A ttew CE REFRESHER starts in this issue on

iI'¡~trumentation and techniques applicable

to the control of processes. The subjects to
be covered are:
• Basic concepts
• .Basic control modes
• Tuning process controllers
• Techniques of feedback control
• Combining feedback control loops
• Instrument scaling
• Advanced control techniques
• Advanced control
• Microprocessor regulatory control
• Process control computers

Basic concepts, terminology and

techniques for processcontrol
How the interplay among the measured, load and control
, variables is established in orderto achieve requited .
objectives forcontrolling process operations.v

Lewis M. Gordon, The Foxboro ea.

o Any study of process control must begin by investigar-
ing the concept of a "process." From a production
viewpoint, it is gene rally thought of as a place where
materials and, most often, energy come together to
produce a desired product. From a control viewpoint,
the meaning is more specific. A process is identified as
having one orrnore variables associated with it that are
important enough fortheir values to be known and for
them to be controlled.
Initially, in this new CE REFRESHER (see accompany-
ing box for series topics), we will concentrate on proc-
esses having only one controlled variable, such as the
heat-exchange process shown in Fig. la. To maintain the
temperature of the product (hot water) in this process,
another variable influencing the variable being con-
trolled must be available for manipulation by the control
system.
In this example, the control system manipulates the
position of a steam valve. However, the ternperature of
the water depends not only on the position of this valve
but also on the flowrate of the' water, its inlet tempera-
ture, the enthalpy of the steam, the "degree of fou'ling in
the exchanger, and the ambient temperature.
This simple example illustratescontrolled, manipu-
lated and load variables-the three categories associated
with every process under control (Fig. lb). T~e parame-
ters that indicate product quality or the operating condi-
tion of the process are called controlled variables, such as
pressure, level, ternperarure, pH, specific gravity or den-
sity, composition, moisture content, weight and speed,
and other variables, depending on the process.
Manipulated variables include valve position, darnper
position, motor speed and blade pitch. Further, one
control loop is often rnanipulated fOI"controlling another

