Running head: THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 1

The Impact of Technology on Early Childhood Education

Silhouette Todd

Madonna University

Managerial Research Design

BR 6430

Dr. William Kasperski

Winter 2015

A research project submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science Business Administration

Madonna University
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 2

2015
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 3

Approval

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

by

Silhouette Todd

Approved for content by: Approved for format by:

____________________________ _________________________________
Research Advisor Dean, The Graduate School

_____________________________ __________________________________
Date Date

Prior Review and Approval by Human

Subjects Review Committee:

__________________________________
Director, Center for Research

__________________________________
Date
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 4

Copyright 4 2015
by
Silhouette Todd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any

means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or

otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 5

Abstract

This research looks at the impact of electronic devices on early childhood learning. Do

electronic devices inhibit or promote children’s learning of basic reading, writing, math, and

critical thinking skills. With the proliferation of electronic and digital devices in everyday life,

children are provided electronic devices at very early ages. Parents and caregivers need to know

the impact these devices and technologies may have on children’s learning and development.

They need to understand which applications and devices support childhood literacy and promote

learning. Research has shown that children’s educational development is greater when teachers,

parents and other caregivers guide their use of electronic devices and digital technology. The

researcher performed a literature review on studies and projects related to the use of technology

for educational purposes. The research included in this work explores literacy facts in America.

It also explores a government-funded program designed to use digital media and technology to

improve the literacy gap between the children of low-income families and the children from

middle to high-income families. The researcher developed an online survey to obtain educators

opinions on the usefulness of technology and its impact on early childhood education.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 6

Table of Contents

Approval..........................................................................................................................................2

Copyright 4 2015.............................................................................................................................3

Abstract............................................................................................................................................4

Chapter 1 - Introduction...................................................................................................................7

Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................................7

Research Question........................................................................................................................8

Chapter 2 – Literature Review.......................................................................................................10

Overview....................................................................................................................................10

Digital World Literacy...............................................................................................................10

Social Skills................................................................................................................................12

Cognitive Skills..........................................................................................................................14

Books as Digital Text.................................................................................................................15

Television and Videos................................................................................................................16

Ready to Learn Grant.................................................................................................................16

Children with Special Learning Needs.......................................................................................19

Computers and Mathematics......................................................................................................20

Other Articles and Studies..........................................................................................................22

Literacy Facts and Stats..............................................................................................................23

Chapter 3 – Methodology and Procedures.....................................................................................26

Research Design.........................................................................................................................26
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 7

Hypothesis Statements...............................................................................................................26

Sample Selection Methodology..................................................................................................29

Assumptions...............................................................................................................................29

Limitations..................................................................................................................................30

Definition of Terms....................................................................................................................32

Chapter 4 – Analysis......................................................................................................................33

Analysis of Survey Responses...................................................................................................33

Discussion and Recommendation..............................................................................................38

References......................................................................................................................................39

Appendix........................................................................................................................................42

Survey Tool................................................................................................................................42

Research Integrity Training Certificates....................................................................................46

Approved Madonna University Center for Research Checklist.................................................49

Approved Madonna University Center for Research Application for Exemption.....................52

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 8

The Impact of Technology on Early Childhood Education

Chapter 1 - Introduction

Statement of the Problem

Literacy for Americans has been a primary concern for policy makers and educators for

decades. The billions of tax dollars used to fund educational programs to close the literacy

achievement gaps between low and middle-income children when they enter kindergarten

support this fact. Other literacy facts include:

 Two thirds of students who cannot read proficiently by the end of fourth grade will end up in

jail or on welfare.

 Over 70% of America’s inmates cannot read above a fourth grade level.

 One in four children in America grows up without learning how to read.

 Kids who do not read proficiently by fourth grade are 4 times likelier to drop out of school.

 As of 2011, America was the only free-market OECD (Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development) country where the current generation was less well educated

than the previous.

 Eighty-five percent of the juveniles who face trial in the juvenile court system are

functionally illiterate, proving that there is a close relationship between illiteracy and crime.

 More than 60% of all inmates are functionally illiterate.

 Seventy-five percent of Americans who receive food stamps perform at the lowest two levels

of literacy, and 90% of high school dropouts are on welfare.

 Girls, 16 to 19 years old who live at or below the poverty level and have below average

literacy skills are six times more likely to have children out of wedlock than the girls their

age who can read proficiently.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 9

 Reports show that low literacy directly costs the healthcare industry over $70 million every

year. ("Facts about literacy," n.d.)

While technology is not the end all to the literacy problem in the United States, research

has shown that the literacy gap decreases for preschool and kindergarten children introduced to

the appropriate type of technology under parent or teacher supervision. The researcher contends

that engaging children by making learning enjoyable is key to their educational success.

