CBMEA) Crest Factor method. CBEMA crest factor method is
for "High Power Efficiency not widely used as it is not very accurate.
Transformers". IEEE K-factor method: more accurate; normally adopted.
53 55 57

Efficiency (Cont’d) K-Factor method

Energy efficiency Total harmonic distortion of a current waveform:
Load will vary (usually) in a cyclic manner
Hence consider energy efficiency (instead of power efficiency)
For example, for a daily load duty cycle of the following: EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON
(V2*I2*100%)*0.8*8
TRANSFORMER PERFORMANCE
8 hours at full load, 0.8 lagging
6 hours at 0.6 per-unit of full load, 0.8 lagging K-factor:
6 hours at 0.4 per-unit of full load, unity PF
4 hours at no load (but energised) S P E
The energy efficiency is given by the following equation:
Because the eddy current losses scale as the square of
frequency, the K-factor provides a useful indicator of the
increased heating due to the harmonic content.
Thus
Typically, K may vary up to 20 or more for badly distorted
current waveforms.
54 56 58
The maximum permissible current is given by
K-factor transformers
Specifically designed for use with loads that produce
harmonic distortion (without need to de-rate)
where
•PEC(R)pu is eddy current loss in per unit at rated current at 50Hz; Typically K-factor value is around 15
Typically it is equal to 10%. Compared to standard-type transformers, K-factor
transformers are:
•K-factor is given by more expensive (twice)
heavier (20% more)
larger
lower impedance

59 61 63

Example:
100kW of personal
100kW of personal computers are supplied from transformer rated
computers are supplied Amorphous metal. Very low loss.
at 150kVA and with a typical value of PEC(R) =10%. Calculate Eg. HB1 from Metglass
from transformer rated
maximum permissible current and power by the transformer.
at 150kVA

1.6MVA amorphous iron core

transformer (Ireland, 1998)
No-load (core) loss = 384W
Harmonic current Load (copper) loss = 18.2kW
levels caused by
the PCs

60 62 Source: Intelligent Energy Europe Programme 64

 The University of New South Wales
Difficulties:
many types of fault in three phase systems
must know impedances of all system components
fault impedance itself may be non-zero, value =?
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications fault current contribution from machines etc.
DC offset in initial cycles of fault current
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems difficult to estimate accurately earth impedance
Topic 5 DC system faults also include inductance effects
FAULT CALCULATIONS
1 3
Fault types
There are two major problems that can occur in electrical
1) Single line-to-ground fault (70% to 80%) (unsymmetrical fault)
systems: open circuits and short circuits.
2) Line-to-line fault (unsymmetrical fault)
3) Double line-to-ground fault (unsymmetrical fault)
Short circuit is the most dangerous because it can lead to very
4) Three-phase short-circuit fault (symmetrical fault) etc
high fault currents, which could cause equipment damage, fire,
injury, etc.
Type 1
Fault calculation is necessary for the following purposes:
To choose equipment with proper short-circuit current ratings;
To design protection system for clearing the fault when it occurs.
Type 3
Zf = 0
We consider only bolted 3-phase faults. This type gives
maximum fault current level at any location compared with other
2 types of faults and represents worst case situations.
Prospective s/c current and fault level (power):
It is important parameter that designer of an
electrical installation needs to know. It can be
obtained from electricity distributor.
Prospective short-circuit current = current which
would flow as a result of a bolted 3-phase fault.
Typical value at point of supply for 230/400V
NSW distribution systems
Suburban residential areas: 10 kA
Commercial and industrial areas: 25 kA
Knowing fault level at one location, total
impedance of upstream circuit and devices
can be derived.
5
The prospective fault current varies at different points in the
supply
Type 2
Example:
An 11kV-to-400/230V transformer has a prospective fault current
Type 4 of 32kA at the secondary terminals. The consumers mains circuit
has a route length of 25m, using single-core 120mm2 active
conductors and 70mm2 neutral. The submains circuit has a
route length of 35m, using 16mm2 multi-core cables.
Determine prospective fault current at main switch board (MSB)
and distribution board (DB).
4 6
Solution:
When the cable size is not very
large, its reactance is small
compared with its resistance.
Hence reactance is ignored.
Total upstream impedance seen from secondary side of transformer is normalize electrical quantities
express voltage, current, kVA and impedance as
Assume cable temperature is 45oC. From Table 34 of percentages (per unit values) of their base values
AS3008.1, impedance of consumers mains (1 phase) is
simplify calculations substantially.
Prospective fault current at main switchboard: transformer treated as a simple impedance (no
Assume cable temperature is 45oC. From Table 35 of AS3008.1, impedance of need for ratio).
the submains (1 phase) is

Prospective fault current at the distribution board is

7 9 11

Per unit values:

PER UNIT SYSTEM

11-17

8 10 12
 Three-phase systems

need to specify two base values, and the other

calculations done on a single-phase basis using
two base values can be derived. per unit phase impedances in the one-line
usually, specify VB and SB diagram.
VB is line voltage and SB is three-phase kVA
and thus:
and note:

13 15 17

Example: Example:

normally, VB is taken as rated system voltage.

SB is arbitrarily specified (say 10 or 1 MVA), or
use rating of a major system component, e.g.
supply transformer.

14 16 18
 j0.24 Vb=33kV j0.24 Vb=33kV
Vb=11kV j0.2 j0.575 Vb=11kV j0.2 j0.575

Knowing fault levels enables determination of:

Vb=132kV Vb=132kV over-current protection requirements
Sb=100MVA Sb=100MVA
peak electromagnetic forces
thermal heating effects
maximum fault current (and minimum fault current)
time discrimination requirements of protection
operation
touch voltage on earthed object (personnel safety) -

19 21 23

j0.2 j0.575 j0.24 Vb=33kV Typical fault current

Vb=11kV

Vb=132kV
Sb=100MVA

EFFECTS AND REQUIREMENTS

20 22 24
 Multiplier due to DC component in the fault current
Sources of fault currents:
electrical utility supply grid system
: the total fault current is addition of DC and AC components.
any in-house generation systems operating at
time of the fault
any motors operating within the system at time of We can see that the rms value of asymmetrical fault current i(t) or
the fault total fault current equals the rms value of ac component iac(t) of the
fault current times an “asymmetry factor” K(t). -
any electrical storage elements in the system (e.g X/R or L/R ratio is relatively small at distribution side or consumer side
capacitors) - due to relatively large resistance seen towards the source. Then the time-
varying term in the K(t) expression decays fast to zero. Hence DC
component has small influence on overall fault current. That is to say, in the
fault current, DC component can be ignored.

25 27 29

But when the fault occurs close to large generators, X/R ratio is very large
Fault impedance variation: DC offset: due to small resistance in the generators, the time-varying term decays
slowly in the K(t) expression. In such case, the influence of DC component
on total fault current must be taken into account.
For the utility supply, source impedance is Offset can increase initial current levels substantially
Within our concern, fault occurs at the distribution side. Hence
constant (a stiff source) influence of DC component is ignored and K is equal to 1.
For in-house generators or motors, impedance is Magnitude of DC offset level is governed primarily
Therefore, when calculating fault current at distribution side, one only needs
time-varying, depending on the time after the by X/R ratio of faulted circuit to calculate the rms value of ac component in the fault current or Iac.
short circuit:
sub-transient reactance (Xd” ) It is also dependent on angle of voltage waveform
at which fault occurs X
transient reactance (Xd’ )
synchronous reactance (Xs ) X

Synchronous motors sustain fault current longer

than induction motors -

26 28 30
 Example
Procedure: A three phase power system is shown below, where Bus 1 is connected to a utility supply with a
fault level of 100MVA and a pure inductive internal impedance.