58 CHEMICAL ENGlNEERINC MAY :lO, 1983

 variable in more complicated control schcmcs. For cxam-
pie, a Ilow variable is manipulatcd lo COII( rol a icmpcru-
ture 01' a lcvcl,
All variables alfecting a cout.rolled variable, ot hcr than
the 011C being manipulated, are dclincd as loads. Bot h
loads and the manipulated variable may influcnce a
controlled variable from either the supply sidc or the
dernand side of the process. For cxample, thc outlet
temperature of a heat exchanger can be controlled by
manipulating the stearn valve, while tank leve! can be
controlíed by manipulating a valve on thc outflow from
the tank, al'ten, a controlled variable in one process is a
load variable for another. For example, the temperaturc
of the outlet stream from a heat exchanger will almost
certainly affect other plant variables-otherwise, it would
not be important enough to control.
The control problem
The relationship among controlled, manipulated and
load variables qualifies the need for process control. The
manipulated variable and the various load variablesmay
either increase or decrease the controlled variable, de-
pending on the design of the process. Changes in [he
controlled variable reflect the balance between the loads
and the manip~lated variable.
For the heat exchanger, increases in stearn-valve open-
ing, steam enthalpy, inlet temperature and ambient tern-
, perature tend to raise the product temperature, while it
isIoweredby increases in flowrate and exchanger foul-
ing. The temperatureresponds to the net effect of these
influénces. If the positive influences are greater than the
negative.jhe temperature will rise. If the reverse is true,
l the tem perature will fal!. If all the load variables were to
', remain constant, the steam valve could then be adjusted
,until the product ternperature was constant at the de-
'sired value, and would rernain there indefinitely.
i Process control equipment is needed beca use these
variables do not rernain constant. For example, varia-
tions in inlettemperature and flowrate both upset prod-
uct temperature, and require a different stearn-valve
position in order for water temperature to be maintained
at the desired value. The job of the control system is to
determine and continuously update this valve position as
load conditions change.
Generally, the control problem is to determine the one
value of the manipulated variable that establishes a
balance ~mong all the influences on the controlled vari-
able and -keep the variable steady at a desired value.
Other factors such as speed of response, shape of re-
sponse, and operator interface are also important in
designing control systems.
No matter how cornplicated, every control system
solves this same basic problem, and for a given process
ami load conditions must arrive at the sarne result.
The control problem can be solved in only two ways,
each of which corresponds to a basic control-systern
design philosophy. Feedback systems generate the control
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
signal based 011 the diffcrence bctween thc actual and
, refereuce-mensurerneut values, For [cedjonoard systerns,
(he control sigual is gcucrated lrorn values based on the
various loacl variables as they affcct the process.
Feedback svstems .
Feedback svsterns are more cornmon than Ieedfor-
ward ones. The structure of a feedback loop is shown in
Fig. 2. Here. the value of the controlled variable re-
sponds to the net effect of the loads and the manipulated
variable. A sensor/transmitter rneasures the current
value of the controlled variable and sends a signal to the
feedback controller, where the signal is comparecl (by
subtraction) to a reference value. The control function
within the controller generates a signal, which positions a
valve on the basis of the sign and magnitude of the dif-
ference between the measurernent and the reference or
setpoint values.--
In the exarnple for the heat exchanger, a temperature
transmitter continuously generates a signal that repre-
sents the actual temperature of the hot water. At the
controller, this signal is subtracted from an operator-set
value that represents the desired temperature. 11' these
values are the same, the current position of the steam
valve is correct, and the controller will not change its
output.l However, if the actual value is below the refer-
ence value, the controller will change its output in the
direction that opens the steam valve and raises the actual
ternperature. Conversely, if the actual temperature is
above the clesired one, the controlIer wilI change its
output in the direction that cIoses the steam valve, to
lower the actual temperature.
Thus, a feedback controlIer solves the control prob-
lem through a trial-and-error proceclure. Assume that a
change in the loacl variablesupsets the temperature, ancl
a new valve position is required. The controller becornes
aware 01' the upset when the imbalance between the
loads and the manipulated variable begins to change the
controlled variable. The controller immediately begins
to make corrective changes in its ouputs-even as it
monitors the effect of these changes on the controlled
variable. When the controller sees that its corrections
have returned the controlIed variable LO the desired
value (i.e., clifference equals zero), it holcls the output
steady and continues to observe the controlled variable,
and waits for the next upset. .
Feedforward systems
While .feedback control is reactive in nature and re-
sponds to the effect of an upset, feedforwarcl schemes
respond directly LO upsets and, thus, offer improved
control.
The block diagram of a feedforward-control scheme is
shown in Fig. 3. Transmitters measure the values of the
load variables, and a ca1culiHion unit computes the cor-
rect control signal for the existing load conditions and
reference value. In this way, changes in load conditions
MAY 30, 1!J83 59
 CE REfRESHER < - , - ¡~,

Inside a feedback controller

Signal from Signal to Regardless of the hardware used for implernentatiou,
control room T ,mp",,",,.~,W"'!,,~::~'''' control room
the conccpt of feedback control remains the same. The
first feedback rncchanisms were mechanically connected
Steam " directly to the process and the manipulated variable,
_-"':":';":';';";"'--{>I(]~---, ¡'"
When pneumatic .md electronic transmission made cen-
TT Hot
Cold water water
tral control rOOll1Spossible, pneumatic and electronic
controllers were developed.
, The state of the art today is distributed control
through digital systerns, and controllers now often exist
in software. Digital systems may have an extensive selec-
Condensate tion of features such as autornatic alarming, output
a, Process damps, and built-in linearization or signal compensa-
tion. However, none of these change the basic function
of the feedback controller-to solve the control
Manipulated variable problem.
Controlled
Process Al! feedback controllers must have certain common
Load variables variable elements (Fig. 4). The feedback-control function always
has two inputs and one output. One input will be the
b, Variables measurement signal from the transmitter; the other, the
reference value. For feedback controllers, the reference
signal is called the setpoint,which usually represents the
Heat exchanger represents a simple process Fig.1 desired value of the measurernent.
For simple loops, the reference signal may be entered
directly by the operator and is called a "local" setpoint.
In complicated schemes, this signal can come from
cause a direct change in the control signal without another instrument and is defined as a "rernote" set-
waiting for the control!ed variable to be upseL point. Often, the control!er can accept both types of
In general, this technique is more complicated and setpoints, and a remote/local switch is available for the
moreexpensive, It requires greater process understand- operator to select which one the controller wil! use.
ing than trial-and-error "feedback, Therefore, feedfor- Within the controller, measurement and setpoint val-
ward control is-usually reserved for difficult and critical ues are cornpared -'by subtraction, The difference is
applications. called the error and is the input to the mechanism, circuit
or algorithm that generates the output. Generally, this
response contains proportional, integral and derivative
(PID) components, although they may not al! be present
,Desired in every control!er. Proportional or integral responds to
I:I_~~~ ~' ~-----------------------TCI~·'-te~m~p~e~ra~t~ur-e
@ error, while derivative usually responds directly to mea-
;r; surernent. The sum of the individual responses forms

