Review of Literature

Section One: ESP Literary Review

2.1. Introduction
The primary goal of the following chapter is to clarify the concept ESP- English for
specific purposes- as a part of English language teaching, then to understand the notion of
motivation as being an essential part of the ESP teaching and learning. So, the present chapter
will be divided into two parts. On the one hand, the first part furnishes a theoretical
background of ESP highlighting the main features connected to it. We will also have a look at
the origins and the historical development of ESP. Then, we will shed light on the ESP tree
family from which we will distinguish some of its types. After we will attempt to know what
methodology or approach which is efficient in the case of ESP teaching. On the other hand,
the second part will be devoted for the general literary Motivation review. It strives to provide
define the concept motivation, and its prime leading theories. Then, we will concentrate on
the basic kinds of motivation, and how is it related to other concepts as learning strategies and
learners’ attitudes. We will, also, distinguish some of the essence factors that contribute in
learners’ motivation development, and how can teachers improve their student’s motivation
for language learning, i.e. motivational techniques and strategies.
2.2. Overview of ESP
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) arose as a term in the 1960’s as it became ever
more aware that general English courses frequently did not meet learner or employer’s needs.
Hence, ESP is centered on the language appropriate to learners’ activities.
2.1.1. ESP Definitions
English for specific purposes means teaching or studying English for a particular
career like law, medicine or for business in general, i.e. there is a specific reason for which
English is learned.
There are almost as many definitions of ESP as the number of scholars who have
attempted to define it. Pauline. C. Robinson (1989) describes ESP as a type of English
language teaching (ELT). To be more specific, ESP is a goal slanted towards language
learning as argued by Pauline Robinson (1989, 39) That is to say; students have a specific
objective that they want to reach.
Furthermore, Mackay and Mountford (1978) define ESP as the teaching of English
for a clearly utilitarian purpose (p. 2). The purpose they refer to is clarified by the needs of
learners, which could be academic, occupational, or scientific. In other words, ESP meets the
needs of adult learners who need to learn English for use in their specific fields, such as
science, technology. ESP combines a subject matter and English language teaching, a
combination that is highly motivating because students can apply what they learn in their
English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management,
computer science or engineering. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they
learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation. So,
most definitions of what ESP is concur with three key topics:
- The nature of language to be taught and used.

- The learners.
- The settings.
These three aspects of ESP are closely connected to each other, and can be combined
to establish ESP which is said to be briefly the teaching of specific and unique English
(specialized discourse) to learners (adults in their majority), who will use it in a particular
setting (laboratory, hospital, etc.) in order to achieve their goal.
2.2.2 Origins and Development of ESP
As with most developments in human activity, ESP was a phenomenon that grew out
of a number of converging trends. These trends have operated in a variety of ways around the
world. But in general, three main reasons common to the emergence of all ESP are identified
by Hutchinson & Waters (1987):
1. The demand of a brave World.

2. The Oil Crises.
3. A revolution in linguistics.
4. Focus on the learner.
2.2.2.1. The Demand of A Brave World
The end of the Second World War in 1945 was an indication of an enormous age and
a top score expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international
balance. This expansion created world unified and dominated by two forces: Technology and
commerce which in their persistent progress soon generated a demand for an international
language.
The effect was to create a whole new mass of people wanting to learn English
because it is the key to the International currency of technology. Previously the reasons for
learning English or any other language was just to speak it. However, as English has becomes
an international language of technology and commerce, it has created a new generation of
learners who knew specifically why they were learning English. Each new learner is
acquainted with the cause for which he needs English.
2.2.2.2 The Oil Crisis
Previously Explained, such a development was accelerated by the Oil Crisis of the
early 1970s, which resulted in a massive flow of funds and western expertise into the oil rich
countries. English suddenly has become a big business and commercial pressures began to
exert an influence. Time and money led to the creation of effective need courses which clearly
defined goals. By now, English has become the subject matter to the needs and demands of
people.
2.2.2.3 Linguistic Revolution
As great demand of English courses was growing, influential new ideas begun to
emerge in the study of language. Traditionally, the aim of linguistics had been to describe the
rules of English usage that is grammar. Yet, the new studies shift to the discovery of the ways
in which English is actually used in real communication (Widdowson, 1978). The result is
that the languages spoken vary considerably from one context to another for example:
Teaching English for Commercial reasons differ from that of Engineering.
At the late of 1960s and early 1970s, researches were carried out on the nature of
particular varieties of English; most of the work at that time was in Scientific English (EST)
and for a time ESP and EST were regarded as synonyms.
In short, the researchers saw that the English needed by a particular group of learners
could be identified by analyzing the linguistic characteristics of their specialty .Tell me what
you need English for and I will tell you the English that you need became the guiding
principle of ESP.
2.2.2.4 Focus On The Learner
A new development in educational psychology also contributed to the rise of ESP, by

emphasizing on learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners were seen to have different
needs and interests, which have an important impact on their motivation to learn and therefore
on their success. This led to the development of the English courses in which students ‘need
and interests were of paramount importance, and would thereby greatly improve and make
their learning better and faster. On the whole, the growth of ESP, then, was brought about by
a combination of three major factors:
- The expansion of demand for English to suit particular need

- Development in the field of linguistics.
- Educational psychology.
These three features seemed to point toward the need for increased specialization in
language learning. But one may ask: what are the basic characteristics of ESP? Scholars Tony
Dudley-Evans and Maggie Jo St John (1998) divided the features of ESP into two groups
according its ´absolute´ and ´variable´ attributes. As far as the absolute characteristics are
concerned, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998, 4) consider that:
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners.