Convert all impedances to per unit values Three phase four wire cables between Bus 2 and Bus 3 are 4X 300 mm2 Cu/pvc/pvc as given in
the column 7 of Table 4D1B and its length is 150m.
Draw one-phase equivalent circuit in per unit,
including all possible sources modeled as ideal
3 voltage source with their source impedance
Simplify the circuit and reduce it to
FAULT CALCULATION METHODS
Choose a power base of 1MVA and voltage base of 22kV at Bus 1 for the following computation.

s.c. Calculate maximum fault current in amperes for fault at 1) Bus 2; 2) Bus 3 respectively.

Ignore contribution by loads to fault currents. Use both approximate and exact methods to
compute fault currents. Compare the results.
Normally Vth=1, taken as reference phasor.

31 33 35

Assumptions: Then fault current and fault power in per unit value are:
IET Wiring Regulations, BS 7671_2008: See T3_18

(m /m)
and

When one chooses suitable voltage base to make Vth=1, then

RG

Actual fault current in amperes is

and fault power level at point F is

Note the advantage of using Vth=1. -

From the Table, one can determine the per unit length resistance and reactance for
the chosen cable referred to each conductor (See Appendix B for details):
32 34 36
Base: 1MVA , 22kV at Bus 1 Current base in Example
cable region:
The single line diagram of a power system supplying power to two groups of induction
motors is shown in Figure below. The cable data are given in Table below.
~ ZLoad
Table Per-meter resistance and reactance for three-phase four
Source fault rpm=0.0751 m /m Cu/pvc/pvc cables with different sizes
level : 100MVA xpm=0.0808 m /m Cable Values in m /m (Referred to one phase)

Source fault level: 100MVA and inductive internal impedance. rpm xpm
4X70 mm2 0.3175 0.09238
4X 120 mm2 0.1848 0.0866
4X 300 mm2 0.0751 0.0808
O.C. 4X 400 mm2 0.0606 0.0808

Thevenin impedance as viewed from bus 2:

Impedance base in cable region: Current base in cable region:
X”=25%
X/R=6
Fault current at bus 2:
Exact method
Approximate method

37 39 Figure Single line diagram of the power system under study 41

Current base in The motors in group M1 are identical, so are motors in group M2. Use the average sub-
cable region: transient reactance of 25% and a typical X/R ratio of 6 to calculate impedance of the
motor in the fault analysis.
ZLoad Calculate the maximum symmetrical component or ac component of fault current, if a
bolted three-phase symmetrical fault occurs at (1) point F1, (2) point F2.
Solution:
Thevenin impedance as viewed from bus 3: Common base values
The base MVA is selected as 1MVA and the base kV at load side as 0.4 kV. The base
impedance and base current can then be obtained as follows:

Fault current at bus 3:

Generally, ZLoad is very large compared with addition of cable, transformer and source Exact method:
impedances. So it can be treated as open circuit unless its impedance is given and is required to
be used in calculation. Approximate method:
In this case, it is not given. So it is treated as open circuit. Utility fault level
The utility fault level is given as 800 MVA with a X/R ratio of 15. The values for the
common base of the equivalent utility resistance Ru and Xu can be obtained as follows:

where If is the fault current resulting from bolted three-phase symmetrical fault.
38 40 42
Base impedance on the utility side: Fault at location F1 or at bus 2: Fault at location F2 or at bus 3

(P.34)

So the per-unit source impedance is

Since

Transformer impedance

The 1000 kVA transformer has an impedance of 5.75% on 1000 kVA and the value of
resistance is 1.21%. The reactance can be obtained by
So X/R ratio for the fault at F1 or bus 2 is 0.04817/0.01021=4.72, the corresponding time
As the transformer rating of 1000 kVA is the same as the base MVA, the percentage
values of the transformer resistance (RT) and reactance (XT) remain the same. constant is 4.72/(2*3.14159*50)=0.015s.
The bolted three-phase symmetrical fault current at F1 is calculated as follows:

400 mm2 cable with a length of 66m or 20.31*1443=29.31 kA.

The per unit values of the resistance and reactance of the 400 mm2 cable for a length of Since the X/R is well less than 15, the multiplying factor calculated by
66 m can be obtained as follows:

43 45 47

70 mm2 cable with a length of 30m IEEE standard on fault calculation allows the following simplified calculation of Thevenin Fault at location F2 or at bus 3
impedance:
The per unit values of the resistance and reactance of the 70 mm2 cable for a length of
30 m can be obtained as follows:

Motor groups
The average sub-transient reactance is 25% based on the total rating of a group of
motors. Based on a typical X/R ratio of 6, the resistance is 25%/6=4.167%.
The values of the equivalent resistances and reactances converted to the common base
for the motor groups M1 and M2 are:

So X/R ratio for the fault at F3 or bus 3 is 0.0896/0.0445=2.01, the corresponding time
(P. 17) constant is 2.01/(2*3.14159*50)=0.0064s.
The bolted three-phase symmetrical fault current at F2 is calculated as follows:
300 mm2 cable with a length of 100m or 10*1443=14.43 kA.
Exact solution:
Since the X/R is well less than 15, the multiplying factor calculated by
One can see that these two methods produce very close results for this case.
44 46 48
Use IEEE recommended method to calculate Thevenin impedance as viewed from bus Transient in R-L circuit (Cont’d) Exercise: Prove the solution given on the earlier page.
3:
(1)

The solution to equation (1) can be written as

(2)

From the initial condition (3)

Two special cases: Substituting (2) into (1) results in

The transient term is zero right from the beginning and the current waveform is or
symmetrical;
In this case, there is a discrepancy between these two methods, but negligible one. (4)
where
In the above analysis, the resistance load and other unknown loads such as loads
from third branch in the circuit diagram are normally ignored when calculating fault The transient term attains its maximum amplitude. By comparing two sides of equation (4), one can obtain
current at each bus.

From (3)

So the solution is
49 51 53

Appendix A Transient in R-L circuit (Cont’d) Appendix B

Multiplier due to DC component in the fault current Example of zero and maximum DC component: Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(m A) for three-phase
cable
Switch is turned on at t=0. Determine the current flowing through the circuit Zero DC component
for t 0. Three-phase voltage drop: V1+V2
V1 - V2
+ IA + +
V- S IB VR IC -IB
- V2 + -
IC V1
IA
IB

Definition of unit value of voltage drop in mV/(m A) for three-

Solution is Maximum DC component phase cable given in standard :

where

Given unit value of voltage drop in mV/(m A) for three-phase

cable, the voltage drop across it is given by

50 52 54
 Appendix D FAULT CALCULATION DATA AND EXAMPLE

where
Z is the impedance in referred to each conductor or the impedance
in one phase equivalent circuit of the three phase cable;
zpm is per meter impedance referred to each conductor of the three
phase cable;
Vc(3 ) is the unit value of voltage drop for the three phase cable given
in Table 4D1B.
V1+V2
V1 - V2
+ IA + +
VS IB VR IC -IB
- - + -
V2 V1
IC IA
IB

55 57 59

Appendix C FAULTS IN DC SYSTEMS

Sources: DC generators, synchronous converters, DC

motors, rectifiers, battery banks, UPS
only resistance elements determine steady-state fault
current.
L/R time constants usually long enough that steady state
fault current will not be reached before protection operates.
arc interruption is much more difficult for DC than for AC

56 58 60
 CT selection 750A
The University of New South Wales =6.25A
Standard CT current rating at the secondary side is 5 A. 600:5 X
Standard CT ratios
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5 750A
500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5 1500:5 1600:5 =4.69A
800:5
2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5 4000:5 5000:5 6000:5

CT Equivalent Circuit:

School of Electrical Engineering

and Telecommunications

(Np is just one turn or several turns)