.r-lJ-.-----!
'" Steam --c. __Actual
the automatic control signaL
temperature
Hot
Startups andemergencies
Cold water
water For startup and emergency conditions, the control!er
will also indude a manual control-signal generator that
can be driven by the operator. When the output comes
from the PID response generator, the controller is said
Condensate to be in "autornatic." When the output comes from the
, a. Process and variables manual generator, the control!er is said to be in "man-
ual." The procedure for switching between these two
outputs will range from fairly involved. to virtually trans-
parent, dependirig on the sophistication of the control-
..-----i Feedback
control ~---< Reference
L ~--;.;.;;.;;;.;.;=.;;. ler. The important thing is not to "bump" the output
function signal and cause an upser to .the process.
In simple loops, this signal will directly position a
Transmiher valve, while in more-complicated schemes, the signal will
Manipulated be an input to another instrumento Typically, the con-
variable
Controlled troller will have an associated operator interface. As a
Process minimum, this interface will display the setpoints, mea-
Loads variable
surement, current output, and the remote/local and
b. Feedback loop autornatic/manual status.
Just as all feedback controllers have certain elernents
Feedback control uses, ..' in common, so do al! feedback-controlloops share three
measurement of.controlled variable Fig.2 important concepts: open vs. dosed loop, positive vs.

60 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING MAY 30, 1983

 negative feedback, and oscillation. Lct us now examine
in some detail thc significance of thesc characteristics for
i
feedback loops.
Feedforward Reference
calculation
Open vs. closed loop
"
Fig. 2 also illustrates the first ofthesc concepis. Once a
feedback controller is installed on a process ami pl.iced
in autornatic, a closed loop is created .. The controller
I
output affects the measurernent, and vice versa. This
closed loop creates the possibility 01' control through
feedback.
Transmitters
Should this effect be broken in either direction, the
loop is said to be open, and feedback control no longer
exists. Several events can open a feedback loop:
Manipulated
variable
s:
v ~
Controlled
• Placing the controller in manual. This causes the Process
Loads variable
output to remain constant (unless changed by the opera-
tor) even if the measurement changes.
• Failure of the sensor or transmitter. This ends the
ability of the controller to observe the controlled Feedforward control uses
variable. measurements of load variables Fig.3
• Saturation of the controller output at O or 100% of
scale. This ends the ability of the controller to influence
the process. reinforced the change in measurement. This is positive
• Failure of the valve actuator beca use of friction or feedback.
debris in the valve. For a feedback loop to be successful, it must have
When a control loop does not seem to be operating negative feedback. The controller must change its out-
properly, the first thing to check is whether 01' not the put in the direction that opposes the change in measure-
loop is closed, Often, a great deal of time is wasted trying ment. Fig. 5b shows the same loop, except that the
to adjust a controller when the problem is elsewhere in controller has been set to increase-decrease action. The
the loop. controller then responds to increases in temperature by
closing the valve. A decrease in temperature causes the
Positive vs. negative feedback controller to open the valve. These responses tend to
Connecting a controller to a process, as shown in Fig. drive the measurement back toward the setpoint. Select-
2, creates a closed feedback loop. However, feedback can ing the proper control action is as fundamental as mak-
be either' positive 01' negative, and the difference is ing sure the loop is truly closed. The wrong choice
crucial to thé loop's performance. .- destroys contro\.
Every feedback controller will have a means of chang- The correct choice for feedback wiU depend on the
ing the controller action, which defines the direction of f

. the controller response to a change in the measurement.