Research Question

As a grandmother of five children, ages 5 months, 17 months, 43 months, 46 months and

5 years and 11 months, the researcher is interested in this subject because, the researcher started

a tradition of giving iPad mini’s as second birthday gifts to the grandchildren. The first three

grandchildren are strongly attached to their iPad. One three-year-old girl (Silhouette, 43 months

old) makes videos of herself and family. She loves to sing and dance and although she is not a

conversationalist, she has mastered the song “Let it Go” from the movie Frozen. When away

from home, she spends considerable time watching her self-made videos. The next three-year-

old girl (Kassidy, 46 months old) spends her iPad time watching You Tube videos of dress up,

applying makeup, arts and crafts and watching her favorite videos, i.e. Frozen, My Little Pony,

and Care Bears. She also uses the magnetic board games requiring the user to match different

shapes, and use the magnetic board applications to practice alphabets and numbers. Charles,

now five years and eleven months old, loves action videos, Spider Man, Transformers, and

Scooby Doo. All three children love Angela and Tom the talking cats. The cat’s repeats sounds

it detects and the children love to hear the cats mimic their sounds, words, and phrases.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 10

The researcher found within weeks of Charles starting kindergarten that his fine motor

skills were under developed and he has a difficult time staying focused on assigned tasks. When

given a pencil and paper to practice writing, he would just cry and repeat, “I can’t do it.” The

grandmother then thought, “What have I done?” Would Charles have been more ready to write

if he did not spend the time exploring games and watching movies on the iPad? The teacher and

parent had a discussion and decided to take iPad access from Charles Monday through Friday.

Charles gets his iPad on weekends, provided he does his homework and in-class assignments.

For a short while, this strategy helped.

Because of the personal experience noted above, this researcher decided to explore the

topic: the impact of technology and early childhood learning. Should children be given

electronic devices as personal property? If so, at what age? What types of applications support

learning for young children? What limits should be placed on children’s use of electronic

devices like iPads, tablets, and notebook computers? This research will be beneficial to parents,

grandparents, teachers, and other childcare providers.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 11

Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Overview

The literature review begins with an overview of the literacy facts obtained from

organizations whose purpose is to develop ways to improve the literacy of adults and children.

We reviewed assessments prepared by the United States federal government on the status of

literacy in the United States and a federal grant program intended to improve literacy for

children. The Ready to Learn (RTL) grant’s initial focus was on television programming

designed to teach children basic reading, science, and math. Today, some 25 years later, the

RTL grant is still funding research and development of technologies (children’s website,

computer programs, electronic games, and applications for mobile devices) designed to improve

the literacy of children. We also reviewed other studies focused on technology, specifically

designed to improve children’s reading, math, and science skills.

Digital World Literacy

The One World Literacy Foundation (OWL) understands that rapid

technology advancements are changing the scenery of literacy and education. By

accepting and using technology, we are able to touch more people than ever before. This

allows us to provide a very cost-effective reading program to the global literacy

community. At OWL, we have found that students can attain vital literacy skills up to

40% more quickly when using a computer than without. Children around the world drift

towards technology. By making learning fun & interactive, it follows that children will
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 12

be encouraged to attend school and work harder…If we make effective use of the

advantages shaped by new technologies, then we will have an important tool to help

improve world literacy rates. ("Digital World Literacy," n.d.)

The Education.com website included excerpts from Julie Bullard’s book Creating

Environments to Learning: Birth to Age Eight. The information excerpted from the book related

to “How the Use of Technology Enhances Children’s Development” and included recommended

technology standards for children ages prekindergarten through second grades. The book

discusses how technology enhances children’s cognitive and social skills. The International

Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) established the technology standards included in

Bullard’s book. The standards state that by the end of second grade, children should be able to:

1. Use input devices (e.g., mouse, keyboard, remote control) and output devices

(e.g., monitor, printer) to successfully operate computers, VCRs, audiotapes, and

other technologies.

2. Use a variety of media and technology resources for directed and independent

learning activities.

3. Communicate about technology using developmentally appropriate and accurate

terminology.

4. Use developmentally appropriate multimedia resources (e.g., interactive books,

educational software, elementary multimedia encyclopedias) to support learning.

5. Work cooperatively and collaboratively with peers, family members, and others

when using technology in the classroom.

6. Demonstrate positive social and ethical behaviors when using technology.

7. Practice responsible use of technology systems and software.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 13

8. Create developmentally appropriate multimedia products with support from

teachers, family members, or student partners.

9. Use technology resources (e.g., puzzles, logical thinking programs, writing tools,

and digital cameras, drawing tools) for problem solving, communication, and

illustration of thoughts, ideas, and stories.

10. Gather information and communicate with others using telecommunications, with

support from teachers, family members, or student partners. (Bullard, 2009, p. 1)

Social Skills

Though initially some educators expressed concern that computers might reduce

socialization, researchers suggest that instead computers may increase the amount of

communication and positive interaction between children (Clements, 1994; Haugland &

Wright, 1997). For example, Muller and Perlmutter (1985) found that children

participated in interactions with others during 63% of computer play versus 7% of puzzle

play. Computers offer a unique environment that might encourage children who typically

do not interact with others to do so. “For many children the computer is a catalyst for

information sharing, language development, and decision making.” (Tsantis, Bewick, &

Thouvenelle, 2003, p. 7) Children engage in diverse social interactions when using the

computer including asking for help; directing others’ actions; providing information,

assistance, and instruction; managing turn taking; acknowledging each other;

commenting on each other’s actions; and disagreeing (Heft & Swaminathan, 2002;

Shahrimin & Butterworth, 2002). Although children seem to naturally assist each other

when using the computer, one classroom developed rules to assure interaction. These
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 14

included finding a friend (children were only allowed to play at the computer with a

friend), helping a friend (pointing, discussing, providing information, and sharing the

mouse), and taking turns (a timer helped to determine when it was the friend’s turn)