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Topic 6

Overcurrent protection and coordination

61 1 3

6.1 Basic components of an overcurrent protection system
An overcurrent protection system has three basic components:
1.Current transformers
2.Relays (Electro-mechanic relaying and microprocessor based relaying)
3.Circuit breakers
An example of protection system:
Fault clearing time by a protection system:
tclear=trelay+tbreaker=ttrip+tbreaker AB A++B-
It is defined as the time difference between the
moment fault occurs and the moment fault is cleared.
Breaker’s contacts parting
An induction-disc-type electromechanical relay:

CT

X X X
trelay tbreaker

tbreaker: contact parting time of

62 2
tclear the breaker. 4
Relays 3.1) Inverse-time:
Three different basic types of electro-mechanic relays have been produced to An inverse-time relay operates
provide over-current and earth fault protection, namely when I’>Ipickup. The operating time
decreases when the magnitude of
1) Instantaneous or definite-current relays, which operate instantaneously the current increases.
when the currents in them exceed set values,
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
For this relay, when the detected current is equal
to or greater than Ipickup, the relay sends a trip 3.2) Very-inverse-time:
X
signal to circuit breaker. After a short delay A very inverse-time relay gives
mainly caused by circuit breaker interrupting more inverse characteristic curve X

time, the circuit breaker opens the main circuit. than that of the inverse-time
relay.
tclear=trelay+tbreaker
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
I’/Ipickup
trelay 0 tclear tbreaker 3.3) Extremely-inverse-time:
An extremely-inverse relay gives the steepest time-current characteristic.
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker

trelay tbreaker

trelay tbreaker
tclear
5 7 9

2) Definite-time or fixed-time relays, which operate after a definite or fixed 3.4) Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relays, which have inverse Tap setting or pick-up current setting or plug setting (PS) of an
time delay. time/current characteristics. overcurrent relay
For this relay, when the detected current is equal to Typical IDMT time-delay over-current relay can be described mathematically
or greater than Ipickup, the relay sends a trip signal to by:
circuit breaker after a delay time of ttrip. Then the
circuit breaker opens the main circuit after a delay of
its interrupting time. where IPS=tap setting or pick-up current setting or plug setting (PS) of the
X X
Both Ipickup and ttrip are set values. relay;
k=time-dial setting(TDS) or time multiplier setting (TMS);
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
I’=Current level in secondary side of CT in amps;
t=relay operating time in seconds; Two methods of tap setting or plug setting for phase overcurrent
and are constants for a given relay. protection:
tclear=ttrip+tbreaker 1) A percentage of the CT secondary rated current (5A).

PS=200% Ipickup=200%X5A=10A

2) A percentage of the maximum load current.

trelay tbreaker trelay tbreaker

6 8 10
Typical commercial overcurrent relay 6.2 Instantaneous and time-delay over-current protection scheme
design
Example 6.2 The one-line diagram of a power system is shown in Figure
Current tap
6.1a. The neutrals of the generator and two transformers are solidly
setting:
grounded. The system data expressed in per unit on a common 100-MVA 1.0
For a multiples of 10,
base is tabulated below. 1.2
TDS “1” results in trelay 1.5
Item MVA Voltage X1
=0.2s delay; Item Base Voltage X1 rating Rating
2.0
2.5
TDS “7” 1.9s delay; MVA Rating X” X’ Xs T1 100 20/220 kV 0.10 3.0
GEN 100 20 kV 0.05 0.15 1.0 T2 100 220/20 kV 0.10 3.5
TDS “11” 2.9s delay. TL 100 220 kV 0.125 4.0
5.0
X
6.0
Figure 6.1a Single-line 7.0
diagram of the power
8.0
system under study
X 10.0
12.0

The system base values are 100MVA and 20 kV in the generator region.
Figure 6.1b Relay time
X The load level is 100MVA with a rated voltage of 20kV and a lagging power versus current curve
factor of 0.95.
trelay tbreaker Design an overcurrent protection scheme at bus 4 with the circuit breaker
installed close to load as shown in Figure 6.1a.

11 13 15

Example 6.1 A relay is selected to protect a distribution feeder. The fault 1) Three identical CTs are used for three phases. Choose a proper CT ratio Solution: Base:100MVA and 20 kV
current through CT primary side is 2000A and CT ratio is 200:5. PS=200%. from the table below. So CT ratio is 3000:5.
1) Load current
Find the operating times for the time dial settings of 2, 50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5
•if a CO-8 relay is selected and the time current curve is shown in figure 500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5 1500:5 1600:5 2) Use 90% of the rms value of the ac component of bolted three-phase
below; 2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5 4000:5 5000:5 6000:5 symmetrical fault current during transient period to determine the
•if an IDMT relay is selected and the time current curve is represented by current tap setting of the instantaneous relay;
2) Use 90% of the rms value of the ac component of bolted three-phase
Thevenin equivalent impedance as
symmetrical fault current during transient period to determine the
viewed towards source side at the
current tap setting of the instantaneous relay.
place where circuit breaker is
installed:
Solution: 3) A time-delay protection scheme is installed as well to protect the system
The current through the for less severe faults. The time-delay relay has a time/current
relay=2000/40=50A. characteristic shown in Figure 6.1b. The pickup current of the relay is set Fault current during transient period
For PS=200%, the pickup current equal to 150% of the nominal operating current referred to the secondary
is 200%×5=10A of CT. Determine the relay current tap setting and time dial setting.
and the multiples of current tap The selected time dial settings of the relay should result in minimum
setting is 50/10=5. delay time. So the primary side fault current is 6.0768 kA. The chosen CT has a ratio of
For the CO-8: the operating time
4) Draw the three-phase connection diagram including CT, relays and trip coil 3000:5. Thus the secondary current of the CT is 6077 /(3000:5)=10.13 A.
from figure is 0.75s.
of circuit breaker and circuit breaker for the protection schemes in 2) and The current tap setting of the instantaneous relay is set as 90%* 10.13 A or
3) above. Also include a manual trip function. 9.12 A.
For the IDMT: 100MVA Item MVA Voltage X1
X
the operating time from using The rated interrupting time of the circuit breaker is 4 cycles. 20 kV rating Rating
• equation is 8.6s. Ignore the contribution by the load to the fault current. The system T1 100 20/220 kV 0.10
frequency is 50Hz. T2 100 220/20 kV 0.10
12 14 TL 100 220 kV 0.125 16
3) The current base at load side is The coordination time interval (CTI) or discrimination time is the time
interval between the primary and remote backup protective devices.
Load current is also equal to 2.887 kA. The pickup current is 2.887 kA X It is the difference between the time t2 that the backup relaying operates
150%/(3000:5)=7.22 A. So the current tap setting of the time-delay relay is and the time t1 that circuit breakers clear the fault under primary relaying.
chosen as 8.0 A. t0: the instant that fault occurs;
CTI
The selected time dial settings of the relay should result in minimum delay t1: the instant that fault is supposed to be cleared
time. So 0.5 or 1/2 time dial setting is chosen. t by primary protection;
t2: the instant that backup protection relay contacts
t0 t1 t2 close and breaker trip coil is energized due to the
same fault in case that primary protection fails;
Current tap setting: t2-t1: the discrimination time or CTI.
1.0
1.2 Example: For the fault below at F1, t1 is fault clearing moment by the
1.5 protection at bus B. t2 is the time moment for the relay at bus A to send out
2.0 trip signal to C.B.1.
2.5 F1
3.0 51:Time-delay
overcurrent relay
X
3.5
4.0 51B:
5.0
t1-t0(clear)=ttripB+tbreaker2
6.0
100MVA
7.0
20 kV 8.0 51A:
10.0 t2-t0=ttripA
12.0
17 19 21

4) The circuit connection diagram is shown as below:
6.3 Radial system protection and relay coordination
Many radial systems are protected by time-delay overcurrent relays. When the protection at bus B acts properly to clear fault at F1, the relay at
bus A will drop off or be de-activated and ready for next fault.
Adjustable time delays can be selected such that the breaker closest to the
fault opens, while other upstream breakers with longer time delays remain
closed. That is, the relays can be coordinated to operate in sequence so as to F1

interrupt a minimum number of loads during faults. X

51:Time-delay
overcurrent relay F1 Typical coordination time intervals from 0.2 to 0.5 seconds are selected in
X most practical applications.