Increase-increase (orvdirect) action causes the control\er
to increase its output iri respo{lse to an increasing mea-
surement. Increase-decrease (or, reverse}action causes Operator interface
the controller to decrease its output when the mea-
.surement increases. Choósing the wrong action will Local or
make control impossible. remote
Fig. 5a shows a possible record of an output-tempera- setpoint signal
.ture control loop installed on the heat exchanger of Fig.
2. The steam valve is set air-to-open (i.e., fail closed). +
PIO
This means that an increasing control signal will open response ¡.,......;----{ L
. the valve to increase steam flow. The controller action is Control
set to increase-increase, which is incorrect.
; The measurement may be brought to the setpoint
under manual control, but as soon as the controller is
placéd in autornatic, the loop becomes unstable.Any
signal

- generator '1' -1_'

..
~-----:
Measurement
signal

small disturbance that increases the ternperature will

also cause an increase in controller output. This opens
Manual-output
the valve, causing the ternperature to increase further generator
and the valve to continue opening. The result is a
runaway ternperature. If a small disturbance caused the
temperature to drop, the controller would close the P! o = proportional + integral + derivative
valve, and the temperature would fall even more. In turn,
this would cause the valve to close even more. Basic elernents of a feedback controller Fig.4
In both cases, the response 01' the controller has

CHr:MICAL I,NGINEERING MAY 3D, 1983 61

 ,., •••ii j" i1-t-lllj.

cause 01' the lags within the process, the outlct ternpera-

'"""IA7 1 ..
turc does not rcspond irnmediately. In tact, it continucs
to movc away Irom thc setpoint. The controller thcn
continuos to change its output until the mcasurcment
turns around and begins te return tu rhe setpoint,
I . When the measurernent reverses itself, so will the
'-_+-1 _ controllcr output, but the effect of this reversal will also
be delayed. Later, the rneasurement may reverse a scc-
. ond time and cause another reversal in the controller

i~-
cñ 1
-'-----'---
output. In turn, this causes another revcrsal in the
rneasurernent, and so on. The result is an oscillation in
both the measurement and the controller ouput,
Thus, the cornbination of negative feedback and lags
Time- Time-
in the process means that oscillation is the natural re-
a. Positive feedback causes instability
sponse of a feedback control loop to an upset. The
characteristics of this oscillation are the primary means
for evaluating the performance of the control loop.
e I I
I Specifically, an instrument engineer will be interested in
~~ I I . the period and the damping ratio of the cycle.
;~~~- ~-SetPOlnt
0E I Fig. 5c shows a typical oscillation, The period of this
~ L..-_--'-I ------ I cycle may be measured as the time (usually in minutes)
I between any two analogous points, such as between two
~---L~-
I ~-.\.--
E ~.
positive or negative peaks. Fig. 5c also shows another
oscillation that is steadily decaying to a constant signal.
The damping ratio measures the rate of decay.
~
(/)
II Although there are mathematical definitions of the
------ damping ratio, practically it may be measured as the ratio
Time- Time-
of the deviations of any two successive peaks from the
b. Negative feedback causes stability estimated final 01' average value. These measurements
are usually taken from a record of the controlled variable
because it is often recorded. However, the same cycle
qampin_9 ratio = B/A
can be observed in the controller output, or in any
measurement directly affected by the control signal. For
example, if a record were kept of the steam flow to the
heat exchanger, the cycle would also appear there. Fre-
quently, other variables will provide a more sensitive
representation of the cycles within a loop, and these will
Time--;--- Time~ allow more accurate evaluation of loop performance to
c. Oscillating signals
be made.

'Control actions affect performance Characteristics of the oscillation

. o! ir closed feedback loop . Fig.5
,'-----"---
application. For example, if tank leve! is controlled by
manipulating an air-to-open valve on the outflow, in-
crease-in crease action will be needed. Moving the same
control valve to the inflow requires increase-decrease
action. Reversing the action of the valve to air-to-close
(i.e, fail open) can reverse the required control action.
. A controller taken out for maintenance might not be
set correctly when it is reinstalled. Sometimes, position-
ers on valves can reverse the response of the valves to-a
change in the control signal. The penalty for not think-
ing this out is a control loop that drives the measurement
to one of its range limits.
Oscillation
While negative feedback is necessary for control, it
also leads to oscillation within the loop. Once again, let
us consider the temperature control loop in Fig. 2. When
the measurement begins to move away frorn the set-
point, the contraller begins to change its output. Be-
The exact characteristics of the oscillation in a particu-
lar loop will mainly depend on the adjustments to the
proportional, integral and derivative responses within .
the controller. Incorrect adjustments can make this pe-
riod too long or too short. Even worse, they can make the
cycle grow larger instead of smaller.
For good control, the cycle in the measurement signal
should steadily decay, and end with the measurement
returned to the setpoint. Simultaneously, the cycle in the
controller output should also steadily decay, and end
with the output at the new value. This re-establishes
balance among the load variables and the manipulated
variable.
In fact, this oscillation represents the trial-and-error
search for the new solution to the control problem. The
controller is not aware of the load variables. Hence,
when it sees the measurement begin to change, it tries
new output values until it narrows in on the one value
that returns the measurement to the setpoint.
If the controller in a particular loop responds tu au
upset with an oscillation in which each successive peak is
one-fourth as large as the preceding one, the loop is said