(Medvin, Reed, Behr, & Spargo, 2003). (Bullard, 2009, p. 1-2)

Often computer “experts” arise in classrooms and become teachers of the other

children. The teacher does not assign the experts to this role but instead the other

children bestow this title on them. Surprisingly, the computer expert often does not have

a computer at home. Experts are usually not the most proficient children at academics or

social skills, but they do gain communication and social skills as they help other children

(Hutinger, 1999). For example, in one kindergarten program the families were invited to

send emails to their children. Since the children were not yet proficient readers, they had

trouble reading the messages. That was when they discovered that Michael, a child with

autistic behaviors, could read. Each day he went from classmate to classmate reading

each of their messages. While in the past other children had ignored him, he was now

sought after. (Bullard, 2009, p. 2)

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 15

Cognitive Skills

As a tool, the computer has several advantages that can aide in children’s

cognitive development.

 Computers are motivating for young children, increasing their time in on-

task behavior. For example, one study found kindergarten children were

on-task 90% of the time when they were on the computer (Bergin, Ford, &

Hess, 1993).

 Computers provide consistent and frequent reinforcement (Parette,

Hourcade, & Heiple, 2000).

 Computers allow children to work independently at their own pace

(Parette et al., 2000).

 Software programs often provide extensive scaffolding of learning.

Scaffolding is very important in developing cognitive skills.

 The computer provides unique opportunities that may enhance learning.

For example, computers can allow children to access the “largest

information bank—with the broadest range of quality and utility—the

world has ever known” (Parette et al., 2000, p. 245). With the computer,

children can participate in simulations and manipulate variables that might

not be possible in the real world (Scoter et al., 2001). (Bullard, 2009, p. 2)
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 16

The best academic results are found when the use of technology is clearly related

to other classroom activities and curriculum. For example, when children are using a

software program that manipulates items, the teacher places the concrete items on the

table next to the computer or incorporates the items into classroom activities (Haugland,

1992). Research indicates that using a computer with supporting manipulative increases

children’s skills more than using only the manipulative or the computer alone (Clements,

1994; Haugland & Shade, 1994). (Bullard, 2009, p. 2-3)

While there are many cognitive advantages to using computers, there is danger in

using too much drill and skill software (Scoter et al., 2001). In one study, children’s

creativity was reduced by 50% after using this type of software (Haugland, 1992).

(Bullard, 2009, p. 3)

Books as Digital Text

Presenting children’s books as digital text with dictionaries or activities can lead to

improvements in phonological awareness, word reading skills, and vocabulary

knowledge for kindergarten and first-grade readers. Other studies with younger children

indicate that presenting high-quality children’s books on computers with multimedia

supports, such as the text being read aloud expressively with simultaneous highlighting of

the words being read, helps to improve children’s focus on and subsequent recognition of

words from the text, as well as their vocabulary. (Biancarosa & Griffiths, 2012 p. 144)
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 17

Television and Videos

Lauricella, Howard-Gola, and Calvert performed scientific research titled, “Toddlers’

Learning from Socially Meaningful Video Characters.”

Toddlers’ performance on a seriation-sequencing task was measured after exposure to a

video as a function of the social meaningfulness of the character. Forty-eight 21-month-

old toddlers were randomly assigned to a socially meaningful character video

demonstration, a less socially meaningful character video demonstration, or a no

exposure control group. Results indicated that toddlers learned the seriation-sequencing

task better from a video when a socially meaningful character, rather than a less socially

meaningful character, demonstrated the task. Our findings demonstrate that toddlers

under age two can learn cognitive, logical reasoning skills from a video presentation

when the onscreen character is socially meaningful to them.

(Lauricella, Howard Gola, & Calvert, 2011, p. 1)

Ready to Learn Grant

The U.S. Congress enacted law’s in early 1992 to address the issue of the failing

educational accomplishments of United States Citizen’s. The Ready to Learn (RTL) Act of 1992

established programs of grants, Ready to Learn Grants, to develop educational television

programming for preschool children. In addition, the grants developed instructional

programming for parents, teachers, and childcare workers and provided other materials to

enhance, effective use of such programming. The grants funded a contract with the Corporation

for Public Broadcasting (CPB) and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) to distribute

educational programming to public broadcast stations. The grant required at least one channel
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 18

on the PBS satellite, the Ready to Learn channel. The PBS station was required to carry: (1) at

least one hour per week of educational programming for preschool children; and (2) one minute

of ready-to-learn public service announcements directed at preschool children or their parents

during each hour of programming devoted primarily to children or families. (Ready to Learn

Act, 1992)

The U.S. Department of Educations’ RTL Grants focused on the research and design of

public broadcasting media enriched programs that would engage pre-school and kindergarten

children and have a positive effect on the literacy outcomes for low-income preschoolers.

Intervention efforts focused on promoting early literacy skills for low-income children because

research showed that elementary schools were not closing the literacy achievement gaps between

low and middle-income children when they enter kindergarten. With continuing positive results

with the special TV programming for children, the study evolved to include the use of specially

selected PBS videos in addition to other forms of technology in the classroom setting. Many of

the studies included training and coaching for early childhood educators on the proper way to use

the media and technology in the classroom. The grant funds provided media enrichment tools to

participants including videos, interactive games, interactive whiteboards, laptop computers, and

wireless internet routers. In 2005, the CPB and PBS examined the latest scientifically based

reading research and reinvented RTL to focus on multimedia content for early childhood literacy.