CTI

P2 Basic requirements to protect a radial system:

P1 • When a fault occurs at any section of a distribution system, breakers in
the system have to operate selectively and accurately to isolate the fault
and to limit the affected area as small as possible.
• Back-up protection is designed and takes action to clear the fault in case
that the primary protection fails to operate for the fault in its protected
area.
• Coordination between primary protection and back-up protection is
necessary.

18 20 22
Coordination (or grading) methods Example 6-3
Time/current discrimination method Data for the 50-Hz radial system of Fig. 6.2 are given in Tables 6.4, 6.5 and
The inverse-time relays have the characteristics that the smaller the fault 6.6. Select current tap setting (CTSs or plug settings) and time-dial settings
current, the longer the trip time. (TDSs) to protect the system from faults. Use B1 as backup protection if B2
fails to operate.
1) t2-t1 CTI; F1 Assume three CO-8 relays for each breaker whose curve is given in Fig. 6.3,
2) t2 is minimum. X one for each phase, with a 0.3-second coordination time interval (CTI) or Figure 6.4 Circuit
discrimination time. The relays for each breaker are connected as shown in diagram of protection
t Figure 6.4, so that all three phases of the breaker open when a fault is system
detected on any one phase. Assume a 34.5-kV (line-to-line) voltage at buses
t0 t1 t2 1 and 2 during normal operation. Also, future load growth is already included
in Table 6.4, such that maximum loads over the operating life of the radial
By choosing proper values of time dial
system are given in this table.
setting and current tap setting for 51B and
51A, 51B can be designed to be the primary When selecting the current tap settings of relays, ensure that the ratio of Table 6.4 Maximum loads Table 6.5 Fault currents
protection for fault on Line2 and 51A be the pickup current to normal operating current is higher than but closest to Load S (MVA) Lagging p.f. Bus Maximum fault current Minimum fault current
back-up protection for the fault on Line2. In 150%. L1 10.0 0.95 (bolted three phase) (A) (L G or L L) (A)
the meantime, 51A serves as the primary L2 10.0 0.95 1 3000 2200
protection for faults on Line1. 2 2000 1500
51A
X Table 6.6 Breaker, CT, and relay data
Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay
51B
X
(Rated interrupting time)
B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO 8
Figure 6.2 Single line diagram of a power system
B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO 8
23 25 27

Time/current discrimination method (Cont’d) Solution:

Procedure of relay coordination: First, select CTSs such that the relays do not operate for maximum load
Step 1:Choose proper CT ratios for all protection units according to currents. Starting at circuit breaker B2, the primary and secondary CT
their respective maximum load current. (Through load flow analysis) currents for maximum load L2 are

Step 2:Select proper pick-up current or plug-setting of the relay.

150%X4.18A=6.27A, so the current tap setting for B2 relay is CTS2=7 A.

Step 3: Determine time dial setting of the relay close to end user. Normally
minimum time dial setting is chosen for quick action. Under normal operation, the continuous load current flowing through B1 is
Step 4: Determine time dial setting of each upstream relay one by one
according to coordination requirement. (Need to use maximum fault current
at each location) Then
150%X4.18A=6.27A, so select a current tap setting of CTS1=7 A for B1
Tclear3 6.27A relay.

Load S (MVA) Lagging p.f.

X
L1 10.0 0.95
L2 10.0 0.95

Ttrip2 Tclear3+CTI Ttrip2 Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay

(Rated interrupting time)
Figure 6.3 Time versus current curves B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO 8
24 26 B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO 8 28
Second, select TDSs (time-dial setting for the relay) 6.4 Selection of current-limiting reactor to coordinate overcurrent
Since we want to clear the faults as rapidly as possible, select a 0.5 time-dial protection
setting (TDS) for B2 relay. Example 6-4
To work out time dial setting of relay at bus 1, one needs to use maximum The fault level of the equivalent source in Figure 6.5(a) is 2000 MVA. Its
fault current at bus 2 as protection at bus 1 is the backup protection for such positive- and negative-sequence reactances are the same and resistance is
fault at bus 2. ignored. The voltage and power ratings of the transformer are given in the
The fault-to-pickup current ratio at B2 figure. The bus bar supplies power to eight identical feeders, each of which
for the maximum fault current 2000 A is has a current rating of 200 A.
a) If a fault occurs at the point as indicated in Figure 6.5(a), calculate the
Then from the 0.5 TDS curve in Figure 6.3, maximum fault current in amperes passing through circuit breaker 4.
the relay operating delay time is 0.09s. Figure 6.5(a) Single diagram of the power system under study
b) To limit the fault current flowing through each circuit breaker to 20 times
Adding the breaker operating time (5
its rated continuous current, calculate the required minimum reactance of
cycles=5*0.02=0.1s), primary protection
the reactor as shown in Figure 6.5(b).
clears this fault at bus 2 in
Tclear2=Ttrip2+Tbreaker2=0.09+0.1=0.19s.

X
Bus Maximum fault current
(bolted three phase) (A)
1 3000
2 2000 tclear=ttrip+tbreaker

Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay

(Rated interrupting time) Figure 6.5(a) Figure 6.5(b) Figure 6.5(b) Single diagram of the power system
B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO 8 under study with current-limiting reactors connected
B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO 8 70X200A 20X200A
29 31 33

To meet coordination requirement: c) A time-delay protection scheme is designed for these eight feeder circuits
with the current-limiting reactor determined in (b). Three identical CO-8
Ttrip1-Tclear2 0.3s (CTI); So 1) Ttrip1 0.49s; 2) Ttrip1 is minimum. relays are used in the scheme with a time dial setting of 2. Select a CT
For the same fault at bus 2, the ratio of fault-to-pickup currents by B1 relay from Table below with the secondary current closest to 5 A under normal
is working condition. Then determine the current tap settings or plug
settings of the relays to ensure a ratio of pickup current to normal
TDS=0.5: Ttrip1=0.25s; working current larger than or equal to and closest to 140%. Determine
TDS=1: Ttrip1=0.61s; TDS=2: Ttrip1=1.10s.
the fault clearing time for bolted fault that results in maximum fault
So 1 is a suitable time dial setting for the relay at bus 1 as this results in a currents.
trip time of 0.61s, longer than 0.49s and being minimum. 20X200A
Standard CT ratios
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5
500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5 1500:5 1600:5
Bus Maximum fault current Minimum fault current 2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5 4000:5 5000:5 6000:5
(bolted three phase) (A) (L G or L L) (A)
1 3000 2200 When calculating fault current at one feeder branch, ignore current
2 2000 1500 contribution by other feeder branches to it.
TDS
Breaker Breaker operating time CT ratio Relay
(Rated interrupting time) Assume that the rated interrupting time of each circuit breaker is 4 cycles.
B1 5 cycles 400:5 CO 8 The system frequency is 50 Hz.
B2 5 cycles 200:5 CO 8