62 CIIEMICi\L ENGINEERING MAY 30, I~~\J

 to have quarter-wave clamping (i.e .. BlA = 114 in Fig.
Se). Depending on the pcriod, a loop having quarter-
w.ivc damping stabilizes Iairly quickly following an upset.
o ttc n , this is takcn as an indication of goocl control.
Dct.crmining propcr controllcr acUusl.rnents is somcwhat
[llore complicated th.m achicving this one objcctive.
Nevertheless, quarter-wavc dumping may be uscd for a
rough evaluation 01" controller performance.

Process characteristics
The existence of lags in thc proccss has a fundamental
e--
? U Measurement;
weight siqnal

effect on the performance of the feedback loop. Without

under standing' the causes and characteristics of these
lags, it is impossible to evaluate which control modes /T\. /"\.~Co~n~trol

(proportional, integral, derivative) will be required, or

~ime.TDT
I :
, IV ~al

whether feedback control will be successful in any partic-

i--L-l ~---Deadtime, TDT

I I
ular application. Basically, lags may be considered in two
categories: deacltime and capacity.
E ro§,
.~ I --..r-
I

/
A'\J r\.eas;;,Ugre~m,ent

val
~'¡;; ,
Deadtime ~--------------
A process 'thachas essentially pure deadtime response Time- Time-
Step change Cycling ,ignal,
is shown in Fig. 6a. A hopper valve deposits material on a a.Deadtimedelays
r moving belt. A weight transmitter measures the amount
ofmaterial. How does the weight measurement respond
to changes in the control signal to the hopper valve?
As shown in Fig. 6a, a step change in the control signal Temperature
)
will immediately begin to deposit more material on the
r---€) signal
•
s
belt. This step change will appear in the measurement
after a clelay (deadtime) that corresponds to the time
Level I
Vessel I
e necessary for the material to travel from the hopper to .. signal
e the senso:r. LT 000 ~OO ~_....;F..;;:,;ue;;..;;:1 9=-as
y In gene:ral, deadtime is I defined as the time delay
r between a change in the cont:rol signal and the beginning Energy storaqe
e of its effect on the measu:rement. The shape of the Outflow
Material storaqe
change in the .control signal is not relevant. Fig. 6a also
e

l~-
. shows al). óscillating control-signal input delayecl by the
Il same time inte:rval.
J Becausedeadtime is often caused by the time requi:red
to move material f:rom one point to anothe:r, it may be
referred to as t:ransport lag or distance/velocity lag. The
actual time depends on the-.distance traveled and the ~

l
'.'-.;",' ','. . --

velocity of the material. '

e Delay in the p:rocess response can be c:reated in othe:r -~.""","-.'-"',,','-<.
n ways. The perfo:rmance of mixers (i.e., agitators) has a ,
----,
,

"

large influence on the deadtime in loops monitoring

e composition, such as pH, density, or oxidation-reduction Time- Time-
potential. .The sampling operation of a chromatic aria- Step change Cycling change
11 lyzer will also create delay in the perceived measurernent.
b. Storagecapacities
lt And, significantly, a combination of a number of capac-
e ity-lag elements will al so crea te deadtime.
el . From a control point of view, what is important is the
:5 length of the delay. Deadtime represents an interval 100
ti- ?f<
during which the controller has no inforrnation about ~... , jlj ..

the effect of a control action already taken. ' ~ es.z

O
Deadtime cloes not slow down the rate at which the ¡;.
Q)

.c measurement can change. Except for the delay, the a:

01----.1
measurernent changes at the .sarne rate as cloes the
control signal. Still, the longer the delay, the more
clifficult it will be to control.. As will be shown, the Time-
amount of deadtime in the process has a strong effect on c. Timeconstant
n the controller acljustments and on the performance that
15 can be expected from the loop. Process characteristlcs affect type
el of control mode and feedback Fig.,6 ..
Because cleadtime interferes with good control, evcry