PBS Kid’s programs are now the basis for carefully designed web sites, computer games,

iPad apps, iPhone apps, online teacher and family resources, and print materials. PBS Kids is a

colorful and musical collection of websites based on favorite TV shows such as Clifford the Big

Red Dog, Teletubbies, Reading Rainbow, Super Why, the Electric Company, Between the Lions,

Pinky Dinky Doo, and Sesame Street (not all inclusive). Kids enjoy seeing their favorite
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 19

characters online, playing games with them, and singing along with the theme songs. They are

having fun while they are learning; the programming exposes children to essential keys to

learning reading, science and math, good behavior, social skills, and good citizenship.

The educational research funded by the RTL grants focuses on four basic literacy skills,

reading, writing, science, and math. The RTL grants resulted in a multitude of reports on

research that involved numerous field tests with children in pre-school and kindergarten

programs, their teachers, and parents. The Educational Development Center researchers, Shelley

Pasnik, Scott Strother, and Jennifer Schindel, in collaboration with the Stanford Research

Institute (SRI International) prepared a report, “Review of Research on Media and Young

Children’s Literacy” (2007), summarizing a review of 17 of the RTL research studies on various

interventions designed to positively affect young children’s literacy. The summary report

included studies that used multiple forms of media and technology, individually and in synergy.

The studies examined the impact of computer-based interventions on different reading, math, and

science skills including phonological awareness; word decoding, recognition and analysis; letter

knowledge; aural comprehension; fluency; and spelling.

Key Findings

Although there were many high-quality studies of television and literacy, only a few

studies compared literacy gains of students watching educational television shows with

those of a comparison group that did not watch shows. In these studies, students most

often attended scheduled viewing sessions over a multi-week period. The strongest

positive effects were for word recognition, phonological awareness, and vocabulary

(Pasnik et al., 2007, p. 10).

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 20

Seven studies focused on “talking books” as a strategy for teaching literacy. In

these studies, a researcher closely monitored students’ interactions to ensure

implementation. There were typically only a few sessions, and outcomes measured were

closely linked to the specific aims of the interventions. The strongest positive effects

were for story comprehension. (Pasnik et al., 2007, p. 16)

Seventeen studies examined the impact of computer-based interventions on

literacy. Most were small, but one was a large, multisite experimental study. The

primary goals of interventions were to increase phonological awareness and build

vocabulary. For the smaller studies, there were positive effects on phonological

awareness and word recognition. However, for the large field trial, there were no

positive effects on any literacy skills. (Pasnik et al., 2007, p. 21)

There were six large multisite studies of media synergy. Two relied on parent co-

viewing and reading with children and four integrated television with print curricula. The

effects of synergy studies involving parent co-viewing and prior Ready to Learn activities

were not significant. There were small positive effects for word recognition and

conventions of print in the studies that combined television viewing with literacy

curriculum activities. (Pasnik et al., 2007, p. 28)

Children with Special Learning Needs

Providing children with special learning needs with familiar technology increases their

chances of success not only in the classroom but also with self-esteem issues. Engaging the

children’s interest in the curriculum through technology does a lot to decrease the dropout rate

among students with special learning needs. As a result, the challenge of leaving no child behind

becomes easier to achieve (Wilson et al., 2011, p. 11).

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 21

Computers and Mathematics

Professor Douglas H. Clements, Department of Learning, and Instruction, Graduate

School of Education, New York State University at Buffalo published a journal article, titled

“Computers in Early Childhood Mathematics.” Clements included “empirical studies that have

investigated the implementation and use of computers in early childhood mathematics, from

birth to grade 3” (p. 160) in his work. Research performed by Clements and others “has

substantiated that computers can help young children learn mathematics” (p. 162). Major topics

included general issues of children using computers, the use, and effectiveness of various types

of computer programs for teaching and learning mathematics, and effective teaching strategies

using computers (Clements, 2002, p. 160). One computer-based project performed by Kromhout

& Butzin, 1993 (as cited in Clements, 2002), “showed positive and statistically significant

improvement across grades and schools for three areas, reading, mathematics, and total battery

scores” (p. 162). Among the topics included in Clements’ study are the “use computer-assisted

instruction (CAI) to practice arithmetic processes and to foster deeper conceptual thinking” (p.

162). Drill and practice software helps develop competence in counting and sorting skills (p.

162). CAI helps young children “develop higher order thinking skills” (p. 166), “Using

computer manipulatives children learn to understand and apply concepts such as symmetry,

patterns and spatial order” (p. 167). Comparable studies performed by Ragosta et al, 1981;

Lavin & Sanders, 1983; Niemiec & Walberg, 1984 (as cited in Clements, 2002) showed that “the

largest gains in the use of computer-aided instruction have been in mathematics for primary

grade children, especially in compensatory education”. In addition, Niemiec & Walberg, 1987

(as sited in Clements, 2002) reported, “10 minutes per day proved sufficient for significant gains;
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 22

20 minutes was even better. Positive effects were largest for students in the program for more

than one year, minorities, and children in the free-lunch programs. (Clements, 2002, p. 162)

Building Blocks is a National Science Foundation (NSF) -funded PreK to grade 2

software-based mathematics curriculum development project, designed to

comprehensively address the most recent mathematics standards. Building Blocks

materials were created upon explicit design principles and a nine-phase formative model

—they are truly research-based (details are provided in Clements, 2002a; Clements,

2002b; Sarama & Clements, in press). This summary presents initial summary research

on the first Building Blocks product, a preschool mathematics curriculum.