30 32 34
Solution: X
c)
(a) and (b) Select 100MVA and 220kV as Since the rated load current of each feeder branch is 200 A, in order to have Residual current devices (RCD)
the base values on the source side. a secondary current of CT equal to 5 A, the CT with a ratio of 200:5 is
The fault level of a source is defined as follows selected. • It is also called earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)
According to the requirement that the ratio of pickup current to normal • It prevents electrocution when current ‘leaks’ through body to
where If is the value resulting from bolted three-phase working current is at least 140%, the current tap setting or plug setting or general ground mass earth
symmetrical fault at the source terminal. pickup current setting of the relays is 140%*5A=7A, which is selectable from • It provides protection by tripping when earth leakage current
current tap settings of the CO-8 relays (see graph in the question). exceeds limit
For the given source,
From solutions (a) and (b), the maximum fault current with the current- • 30mA 0.3s RCDs required for
Then the source internal positive-sequence impedance or reactance here is limiting reactor is 20 times continuous load current, thus the multiples of the
• circuits supplying lighting and socket outlets in domestic
current tap setting for this bolted three-phase fault that results in maximum
installations
fault current is
Given the chosen bases, the per-unit source reactance is • socket outlet circuits in residential sections of other electrical
installations
• problem of nuisance tripping
Alternatively, since voltage base in the source region is the same as voltage
rating of the source
The per-unit transformer reactance
If,pu=Sf,pu , if Vs=1pu.
Without the current-limiting reactor, the maximum fault current flowing
through the circuit breaker, which results from bolted three-phase
symmetrical fault, is determined by

35 37 39

Its value in amperes is The fault clearing time by the circuit breaker for tclear=ttrip+tbreaker
the fault with maximum fault current is
This is the fault current flowing through the circuit breaker without current- approximately equal to 0.35+4*0.02=0.43s.
limiting reactor.
so the fault current without current-limiting reactor is almost
70 times the normal operating current.

To limit the fault current to 20 times rated continuous current of 200A, the
per-unit reactance of the current-limiting reactor can be found by

The value in ohms of each current-limiting reactance is

36 38 40
RCD level of sensitivity
• Type 1: rated tripping current < 10mA, mainly for protection of single
appliances and in various hospital situations
• Type 2: rated tripping current between 10mA - 30mA protect final sub-
circuits where a group of appliances require protection against direct
contact (resulting in ventricular fibrillation)
• Type 3: rated tripping current > 30mA, protect heavier equipment where
protection against indirect contact only is required.
AS/NZS 60898.1:2004
Electrical accessories – circuit breakers for
overcurrent protection for household and
similar installations.

41 43 45

Appendix 1 Coordination between protection device and cable:

Preferred values of rated continuous current for miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
or fuses: 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 25 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125A.

42 44 46
 The University of New South Wales
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications
47
Appendix 2 ABB Inverse-overcurrent relay ICM 21
1 Standards:
INTRODUCTION
Advantages of earthing (grounding):
Limiting touch and step voltages to prevent
electric shock
Equi-potential bonding of exposed metal
conductors to prevent electric shock
Active parts: Limitation of over-voltages on equipment for
prevention of damage
Fast operation of electrical protection and
limitation of earth fault damage
48
General requirements:
low impedance path (resistance and reactance) to
earth conductor of local supply system and thence
to earth of supply at main substation
items that need earthing (eg metal casings) must be
connected to main earth by conductors of low
enough impedance to provide equipotential
bonding between all equipment items. Avoid earth
loops
earth potential rise (EPR) or ground potential rise
(GPR) associated with any fault current must be
limited to safe levels
earth conductors capable of handling fault current
without thermal or mechanical damage
1 3
IEC 60364-7-710
AS/NZS 60479.1:2002 : Effects of current on human beings and
livestock - General aspects; and AS/NZS
60479.2:2002 : Special aspects.
IEEE-Standard.#80-1986, Guide for Safety in Substation
Grounding
IEEE Green Book John Wiley(1986).
IEEE Standard #141: Recommended Practice for Electric
Power Distribution for Industrial Plants. (IEEE Red Book).
IEEE/Wiley (1986).
IEEE Standard #242: Recommended Practice for Protection
and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems.
(IEEE Buff Book). IEEE/Wiley (1986).
2 4

2
METHODS OF
POWER SYSTEM EARTHING
5 7
Unearthed system
Solidly earthed system
Resistance earthed system
Reactance earthed system
Use of an earthing transformer
6 8
MEN system:
3
SYSTEMS OF EARTHING
IN LOW-VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS
earth connections to neutral at consumer’s
installation and along route to supply substation
neutral provides the return path
balancing of load to utilize phase current cancellation
in return neutral to minimize voltage drop
9
There are four systems allowed in Australia: MEN system (Cont’d):
•Direct earthing system
• Multiple earthed neutral (MEN) system neutral conductor must be earthed at substation
• Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB or RCD) system and at other locations as necessary to ensure that
• Common multiple earthed neutral (CMEN) system total impedance between neutral and earth does
not exceed 10 ohms
conductors used to earth neutral conductor of
distribution system must have a cross-section area
of at least 20% that of the smallest size of neutral
Metallic path of earthing: used in system
10
Common Multiple Earthed Neutral (CMEN) system: Equipotential bonding
Equipotential bonding is an electrical connection intended to
prevent the occurrence of dangerous touch voltages between
simultaneously accessible conductive parts.
Such parts may be exposed conductive parts, in other words
metal casings for electrical equipment, or extraneous conductive
parts, such as conductive structures or pipes in buildings. 4
For safety and protective purposes the equipotential bonding
should have a potential approaching that of earth potential.
In each building a main equipotential bonding conductor shall TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS
Stobie Poles incorporate steel H-bars with
concrete core.
interconnect at the entrance point of the supplies for the following IN CONSUMER’S INSTALLATIONS
conductive parts:
Main protective conductor; Main earthing conductor or main
earthing terminal; PEN conductor in TN-C system; Water pipes;
gas pipes; risers of central heating and air conditioning systems
as well as metallic parts of building structure and other metal
pipework.
11 13 15

CMEN system (Cont’d) : Example of equipotential bonding in a hospital operating

theatre There are three types of earthing system in consumer’s installation:
Common Multiple Earthed Neutral system is
extension of MEN system
TN systems
high voltage and low voltage equipment is
TT systems
bonded (via a neutral conductor) to a single IT systems
common earth
impedance to ground of this interconnected
In practice, only TT and TN systems are commonly used.
system of earthing is very low, typically 1 ohm or
less.

12 14 16
1st letter (I or T) gives relationship of supply to earth
T (terra): direct connection of one point of supply
system to earth
I (insulation): all live parts of supply isolated from
earth or one point connected to earth through a very
large impedance
TN systems: one point of supply is directly earthed; Exposed TT system: one point of supply is directly earthed; Exposed
conductive parts of loads are electrically connected to that point conductive parts of loads are connected to earth via separate
by protective earth (PE) conductor. earth electrode.
TN systems can be divided into:
1) TN-S system;
2) TN-C system;
3) TN-C-S system.

Supply Supply TN-S system: separate neutral (N) and PE throughout

T T
TN-S

Y T I 17 Y
19 21

2nd letter (T or N) gives relationship of exposed
conductive parts of the general installation to earth
T (terra): direct connection of exposed conductive
parts to earth, independent of earthing of supply
system
N (neutral): direct connection of exposed conductive
TN-C system: Neutral conductor (N) and protective earth (PE)
conductor are combined into a single conductor throughout
TN-C
IT system: There is either no direct connection or very large
impedance between supply and earth; exposed conductive parts
of loads are connected to earth through independent earth
electrode.
Large

parts to earthed point of supply (neutral point). or open circuit

TN-C-S system: N and PE are combined into a single conductor T
in a part of the system I

N N TN-CS
T
Load Loads
18 20 22
Summary on earthing systems Resistance of a grounding or earthing system with
hemisphere electrode in homogeneous soil
Earth resistance determined by:
shape of electrode(s)
Y extent of electrode(s)
electrical resistivity of the soil
Mud (compressed coal): 1 m,
Wet soil: 10 m,
Moist soil: 100 m,
Dry soil: 1000 m, The current density at radius r is expressed as follows
Rock: 10000 m.