CHEMICAL I':NCINEI,RING MAY 30, 1911:1 63

 l'"A-I ,i 1".1 -Cl.! , I
Point1•.~ Tr_C__ f----2-.~II.___
~ Individual
,~~
. l. rrc. I
Step cnanqe-, ..•••' I
í-~I~==::::==:===S~~===::==::========---
100
*'~. Points I
2
e
o
o,
'"
'"
tI:
. .
Capacities in series enlarge the delay in response time whenever a change in the input signal occurs
attempt should be made to reduce this delay by properly
locating transmitters, specifying sufficient mixing, de-
signing proper tankage, and minimizing transmission
lags.
Capacity and its effects
\ .". Pure deadtime processes are rare, and virtuaily every
control loop wiIl inelude, and wilI be dominated by,
capacity elements. . capacity element in the process tends to attenuate distur-
A capacity element is that part of the process system
where material or energy can accumulate. The tank
shown in Fig. 6b represents a single capacity (material
storage). Flow into the tank is manipulated to affect the
level; fIow out of the tank is the load variable. Initially,
the leve! remains constant because infIow and outflow
are equal. How does the response of this process differ
from that of a deadtirne element?
Let us assume that the valve and fIow respond in-
.stantly to changes in the control signaI. When a step
change occursin this signal, the difference between in-
fIow and outfIow wilI immediate!y cause an increase in
level. However, as level increases, the graduaIly increas-
ing pressure across the drain valve raises the outflow.
This tends to bring the two fIows back into balance, with
.the net result that level rises more rapidly at first, then
more slowly, and finaIly stops as the fIows becorne equal.
The other vessel shown in Fig. 6b also represents a
single capacity (energy storage). Ternperature responds
to the accumulation of energy in a process just as leve!
responds to the accumulation of material. The res pon se
of the temperature to a step change in heat input will be
the same as the response of the level to a step change in
tlow input.
The responses of these capacity clernents differ from
that of thc deadtime element in two significant ways:
1. No delay occurs before the measurement begins to
change-i.e., no deadtirne is associated with a single-
capacity e!ement.
64
T_r_C ----3- I__
••. r_r_c _ ___I __ ••
4 ~
Capacities in series
time constant
Time-
.
Fig.7
2. The capacity inhibits the rate at which the measure-
ment can change.
Because level is a measure of the liquid stored in the
tank, and because the rate of accumulation (positive or
negative) responds to the difference between infIow and
outfIow, level cannot change instantly even if the control
signal does. The bigger the tank in comparison with the
fIows, the slower the level wiIl change. Therefore, the
bances. This makes control easier, whereas deadtime
makes control more difficult.
The size of a capacity is measured by its time constant.
Fig. 6c shows, in more detail, the leve! response of Fig.
6b. Since the two fIows (in and out) approach equality
asymptotically, they never quite become equal-at least
in theory. The leve! never stops changing and, therefore,
the response cannot be measured by the time to
completion.
Instead, the response is quantified by a time constant
that is defined as the time required to complete 63.2% of
the total response. (This number is not arbitrary. It has
significance in terms of the differential equations that
mode! the process.) As a first approximation, the time
constant of a capacity element will be roughly equal to its
residence time, which is defined as the volume divided
by the throughput (in consistentunits). Thus,if the tank
in Fig. 6b holds 1,000 gal, and flow through the tank is
LOO.gpm, the residence time becomes 1,000/1 00 = 10
rmn,
Fig. 6b also shows the response of a capacity e!ement
to a cycling control signal. If the signal cycles the inflow,
the outflow will approach the average value of the intlow.
The leve! will rise while the inflow is greater than the
outflow: and it will faIl while the inflow is less than thc
outflow. In short, for a cycling input, the measurerncnt
signal from a capacity element will also cycle at the same
periodo
The variation in the measuremcnt signal, in compari-
CHEMICAI. ENGINEERING MAY ao, I~~I:I
 r--------------------------~-
Controller
output
Measurement
signal
Input ".1, Oynamic
element ,
I--~." Output

Process modul

!I ~ l~(In)
~ '-Step change
Steadv-state qain,
I ~
S-
Gss = l1(Our)/A(ln)