Based on theory and research on early childhood learning and teaching (Bowman,

Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Clements, 2001), we determined that Building Blocks’ basic

approach would be finding the mathematics in, and developing mathematics from,

children's activity. The materials are designed to help children extend and mathematize

their everyday activities, from building blocks to art to songs and stories to puzzles.

Activities are designed based on children's experiences and interests, with an emphasis on

supporting the development of mathematical activity. Therefore, the materials do not

rely on technology alone, but integrate three types of media: computers, manipulatives,

(and everyday objects), and print.

Conclusions and Implications Results indicate strong positive effects of the

Building Blocks materials, with achievement gains near or exceeding those recorded for

individual tutoring. We believe this is the result of implementing a curriculum built on

comprehensive research-based principles. The materials include research-based

computer tools, providing software analogs to critical mathematical ideas and processes.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 23

These are used, or implemented, with activities and a management system that guides

children through research-based learning trajectories. These activities-through-

trajectories connect children’s informal knowledge to more formal school mathematics.

In addition, such synthesis of curriculum/technology development as a scientific

enterprise and mathematics education research reduces the separation of research and

practice in mathematics and technology education. Funding from agencies such as the

NSF is necessary to carry out such comprehensive research and development projects.

We are presently evaluating a large-scale implementation of Building Blocks. (Clements

& Sarama, 2002, p. 1-3)

Other Articles and Studies

To obtain the perspective of educators on the use of computer technology with younger

children, Wood, Specht, Willoughby, and Mueller (2008) performed a study using a survey and a

focus group. The study included 50 educator participants across 10 different early childhood

educational facilities that worked with children ages two to five years old. In summary, the

survey responses and the focus group outcomes were comparable. The educators viewed

computer technology as a potentially positive, highly motivating addition to the early childhood

educational environment. Many felt that early exposure to technology would prepare children

for future school and life demands; however, they questioned the appropriateness of computer

technology for the younger preschoolers (2 to 3 years old). Most responses to the survey

questions indicated that providing access to technology in early education centers would provide

needed exposure to technology to children from low-income families. The educators anticipated

problems with high demand for computer use and not enough computers in a classroom, and

insufficient adult supervision to guide and coach the children’s computer activities. The
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 24

consensus among the group indicated educators anticipate the need for more technology training

for teachers and direct access to on-site technical support staff to ensure a successful outcome to

incorporating consistent computer usage in regular classroom activity. (Wood et al., 2008)

Literacy Facts and Stats

The Reading is Fundamental website (www.RIF.org) posts the following stats and facts:

 According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), a division of the U.S.

Department of Education, children who are read to at home enjoy a substantial advantage

over children who are not.

 Thirty-three percent of fourth grade public school students are at or below the “Basic” level

on the 2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading tests. Twenty-six

percent of 8th grade public school students performed at or below the “Basic” level on the

NAEP reading test (NCES, 2009).

 Among fourth graders, 53 percent of African American students, 52 percent of Hispanic

students, and 48 percent of American Indian students scored below the “Basic” level on the

NAEP reading test. Among eighth graders, 44 percent of African American students, 41

percent of Hispanic students, and 37 percent of American Indian students scored below the

“Basic” level on the NAEP reading test (NCES, 2009).

 Forty-nine percent of fourth graders eligible for free and reduced-price meals finished below

“Basic” on the NAEP reading test. Forty percent of eighth graders eligible for free and

reduced-price meals scored below “Basic” on the NAEP reading test (NCES, 2009).

 The number of high school seniors who read at or above “Proficient” has been declining

since 1992, according to the NAEP reading test (NCES, 2002).

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 25

 Children of all ages need year-round motivation to read and year-round access to books.

 Fifty-three percent of fourth graders report that they read for fun on their own “Almost Every

Day.” Among eighth graders, only 20 percent report reading for fun on their own “Almost

Every Day” (NCES, 2009).

 Fourth graders who reported reading for fun “Almost Every Day” scored 3 percent higher

(215) on the NAEP reading test than peers who reported reading “Never or Hardly Ever”

(195) (NCES, 2009).

 Fourth graders who reported having 25 books or more at home had higher scores on reading

tests than children who reported they did not have that many books (NCES, 2003).

 During the summer break, low-income students lose more than two months of reading

achievement (Cooper, 1996).

 Unequal access to summer learning opportunities during the elementary school years

explains two-thirds of the ninth grade achievement gap between lower- and higher-income

youth. In addition, low-income youth are less likely to graduate from high school or enter

college (Alexander et al., 2007).

 Parents consistently cite summer as the most difficult time to ensure that their children have

productive things to do (Duffett et al., 2004).

 Families play an important role in their children’s reading success.

 Forty-three percent of adults read at or below the “Basic” level. This accounts for roughly 93

million individuals (NAAL, 2003).

 Twenty-six percent of children who are read to at home three to four times a week

recognized all letters of the alphabet versus 14 percent of children who were read to less

frequently (NEA, 2009).