So the electric field is

23 25 27

Resistance of a grounding or earthing system with The potential on the electrode can be determined by
hemisphere electrode in homogeneous soil

5
So the resistance of the grounding system is
EARTH RESISTANCE OF
A GROUNDING SYSTEM WITH BURIED Alternatively, consider each individual shell with a radius x and a thickness dx,
ELECTRODES the total resistance R up to a large radius r would be

When

24 26 28
Potential rise at point X on the surface of a ground due to current flowing 2. Transferred Voltage: if person touches a conductor connected
into a hemisphere electrode to potential zero, he/she is subject to voltage

USE OF EQUIVALENT HEMISPHERE

MODEL TO CALCULATE
If point X falls on the hemisphere electrode, the potential rise is just TOUCH, STEP, TRANSFERRED
VOLTAGES
Exercise: write down potential rise on each hemisphere electrode of radius r0 in
the following figure. The current into each electrode is shown in the figure and
the uniform soil has a resistivity of .

Transferred voltage

soil
29 31 33

1. Touch Voltage: if person touches tower conductor, he/she is 3. Step Voltage: if person walks nearby, he/she is subject to
subject to voltage voltage

(Usually r3-r2=1m)

Transferred voltage Transferred voltage

30 32 34
 A single rod grounding system can be replaced by a Two-hemisphere grounding system that is equivalent to two-rod
hemisphere electrode grounding system with equal system:
grounding resistance:

7
The potential on the left hemisphere is

EARTH RESISTANCE OF
TYPICAL GROUNDING SYSTEMS where or
The radius r0 of the hemisphere is calculated by
Since the left-hand side hemisphere is connected electrically with the right-hand side
hemisphere,

where R is the resistance of one-rod system as given on last

The grounding resistance of two-rod grounding system is
page.

35 37 39

Single rod grounding system Exercise: Summary of rod system:

A grounding system consists of two identical rods that are
electrically connected as shown in the R.H.S. figure.
Prove that the resistance of such system can be written as
Soil

where and S is the distance between

Resistance of this system is
two neighboring rods. Assume that S is larger than twice of r0. 0

where d is the diameter of the rod, r is its radius and is its Solution:
length. Each rod is first replaced by a hemispherical electrode of radius r0, Soil
which has the same earth resistance as one-rod system.
Example Radius of the hemisphere of the equivalent hemisphere–system can
Calculate the resistance to earth of a 0.016 m diameter rod, 2.4 m be found from
long, with soil resistivity as 100 m. where R is the grounding resistance of one-rod system and is equal
to

36 38 40
Grounding grid at substation: A grounding system that consists Solution:
of a number of interconnected, bare conductors buried in the In terms of potential calculation
earth, providing a common ground for electrical devices or on the first conductor E1, the
metallic structures, usually in one specific location, such as original grounding structure can
be decomposed into the
distribution substation.
following four as shown below.

MEASUREMENT OF
EARTH RESISTANCE

(1) + (2) + (3) + (4)

41 45

Exercise: Solution:
A grounding system is composed of four Due to the symmetry of the system, the currents
identical conductive rods, each of which is flowing into four rods are the same. Assume that
planted in the earth vertically, and has a the current flowing into each rod is I.
diameter of 2r (m) and an effective grounding The voltage at electrode E1 is given by:
length of l (m). The cross sections of the four
rods form a square as shown in the R.H.S.
figure and they are electrically connected
above the earth. The distance between any
two neighboring rods is D (m). The resistivity The terminals of the four electrodes above the earth are electrically
of the earth is (ohm m). connected, so
Each rod can be replaced by an equivalent hemisphere with its radius
equal to r0 (m). r0 is calculated by the following expression:
Thus the resistance of the grounding system is

Derive an expression that can be used to calculate the effective where r0 is determined by or
resistance of this grounding system.
Assume that D is much larger than r0, and the earth soil is Given that r=0.016(m), l=2.4(m), D=5 (m) and =100 (ohm m), the
homogeneous. numerical value of the resistance of the grounding system is
Given that r=0.016(m), l=2.4(m), D=5 (m) and =100 (ohm m),
calculate the numerical value of the resistance of the grounding
system. 42 44 46
Fall-of-potential method to measure resistance of a grounding system
Fall-of-potential method to measure resistance of a grounding system (cont’d) The University of New South Wales

Electrodes G, P and C are on a straight line and P is located between G and C.

Prove that with D being large enough, when
Electrode C is placed at a sufficient distance from the test electrode G.
A current probe is connected between C and G; one potential probe is connected Proof:
between G and P.
A current of known magnitude is passed through the electrode G under test and
electrode C.
For one set of test, electrode C is at fixed position while P moves from G towards C. At =0.618D
School of Electrical Engineering
each location of P, voltage drop between the electrode G under test and electrode P is and Telecommunications
measured.
Grounding
Then the ratio of voltage to system
current at each position of under test Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
electrode P is calculated.
Air
When
Topic 8
Soil
The resistance RG of the
grounding system under test
Grounding can be found from the ratios.
Proved. LIGHTNING PROTECTION
system
One can see that when D is large enough, if electrode P is placed at 0.618D from
under test
electrode G on the line of G-C, the ratio of voltage to current is just the grounding
resistance of the grounding system.
47 49 1

Fall-of-potential method to measure resistance of a grounding system (cont’d)

When the ratio of V to I is plotted as a function of the potential probe distance x, curves
similar to those shown below are produced.

R D1<D2

(i) D=D1 (ii) D=D2

RG

48 2
Aim is to protect:
People
2
Buildings and Contents
against damaging effects of lightning strikes. PHYSICS OF LIGHTNING

Distribution of worldwide lightning strikes (flashes/km2/yr)

4-18 [Source: NSSTC]

3 5 7

Storms
Lightning is very common event. Worldwide, some
30 lightning flashes occur in every second on Collision among ice crystals
average. and water droplets
Frequency of occurrence of lightning and
thunderstorms varies significantly with location. Charge separation

Severity of lightning storms also varies with Lightning = sudden discharge

location. of electricity between
Local topographical features may cause variations differently charged regions.
in occurrence of ground flashes.
Cloud flash
Tall objects (building rooftop, tree top, overhead
lines) tend to attract lightning flashes to themselves
and thus shielding surrounding area from direct
strikes.

www.erico.com
4 6 8
 Lightning protection systems (LPS) are
designed to ensure that lightning terminates
on an air terminal (lightning rod) instead of on
some other parts of building.

Ground flash, less common. www.erico.com

Downward leader (stepped leader).

Upward leader Characteristics of ground flashes
Return stroke 9 11
[Table B1, AS/NZS1768:2007] 13

Lightning Detectors: storm-tracking instruments, which Ground flash consists of a sequence of high-
analyze storm and lightning activity.
amplitude short-duration current impulses
e.g. The THUNDERBOLT “Lightningman” and (strokes).
“Stormchaser”: handheld portable device can detect
electromagnetic signal from lightnings, from as far as Currents are uni-directional, and usually negative
120 km away. (negative charge injected into struck object).