:J

<l" 100 O

Z", 63.2 Time-

~
<1> Steadv-state gain
o.
E O
..
2:l
<1>
-¡:;
I
h-f-I
I
--.,,.--1
O
:J
Apparent dead 'time. TOT

Time-
<"'APparent time constant. T,
..
:J
o.
I
e I
Open-Ioop response of heat exchanqar I
to a step change in controller output Fig.8 -1
I
--j90°f--

son with the vana Don m the control signal, depends
strongly onthe periodo If the control signal cyeles very
e
rapidly (with a short period), the swing in the leve/ will be
,r
very smal!. Converse/y, if the same variation in the
d control signal occurs at _amuch longer period, the swing
)1
in the level will be much greater.
e Dynamic elements have both
e Modeling the process
. Single-capacity and pure deadtime processes exist
e onlyintheory, Any real processes will inelude a number
of each of these dynamic elements. For example, the heat
t. exchanger, shown in Fig. la, ineludes a deadtime associ-
r
" ated with the time it takes for the hot water to flow from
y .the exchanger to the sensor. In addition, the identifiable
;t
capacities inelude: "- '.
'o .• Volumeof the air acttlator for the controlvalve.
o , • Volume of the exéhanger shel!side.
• Energy stored in the tubes.
• Energy stored in the water in the tubes.
• Energy sto red in the thermowel! and sensor.
.s If the controls are pneumatic, an effective deadtime
rt and capacity are also associated with each transmission
e !ine. This is a typical situation-one or two identifiable
.s '.deadtimes, and a number of large and small capacities.
rJ
Deadtimes in series are additive-a l-rnin de/ay fol-
k lowed by a 2-min delay combine to form a 3~min delay.
s However, the combined effect of a number of capacities
O '. 'jn series is not so obvious. Fig. 7 shows a series of three
capacities having an equal time constant, TTC, along
.t with the responses at various points to a step input. The
step input appears at Point l. Point 2 shows the response
"
of a single capacity to a step input, as shown in Fig. 6c.
e Points 3 and 4 show the effect of subsequent capacities.
e The net effcct is that a scquence of capacities looks (to
the controller) like the combination of a deadtime de/ay,
followed by a single capacity with a time constant, TI, that
is largcr than the time constant of the individual
capacities.
I1 AL1A
ou,
~----------------------
Time-
Dvnarnic gain
gain and phase properties Fig.9
The open-loop response of a heat exchanger to a step
change in the controller output is shown in Fig. 8.
Initially, the temperature remains constant but later
begins to rise and approaches a new steady-state value.
Although a process may actualIy be an intricate collec-
tion of deadtime and capacity elements, it can usualIy be
represented by a deadtime-plus-capacity model in order
to design the feedback loop. The pararneters for this
model may be taken as the apparent deadtime and the
apparent time constants.
While mis representation may be obvious to the de-
signer, the controller cannot tel! the difference. Since
deadtime makes control difficult while capacity makes it
easier, an estimate of the difficulty of control can be
made by calculating the ratio of the apparent deadtime
to the apparent time constant. This ratio, TDThl, will
also have a strong effect on the control adjustments.
The behavior of ft;e<:l9~ckcontrolloops can be under-
stood from practical or theoretical points of view. AI-
though we have thus far emphasized the practical, under-
standing the two mathematical concepts cf gain and
phase is essential to a fundamental knowledge of feed-
back control.
Gain and phase
An element from a feedback control loop is repre-
sentcd in Fig. 9. This elernent could be the process, the
valve, the transmitter or the controller. Each of these ele-
I