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 26

 Where parent involvement is low, the classroom mean average is 46 points below the

national average. Where parent involvement is high, classrooms score 28 points above the

national average—a gap of 74 points (NEA, 2009).

 Less than half of families read to their kindergarten-age children on a daily basis (West et al.,

2000). (http://www.rif.org/us/about/literacy-facts-and-stats.htm)
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 27

Chapter 3 – Methodology and Procedures

Research Design

The purpose of the quantitative research study is to obtain the views and opinions of

educators on the impact of technology on early childhood literacy. The researcher will collect

educators’ opinions and views via a 20-question survey with an informed consent letter using

Qualtrics, an online survey tool. The survey respondents will remain anonymous. Generic

personal information included is profession, experience level, and gender. Upon completing data

collection, we will download the data onto the researchers’ personal computer where various

statistical tests will be performed. For all hypotheses in this study, α = .05

Hypothesis Statements

1. Hypothesis 1

Chi-square tests for independence

Ho – The educator’s years of experience is independent from the belief that electronic devices

has a positive impact on children’s ability to read, think, and understand real world activity.

Question five (V1) - Years of experience.

Question 11.8 (V2) – Electronic devices have a positive impact on children’s ability to read,

think, and understand real world activity.

 Ho: V1 and V2 are independent.

 Ha: V1 and V2 are not independent.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 28

2. Hypothesis 2

Two-sample t-test

Ha – The mean of educators that believe electronic devices should be used for entertainment is

less than the mean of the respondents who recommend the use of electronic devices for

entertainment.

Question 11.6, µ₁, electronic devices should be used as a learning aide.

Question 11.3, µ₂, electronic devices should be used for entertainment.

 Ho: µ₁ ≥ µ₂

The mean of the respondents that recommend the use of electronic devices as a learning

aide is greater than or equal to the mean of the respondents who recommend the use of

electronic devices for entertainment.

 Ha: µ₁ < µ₂

The mean of the respondents that recommend the use of electronic devices as a learning

aide is less than the mean of the respondents that recommend the use of electronic

devices for entertainment.

3. Hypothesis 3

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) single factor

Ha: At least one significant difference exists between the means for questions 11.7 through

question 11.10.

Q11.7 (1) Children who use electronic devices learn to count faster than children who do

not use electronic devices.

Q11.8 (2) Electronic devices have a positive impact on children’s ability to read, think, and

understand real world activity.

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 29

Q11.9 (3) Children who use electronic devices on a regular basis have a larger vocabulary

than children who do not.

Q11.10 (4) Children who use electronic devices grasp mathematical concepts at a faster rate

than children who do not use electronic devices.

Ho: 1 = 2 =3 = 4

Ha: At least one mean is different

4. Hypothesis 4

T-test for proportions

Ha: Less than 50% of the respondents use three or more electronic devices in the classroom.

  Ho: p ≥ 0.50

 Ha: p < 0.50
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 30

Sample Selection Methodology

The researcher sent an email to friends and family educators explaining that research was

to fulfill requirements for a Master’s Degree at Madonna University. The researcher also

included information required to ensure the respondents were aware of their rights and that the

survey was anonymous and required no identifying information. The researcher requested that

only pre-k through elementary school educators complete the electronic survey and that the

participant forwarded the Qualtrics survey link to other educators. The Qualtrics online survey

link was included in the introductory email.

Assumptions

 The researcher assumed that all the survey respondents were educators of children from

two to twelve years old.

 The researcher assumed that each survey respondent understood the consent form at the

beginning of the survey and completed the survey, independently, and based on free will.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 31

Limitations

The researcher initially met with the Principal of one Southfields’ Public Schools to

request that the school send the survey link to elementary school teachers. The Principal

informed the researcher that Southfield public school policy required that district administrators

respond to all such requests. The researcher took a written letter requesting Southfield Public

Schools participation to the administrative office and followed up with telephone calls and email

requests. The researcher then sent email requests to Dearborn, Inkster, Lansing, Livonia,

Plymouth-Canton, Southfield, and Wayne-Westland school districts. The request specifically

asked each district to send the survey link to elementary school teachers within their school

district and to sign and return the attached approval form, APPENDIX A, Agency Permission for

Data Collection for a Research for Student Project. Some school districts responded stating their

decision not to participate and others did not respond. As a result, the researcher requested

selected family members and friends who were educators to complete the survey and encouraged

them to forward the survey link to other elementary educators. The researcher followed up with

a reminder every 30 days. The survey resulted in 38 responses from November 20, 2014 through

March 28, 2015. The researcher’s goal was to have at least 200 respondents.

Only 38 educators responded to the survey. Of that number, only one male responded.

Three of the planned statistical tests compared the opinions of male and female educators. There

was insufficient data to perform those tests that measured and compared responses based on

gender. The survey question that identified the gender of the respondent was not used in any of

the statistical tests.

The researcher believed there were differences in the opinions and attitudes of educators

based on their professional specialties, i.e. classroom teachers, counselors, reading specialist,
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 32

special education resource, and administrator. Question three asked educators to identify their

specialty. The researcher decided that because of the small sample size, question three was not

useful, 29 (76%) of the 38 respondents were classroom teachers. We did not use survey question

3 in any of the statistical tests.