Stroke considered as generated from a current

source, i.e. current waveshape and magnitude
not affected by characteristics of ground
termination.
Potentials during a lightning flash to earthed conductor.
12 14
Interception of lightning by lightning protection system

Principal effects of lightning discharge to object:

Electrical. 3

Thermal ELEMENTS OF
Mechanical A LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM

15 17 19

Cause death or serious injury in various ways : Lightning protection system (LPS) components:
Direct strikes to person causing heart Air terminals
failure, brain damage, suspension of
breathing, burns, etc. Down conductors

Asphyxiation or injury due to fires or Earth termination network and equi-potential

structural damage bonding

Side flashes Over-voltage protection

Electric shock from step, touch, or

transferred voltages
Modes of entry of lightning impulses [Fig 5.1, AS1768:2007] 16 18 20
Air terminals Down conductors
Its function is to absorb the lightning discharge that might Its function is to provide a low impedance path to
otherwise strike a vulnerable part of the object under protection. convey the lightning current from the air terminal to
earth, without the development of excessive large
voltages which can cause side flashing.
Air terminal to intercept The lightning conductors can have a potential of up
lightning strike
to 1 MV with respect to true earth. The non-uniform
field breakdown voltage for air is about 500kV/m so
(bare) downconductors should be kept more than
2m away from adjacent structures.
To reduce the possibility of side flashing, the
downconductor route should be as direct as
possible with no sharp bends.

21 23 Bonding of services [Fig E1, AS/NZS1768:2003] 25

Air terminals (Cont’d) Earth termination network and equi-potential bonding

A network of air terminals may be required to shield a large area
and they are so placed as to achieve a high probability of
intercepting the lightning.
This consists of one or more earthing electrodes and the
conductors that interconnect them. Its function is to deliver the
lightning current into the earth mass.
Equipotential bonding is to reduce potential difference between
different points within a building. By doing so, human-beings and
electronic devices are not susceptible to electric shock or hazard.

22 24
Combined utilities enclosure [Fig E2, AS/NZS1768:2003] 26
 Products of interception of lightning by lightning protection system

ERICO company

Eritech System 3000 installed on

Sydney Centerpoint Tower. 4
Key feature is design of air terminal
(Eritech Dynasphere) for controlled Waveshape of transient overvoltage
emission of a streamer. Streamer is and current induced by lightning
produced only when ambient field can strike
sustain upward leader initiation and
propagation.

Common bonding network (CBN) [Fig E3, AS/NZS1768:2003] www.erico.com

27 29 31

Over-voltage protection Appendix F of AS/NZS1768:2003 deals with waveshapes for

Its function is to prevent excessive voltages being applied to assessing susceptibility of equipment to transient overvoltages
equipment while allowing correct operating voltages to exist. This due to lightning. The waveshapes vary widely because of the
is achieved through the use of various surge protection devices random nature of lightning discharges and the variable
(SPD) such as spark gaps, gas-filled surge arrestors, and metal characteristics of the transmission media (electrical supply lines,
oxide varistors (MOV). telecommunication lines). However, the majority of transients
encountered in practice can be classified in terms of three
standard waveshapes:
Epeak
Ethreshold •The 1.2/50 s unidirectional pulse.
•The 8/20 s unidirectional pulse.
Vnormal •The 0.5 s /100kHz ring wave.
Ideal MOV

Ring earth [Fig E4, AS/NZS1768:2003] 28 30 32

 Recommended application for waveshapes of Figs F1 and F2
[Table F1, AS/NZS 1768:2003]

STANDARDS ON
1.2/50 s unidirectional pulse 8/20 s unidirectional pulse
LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Standard uni-directional waveshape

[Figure F1, AS/NZS 1768:2003]

33 35 37

AS/NZS 1768:2007 Lightning Protection.

Provide guidelines for protection of
people, buildings and structures, and
sensitive electronic equipment.
Applicable to conventional lightning
protection systems (LPS) and surge
protective devices (SPD).

0.5 s/100kHz ring wave (open-circuit voltage)

[Figure F2, AS/NZS 1768:2003]
34 36 38
5.1 Risk assessment & management

Risk management is used to determine

whether protection is needed and if so select
of adequate protection measures to reduce
risk to below a tolerable level.
Risk R is defined as probability of loss
occurring over a one-year period.

39 41 43

Damage due to lightnings:

Table 2.1, AS/NZS1768:2007

40 42 44
5.2 Protection of structures

Note: common to consider PL III as standard.

45 47
Typical LPS using metal in or on a building [Fig 4.4 AS1768:2007] 49

Using horizontal and vertical air terminals [Fig 4.5 AS1768:2007]

46 48 50
5.3 Voltage calculation

See Appendix D of AS1768:2003

Approximate breakdown strength of air

[Fig D2, AS/NZS1768:2007]
51 53 55

Idealised lightning stroke currents.

[Fig D1, AS/NZS1768:2007]

52 54 56
 Crowbar devices
Air spark gaps or gas discharge tubes
SCR and triacs
Clamping devices
Metal oxide varistors (MOV)
Avalanche diodes (Zener diodes)
Switching and rectifier silicon diodes
Isolators
Opto-isolators
Isolation transformers
Common-mode filters

57 59 61

OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
IN LOW-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

Surge diverter protection for electricity supply circuits

58 60 62
 1. Cone of Protection Method

Low-pass filter to reduce rate of voltage rise.

Floating computer common (separate earth).

Multi-stage protection for telephone and signalling circuits. 63 65 67

Appendix

OTHER DESIGN METHODS

FOR
LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Volume protected by a catenary wire air termination.

Combination units.
64 66 68
 The University of New South Wales

3 Collection Volume Method

An improved Electrogeometric
model developed by Eriksson.
School of Electrical Engineering
and Telecommunications
Allows for computation of
parabolic-like lightning
collection volumes for all
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
potential strike points on a
Topic 9
building .
Volume protected with vertical rod near building’s edge.
POWER QUALITY, REACTIVE POWER
AND POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
www.erico.com

69 71 1

Power quality (PQ) problem = any problem that

2 Faraday Cage Method causes voltage, current, or frequency
deviations in the supply and may result in mal-
operation or failure of end-user equipment.
Also called mesh method, comprised of a series of horizontal
air terminals such as copper tape which are bonded to In majority cases, power quality actually refers to
vertically descending down-conductors. quality of the voltage when dealing with utility
system or power supply system. Therefore, PQ
Minimum mesh sizes (IEC61024-1 Standard): standards mostly specify requirements on supply
voltage.
Nevertheless, power quality issue has a new
meaning due to the booming of distributed
renewable energy generation. Both harmonic
voltages and currents become concerns in such
cases.
70 2
 Factors that cause an increased need to solve and
Some effects prevent power quality problems:
Increased use of power quality-sensitive equipment, such
C/B trips when it shouldn’t. as computers, microprocessors, consumer electronic and
telecommunication appliances, etc.
Computers lose data or crash
Increased use of equipment that generates power quality
Neutral conductors overheat problems. Adjustable-speed drives, electronic ballasts for
fluorescent lamps, arc welders etc.
Digital clocks show erratic time
Increased inter-connection of power system: power quality
Adjustable speed drives trip or suffer damage problems can propagate through inter-connection and are
difficult to isolate.
Power factor correction capacitors blow up
Deregulation of power industry: power supply changes from
pp. 8-46
Lights flicker a single full-service, vertically integrated supply authority to
Tolerance envelope for IT equipment.
competitive, decentralized supply industry. Developed by Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC), formerly
Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA).
3 5 7

Simplified classification of quality of supply by EnergyAustralia Summary of power quality problems [Ref: R.C. Dugan]
(ENOS Electricity Network Operation Standards, June 2006)

Power quality definitions [Ref: R.C. Dugan] 4 6 8

Summary of power quality problems [Cont’d]

Voltage imbalance (unbalance):

Result from unbalanced network impedances or unequal

distribution of single-phase loads.
can cause overheating and mal-operation of certain
types of 3 motors.
EnergyAustralia’s objective is not to exceed 6%
difference between highest and lowest phase or line
steady state voltage (5 minute average) for LV network.