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING MAY 30, 1!>U3 . 65 . \

 CE REFRESHER '. .
., ...
ments has an input aud an out put. Thc Iirst pararnetcr,
gain, describes the amount 0(' changc in thc output that
will be caused by a given chango iu thc input. Both
steady-state and dynamic gaills must be cousidered. For
a step input, the output of thc elerncnt begins to change
and approaches a new value. The steady-statc gain, C", is
defined as the ratio of the final change in the olltput 1:0
change in the input, or:
C" = t:.(Out)/t:.(ln)
It is important to keep track of thc units lor gain. For
example, if the steady-state gain 0(' the valve in the
temperature loop werc being deterrnined, the output
would be in units of stearn flow, while the in put woulcl be
percentage. Thus, if a 10% change in controller output
caused a change of 200 lb/h in steam flow, the steady-
state gain becomes:
c=
ss 200110 = 20 (lb/h)/%
However, the signals traveling around a control loop
usually vary cyclically. The sensitivity of an elernent to a
cycling input is rneasured by its dynamic gain. When the
input cycles, the output will also cycle at the same period
(see Fig. tia and 6b). The dynamic gain may be computed
as the ratio of the size of the output swing, Ao"" to the
size of the input swing. A¡m or:
G» = AOu)A¡n
For the heat exchanger, let us suppose that a 200 lb/h
variation in steam flow caused a 20°F variation in outlet
ternperature. The dynamic gain for this situation
. becomes:
, cD = 20°F/200 ib/h = O.loF/(lblh)
The second parameter of the response of an elernent .
to a cycling input is the phase angle, which is illustrated
in Fig. 9. Because of the lags (i.e., delays) within the
elernent, the peak of the output does not coincide with
the peak of the input. The phase angle, 4>, of an element
measures this displacement. One complete cycle in any
periodic signal is considered to be composed of 360
degrees, If the peak of the output cycle occurs one-
quarter of the way through the input cycle, the phase
angle is:
4> = (360)( -1/4) = -90°
In Eq. (5), the negative sign indicates that the peak of
theoutput occurs after the peak of the input. This is
térrned a phase lag. It is also possible for the output peak
to occur before the input peak; and this is called a phase
lead.
Closed-loop applications
The parameters of gain and phase are fundamental for
understanding the behavior of a feedback loop. They are
especially important in the study of controller tuning
because both are functions of the period of the input
signal.
When a feedback control loop is upset by a change in
either the load conditions or setpoint, it will begin to
oscillate at some period characteristic of that loop. Every
elernent in that loop sees an input signal varying at that
periodo
66 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Beginning at an)" point in the loop, lct lISconsider the
cffects on that signal as it travels once .uouud the loop.
The signal is made larger or smal!er as it passcs through
cach elernent, according to the gain of that clcrnent. At
the same time, the signal will be somewhat displaced,
accorcling to the magnitude of the phasc angle associatcd
with. that element.
FÓr the cycle to continué, the total effect of thcse
displacements rnust equal 360 cleg., so that the signal
(1)
returns to the beginning point. Therefore: a feedback
control loop wil! cvcle at that period which makes the
sum of the phase angles equal to 360 cleg.
More irnportantly, the net effect on the size of the
signal clepends on the product of the individual gains, or
the open-loop gain, GOL:
COL = (GD)c(cD)JcD)p(c[)t (6)
where (cD)c is the dynarnic gain of the control!er, (cD)v is
(2) the dynamic gain of the valve, (Go)p is the dy-
namic gain of the process, and (cD)t is the dynamic gain
of the transmitter.
The dimensional units for the individual gains must be
specified in such a way so that they cancel when the
open-loop gain is calculated frorn Eq. (6). If that gain is
greater than 1.0, the signal will arrive at the beginning
larger than when it started, As it continues to travel
around the loop, it will continue to grow. At any one
(3)
point in the loop such as at the measurement input to the
controller, the signal will appear as an ever-increasing
oscillation. Therefore, a feedback control loop will be
stable only when the product of the dynamic gains in the
loop is less than 1.0.
Adjustments to proportional, integral and derivative
(4)
responses affect the gain and phase parameters of the
controller and, in turn, the behavior of the entire loop.
These concepts will be explored in subsequent artic!es of
this series.
Summary
The purpose of every control loop is to find the one
value for the control signal that holds the measurernent
at the setpoint for the existing load conditions. A feed-
back or feedforward approach may be used. In this
artiele, we have concentrated on feedback techniques. In
a later artic!e, we will cover the feedforward approach.
(5)
The next article in this CE REFRESHER will appear in
the Aug. 8 issue, and will analyze the actions and reac-
tions for basic feedback-control modes.
Steven Danatos, Editor
The author
Lewis M. c6rdo;' is a systems
application engineer at The Foxboro
Co., Foxboro, MA 02035. Currenüy. he
is in volved in advanced control systerns,
including process investigation, control-
syslem designo docurnentation and
startup. He also conducta serninars Ior
pcrsonnel at Foxboro and offplant sites,
Previously, Mr. Gordon spent sevcn
yeao~ wirh Foxboro Educational
Services. He has a B.S. and and M.S. in
mechanical engineering frorn me
University of California (Davis),
MAY 30, 1983