Survey question four requested the educators to indicate years of work experience in four

and five-year increments, ranging from less than 5 years to more than 20 years. The researcher

believed that identifiable differences would exist in the respondents’ opinions and attitudes

regarding electronic devices, based on the respondents’ years of experience. Specifically, the

researcher believed that the attitudes of respondents with fewer years of experience were more

likely to favor children’s use of electronic devices at an early age for both educational and

entertainment purposes. In contrast, the researcher believed that the educators with more years’

experience would be less likely to promote the use of electronic devices with children of all ages,

but especially with the younger children for both educational and entertainment purposes. The

researcher decided to collapse the responses into three groups: agree, neutral, and disagree, and

age groups of less than 10 years, between 11 and 20 years, and more than 20 years.

The researcher believed that survey question five and question six would identify the age

of children using electronic devices in the respondents’ classrooms. Questions 5 and question

six were not correctly stated. The questions did not restrict responses enough to be useful; there

were 59 responses from the sample population of 38 for question 5 and 70 responses for question

6. We did not use survey questions five and six in any of the statistical tests.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 33

Definition of Terms

 Media synergy is combining different forms of media to obtain a goal. “Recent research

has confirmed the hypothesis and shown that teaching reading through a combination of

media—known as “media synergy”—is even more powerful than predicted.” (2005-

2010 RTL, 2011, p. 17)

 Interactive media refers to digital and analog materials, including software programs,

applications (apps), broadcast and streaming media, some children’s television

programming, e-books, the Internet, and other forms of content designed to facilitate

active and creative use by young children and to encourage social engagement with other

children and adults. (Technology Tools, 2012, p. 1)

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 34

Chapter 4 – Analysis

Analysis of Survey Responses

Hypothesis 1

Chi-square tests 3 x 3 test for independence

Ho: V1 and V2 are independent. Ha: V1 and V2 are not independent.

Table 1

Chi-Square Test for Independence

Observed Frequencies
Column Variable
Row Variable 10 years or less 11 to 20 years 20 years or more Total
Agree 11 8 8 27
Neutral 2 0 3 5
Disagree 2 1 3 6
Total 15 9 14 38

Expected Frequencies
Column Variable
Row Variable 10 years or less 11 to 20 years 20 years or more Total
Agree 10.65789 6.394737 9.947368 27
Neutral 1.973684 1.184211 1.842105 5
Disagree 2.368421 1421053 2.210526 6
Total 15 9 14 38

Data
Level of Significance 0.05
Number of Rows 3
Number of Columns 3
Degrees of Freedom 4

Results
Critical Value 9.487729
Chi-Square Test Statistic 3.171581
p-Value 0.529533
Do not reject the null hypothesis
Expected frequency assumption is met.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 35

Outcome: p-Value is > than .05, this supports our decision to FAIL TO REJECT Ho.

Educators' years of experience are independent of the belief that electronic devices have a

positive impact on children’s ability to read, think, and understand real world activity.

Hypothesis 2

Two-sample t-test

Ho: µ₁ ≥ µ₂ Ha: µ₁ < µ₂

To determine the variance in the populations of Q3 and Q6 we performed an F test for the

equality of the two population variances to determine which t-test to use, where Ho: q32 = q62,

and Ha: q32 ≠ q62. The f-test outcome resulted in a p-value of .1608. The p-value > greater than .

05. WE FAILED TO REJECT Ho. The variances of the two populations were equal. Since

there is not sufficient evidence of a difference in the variance of the population of those who

recommend electronic devices for learning aids and those that recommend electronic devices for

entertainment, we will use the two-sample t-test assuming the population variances are equal.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 36

The t-test calculator resulted in a lower critical value of -1.6449 and a p-value of 2.4E-08.

We FAILED TO REJECT Ho. There is insufficient evidence to conclude that the mean of

educators that believe electronic devices be used as a learning aide, is less than the mean of the

educators who believe that electronic devices should be uses for entertainment.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 37

Hypothesis 3

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) single factor

Ho: 1 = 2 =3 = 4 Ha: At least one mean is different

We used the data analysis tool in excel to calculate ANOVA. The resulting F-statistic is

2.3570, P-value of 0.0742, and critical value (F crit) is 2.6662. Since the critical value is greater

than our F-statistic, we FAIL TO REJECT Ho and conclude that, no significant differences exist

between the educators’ attitudes for questions seven through ten. In addition, the P-value is

greater than alpha; this supports our decision to FAIL TO REJECT Ho.

Q11.7 (1) Children who use electronic devices learn to count faster than children who do

not use electronic devices.

Q11.8 (2) Electronic devices have a positive impact on children’s ability to read, think, and

understand real world activity.

Q11.9 (3) Children who use electronic devices on a regular basis have a larger vocabulary

than children who do not.

Q11.10 (4) Children who use electronic devices grasp mathematical concepts at a faster rate

than children who do not use electronic devices.

The average score for each of the statements using the seven point Likert scale ranged

between 3.05 for question number 11.8 and 3.86 for question number 11.9. The Likert scale

ranged from strongly agree (numerical value of 1) to strongly disagree (numerical value of 7),

3.05 through 3.86 are within the range of agreement, not strong agreement and no degree of

disagreement.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 38

Hypothesis 4

Z-test for one proportion

Ha: Less than 50% of the respondents use three or more electronic devices in the

classroom.