9 11 13

Reliability measures for distribution systems:

Supply availability: actual time that supply is available to
Voltage imbalance (or unbalance) Waveform distortion:
customers, expressed as percentage. Utilities aim to deliver 4-
nine (99.99%) or higher availability.
Steady-state deviation from ideal 50Hz sine wave.
Reliability Index or SAIDI (System Average Interruption Duration
Index): average duration in minutes lost per customer per year 5 different types of waveform distortion.
DC offset
SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index): average
number of interruptions that a customer experiences each year. Harmonics
Inter-harmonics
CAIDI (Customer Average Interruption Duration Index): average
duration (in minutes) that a customer is without power when Notching
affected by an interruption to supply Noise
MAIFI (Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index)

10 12 14
Waveform distortion: Inter-harmonics
Caused by waveforms that have frequency components
that are not integral multiples of fundamental (50Hz)
Main causes are static frequency converters, cyclo-
converters, induction motors, arcing devices.
Can cause light flicker, audible noise in audio equipment,
vibration in induction machines.
Allowable limits specified in IEC Std 1000.3.9
Mains signaling voltages, injected onto network by the
utility, e.g. 492, 750 and 1050 Hz.
15
Waveform distortion: Notching
Periodic voltage disturbance caused by switching
operation of power electronic devices (current
commutation)
Extent of distortion determined by depth and width of
notch
Frequency components due to notching can be quite
high
Present Australian standards limit notch depth to 20% of
peak supply voltage at point of common coupling.
16
Waveform distortion – Notching
Voltage notching caused by three-phase converter
17
Waveform distortion: Noise
Any unwanted signals that cannot be classified as
harmonic distortion or transients and have spectral
content < 200 kHz
Caused by power electronic devices, control circuits,
arcing equipment, switching power supplies.
Improper grounding exacerbates problem.
In Australia, acceptable limits set by Spectrum
Management Agency.
18
Voltage fluctuation:
Rapid changes in voltage within allowable limits of
nominal voltage
AS60038-2000 specifies new standard nominal voltage
to be 230V (reduced from 240V). Tolerance is +10% to -
6% which means actual supply voltage range will not
necessarily be lowered.
EnergyAustralia aim to maintain steady-state voltage
(ten-minute average) within +/-10% of nominal voltage of
240V (i.e. between 264V and 216V), at consumer’s
terminals. If possible, it will aim for 226-253V range.
19
Voltage fluctuation:
Voltage flicker caused by arc furnace operation
Note: Flicker can cause lamps to blink rapidly, and is visible to human
eyes at flickering frequencies of 6-8Hz.
20
Power frequency variation:
Deviation of power system fundamental frequency from
nominal value (50Hz or 60Hz)
Power system frequency directly related to generator
rotating speed. Slight variations in frequency as dynamic
balance between load and generation changes. .
Standards set by NEMMCO (National Electricity Market
Management Co Pty Ltd).
Affect clock accuracy. Policy of maintaining “electrical
time” in NSW to within 3s of Australian Eastern Standard
time.
21
Power frequency variation:
22
Harmonic distortion
23
• Very little distortion in sine wave voltage generated at power stations
• Caused by non-linear loads at the end-users
• Harmonic distortion = periodic distortion in every AC cycle
Current distortion caused by non-linear resistance
24
Harmonic current flowing through system impedance
results in harmonic voltage at the load.
Harmonic control (IEEE Standard 519-1992) can be divided into:
• Limiting harmonic current injected into system which takes
place at end-use application.
• Limiting voltage distortion by utility which has control over
system impedance.
By popular convention, “harmonics” refers to harmonic current
when dealing with load apparatus and harmonic voltage when
dealing with utility system.
25
Fourier Analysis
Any periodic waveform can be expressed as a Fourier series.
Advantage of using Fourier series analysis
26
 Effects of harmonics on power factor
Equipment for PQ investigations

Voltmeters, ammeters, multi-meters

Oscilloscopes
Harmonic analyzers
Power quality analyzers
Other devices, e.g. infrared detectors

27 29 31

Total harmonic distortion (THD): If there are harmonic distortions:

Measure of effective value of harmonic components

For voltage:
(IEEE definition)

Note: IEC defines THD as % of total rms. The first component is called the displacement power factor :
Fluke 43 power quality Fluke 430 power quality
THDV is a meaningful parameter but THDI may not be. Analyzer (single phase) Analyzer (three phase)
A small current may have a high THDI but not be a problem. However it can be The second component resulting from harmonic distortions is
mis-interpreted as a serious power quality problem. This can be avoided by
called the distortion power factor :
referring THDI to the fundamental of the peak demand current rather than
fundamental of present sample. This is called total demand distortion (TDD).

The total power factor (also called true power factor) is:

Power quality monitoring instruments commonly provide

Crest factor (CF):
28
measurements of these different types of power factor. 30 32
 Harmonic resonance Some important observations:
At resonance, even a small harmonic current can result in very high voltage
LC circuits can develop resonance. A common example is the combination of at pcc.
power factor correction (PFC) capacitors with the inductance of the power Resonant frequency is lower for larger capacitor bank.
system. If the resonant frequency occurs near a harmonic frequency, even a
small harmonic current can result in very high voltage and current.
In practice, there always exists some small resistance in the system and the
harmonic voltage developed is still substantial but somewhat reduced.
Consider the circuit below. For simplicity, ignore all other customer loads at the
point of common coupling (pcc).

33 35 37

Equivalent circuits:
REACTIVE POWER AND POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION
Most loads are net inductive and so they require reactive power to be supplied
by the source. Similarly overhead lines are net absorbers of reactive power.
The presence of inductive reactive power in a load means that the power factor
is reduced from unity.

The impedance seen by the n-th harmonic current source is: In principle the solution of the reactive power problem is obvious: it is to install
capacitors as required to alleviate the burden on supply for handling the
reactive power. This is the general principle of power factor correction.

Parallel resonance develops when which makes

become infinite.
If L is the system inductance and C is the PFC capacitance then the resonant
frequency is:

34
where FL = fault level at pcc; Qc = VAr rating of capacitor. 36 38
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Use of unloaded synchronous motors to
Series connection:
power factor correction (PFC) installations or
compensate reactive power static VAR compensators (SVCs).

when over-excited, synchronous motor operates modular and separately switchable capacitor
at leading power factor and generates VARs banks, ranging from 7.5kVAR to 100kVAR or
higher
Advantages and disadvantages:
Reduction in total current I is small so improvement in loss in the line is
when under-excited, motor operates at lagging conventional automatic PFC system: switching
very small.
power factor and absorbs VARs using mechanical contactors
Series capacitance is very good for voltage regulation and for smoothing
voltage fluctuations.
solid-state switching systems: faster switching
Series capacitance helps to improve stability if line reactance is high.
Much less flexible in that capacitance value is not easily able to be with thyristors, typically ~20ms
changed.
resonance problem

39 41 43

Shunt connection:

Comparison with series compensation: CAPACITOR INSTALLATION

Improves power factor and reduces line current significantly and thus
reduces line losses significantly
Not as good as series connection for voltage smoothing
Has much greater flexibility of use than series as change of value has no
effect on load current

In general, series connection is rarely used, except long transmission lines

where better voltage regulation is needed.
Use of shunt capacitors is almost universal for distribution systems and
loads.
Flexibility of shunt connection allows automatic compensation using
Power Factor Correction System rated at 250 kVAr.
switched capacitor banks that can adapt to changing load conditions.
40 42 44
 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

Thyristor switched reactor Thyristor switched capacitor

45

46 Static VAR Compensator (SVC) Ref: abb.com