Z-test for the proportion of one population

What is the hypothesized value for the proportion π ? 0.5
What is your level of significance (alpha) ? 0.05
How many successes did you observe in your sample? 27
What is the size of your sample (n) ? 38
Calculated Z Test Statistic 2.595542738
Use this second section ONLY when testing Ha: π < specific value

Lower-Tail Test  
Lower Critical Value -1.644853627
p-Value 0.995277917
Do not reject the null hypothesis  
 Ho: π ≥ 0.50 Ha: π < 0.50

Conclusion: Sufficient evidence exists to prove that the proportion of educators who use

three or more devices in the classroom is not less than 50%. We FAIL TO REJECT Ho.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 39

Discussion and Recommendation

The outcome of the tests supports our research. Overall educators believe that electronic

devices are a useful teaching tool and are a recommended learning aide for young children. This

researcher has concluded that it is not harmful to provide 2-year-old children with iPads.

However, it would be wise to encourage children to develop their fine motor skills by making

sure they become acquainted with writing and using pencils, paper, crayons, and markers as

early as possible. In addition, parents should closely monitor children’s use of electronic

devices. Only appropriate applications should be on the device and internet access should not

be allowed until the child is of the appropriate age.

To get better response rate, future studies could include parent respondents. In addition,

the researcher could attend Parent Teacher Association meetings and with the help of a research

assistant, request that teachers complete a hardcopy of the survey on the spot.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 40

References

11 facts about literacy in America. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.dosomething.org/facts/11-facts-about-literacy-america

Biancarosa, G., & Griffiths, G. G. (2012). Technology tools to support reading in the digital age.

Future of Children, 22 (2), 139-160. Retrieved from

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ996196.pdf

Bullard, J. (2009). How the use of technology enhances children’s development. Retrieved from

http://www.education.com/reference/article/technology-enhance-children-development/

Clements, D. H. (2002). Computers in early childhood mathematics. Contemporary Issues in

Early Childhood, 3(2), 160-181. Retrieved from

http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/validate.asp?

j=ciec&vol=3&issue=2&year=2002&article=2_Clements_CIEC_3_2

Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2002). Effects of a preschool mathematics curriculum: Research

on the NSF building blocks project. Retrieved from

http://gse.buffalo.edu/org/buildingblocks/curriculumframe.htm

Den, L. (2012, May 2). The homeschool den: Technology in education and in your homeschool

(part 1) [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.parents.com/blogs/homeschool-

den/2012/05/02/technology/technology-in-education-and-in-your-homeschool-part-1/

Digital world literacy. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.oneworldliteracyfoundation.org/index.php/digital-world-literacy.html

Findings from ready to learn 2005 - 2010 [Research Report]. (2011). Retrieved from

Corporation Public Broadcasting website:

http://www.cpb.org/rtl/FindingsFromReadyToLearn2005-2010.pdf
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 41

Goals 2000. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goals_2000

Hupert, N., DeGroof, E., & Cervantes, F. (2010). A report on the technological enhancements

project evaluation: Deepening early learning experiences through technology. Retrieved

from Educational Development Centers website:

http://cct.edc.org/sites/cct.edc.org/files/publications/SuplFinalReportSmall.pdf

Lauricella, A. R., Howard Gola, A. A., & Calvert, S. L. (2011). Toddlers’ learning from socially

meaningful video characters. Media Psychology, 14, 216-232.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2011.573465

Lauricella, A. R., Howard-Gola, A. A., & Calvert, S. L. (2011). Toddlers’ learning from

socially meaningful video characters. Retrieved from Building Blocks Website:

http://cdmc.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/socially_meaningful_characters2.pdf

McManis, L. D., Gunnewig, S. B., & McManis, M. H. (2010). Exploring the contribution of a

content-infused interactive whiteboard for school readiness. Retrieved from

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED530541.pdf

Pasnik, S., Strother, S., Schindel, J., Penuel, W. R., & Llorente, C. (2007). Review of research

on media and young children’s literacy. Retrieved from

http://rtl.cct.edc.org/pdf/RTLLiteratureReview.pdf

Ready to Learn Act, § 102-545 (1992)

Technology and interactive media tools in early childhood programs serving children from birth

through age 8 [A joint position statement of the National Association for the Education

of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media

at Saint Vincent College]. (2012). Retrieved from National Association for the Education
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 42

of Young Children website:

http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PS_technology_WEB2.pdf

Wilson, C. H., Brice, C., Carter, E. I., Fleming, J. C., Hay, D. D., Hicks, J. D., ... Weaver, J.

(2011). Familiar technology promotes academic success for students with exceptional

learning needs. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED530541.pdf

Wood, E., Specht, J., Willoughby, T., & Mueller, J. (2008, summer). Integrating computer

technology in early childhood education environments: Issues raised by early childhood

educators. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 54(2), 210-226. Retrieved from

http://ajer.journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/ajer/index.php/ajer/article/view/630
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 43

Appendix

Survey Tool
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 44
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 45
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 46
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 47

Research Integrity Training Certificates

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 48
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 49
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 50

Approved Madonna University Center for Research Checklist

THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 51
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 52
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON EARLY CHILDHOOD 53

Approved Madonna University Center for Research Application for Exemption