2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves.
3. ESP is centered not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register) but also skills,
discourses and genres appropriate to those activities.
Whereas the variable characteristics are described in five points:

1. ESP may be designed for specific disciplines.
2. ESP may use different methodology from that of General English, in specific
teaching situations.
3. ESP is possible to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution
or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary
school level.
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems.
The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very
helpful in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP.
From the definition, it can see that ESP can but not necessarily be concerned with a
specific discipline, nor is it for a certain age group or ability sort. ESP should be seen simple
as an 'approach' to teaching. This is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson Al. who
state:
"ESP is an approach to language teaching in which

all decisions as to content and method are based on the
learners’ reason for learning". This definition shows how wide
ESP really is.
Hutchinson Al (1987;19)
2.3. Distinction between ESP and GE
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) believe that there are big differences between ESP
and GE as they said: "In theory nothing, in practice a great deal"; they stated that the main
dissimilarity is in the awareness of the need.
In1987, the above sentence was quiet true when the teachers of general English
recognize the learners’ purpose for studying English but rarely conduct a needs analysis to
find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. However, teachers nowadays are more
aware of the value of NA, and more careful in selecting the right material which equals the
goals of the learner. So, this may show the influence that the ESP approach has had on
English teaching in general. Yet, still the difference between ESP and GE vague.
Rather ironically, many GE teachers can be described as using an ESP approach,

they base their programs on learners’ needs analysis plus their own specialist knowledge of
using English. Contrary to some ESP teachers who are becoming slaves to the published
textbooks or using inappropriate course books (if they do not find the suitable one). At the
university level in particular, they are also unable to conduct students' needs analysis; the
student tend not to know what English abilities are required by the profession he hopes to
enter; this is because teachers are unable to evaluate their levels based on personal experience
when evaluating materials and considering course goals.
Therefore, the major difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning
English. Besides, ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar
and language structures that is the aims of GE. ESP covers subjects varying from accounting
computer science to tourism and business management. In some cases, people with
inadequate proficiency in English need to be taught to handle specific jobs. In such cases
English is taught for specific purposes so that the employees will have full control on the
language. However, ESP has a wide scope such as: English for Occupational purposes (EOP)
and English for Academic Purposes (EAP). It is said that ESP course aims are determined by
the learners. ESP is often divided into EAP and EOP. Further sub-divisions of EOP are
sometimes made into business English, professional English (e.g. English for doctors,
lawyers) and vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, nursing, and aviation).
2.4. ESP Divisions
The following figure represents the several kinds of ESP; English for Science
and Technology, English for Business and Economics Purposes (EBE) and English for Social
Studies (ESS) represent the principal fields of ESP.
English for
Technicians
E
nglish
for
Medical
En En
glish for glish for
En En
glish for glish for
E E E E
E E
English English
for Science and for Business and English for
Technology(EST) Economics (EBE) Social Sciences
English
for Specific
Purposes (ESP)
General
English (GE)
Studied for
English
as a Foreign
Language (EFL)
English English English

as Mother Language as Second
Figure 2.1.The Tree of ELT

(Howard B. Altman and Peter Strevens; 1987; Page 17)

Most researchers speak about two or three major divisions of ESP. Robinson (1991)
made two great distinctions: English for Occupational Purposes (EOP), and English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) with English for Science and Technology (EST) cutting across the
two of them.
English for Specific

Purposes (ESP)
English for English for

Occupational Purposes Academic Purposes
English for Science and

Technology (EST)
Figure 2.2.ESP Sub-Branches
Kennedy and Bolitho (1985) see EST as a third major division in the ESP family
tree. They say that it is important to recognize that EST has contributed to the development of
ESP because scientists and technologists needed to learn English to deal with linguistic tasks
common to the nature of their professions.
2.4.1. English For Academic Purposes (EAP)
The “specific purpose” most common within the university students is the reading of
specialist literature in English. So, an agreement was reached to emphasis largely on a general
course content to cover common problems (such as reading strategies), rather than specific
courses according to the students’ field (e.g. English for Engineers).
2.4.2. English For Occupational Purposes (EOP)

The above figure stands for some of EOP types; Business English, Professional
English and Vocational English are three of the main fields EOP.
English for Occupational

Purposes (EOP)
Busines Professional Vocational
s English English (E.g. English for English
doctors, lawyers)
Figure 2.3.Example of EOP Areas
In addition, Carver (1983) indicates that EOP should be the central point of ESP.
That is: EOP is an area of ESP, and should be seen in the overall context of ESP because it
shares the important elements of NA, syllabus design, course design, and materials selection
and which are common to all fields of work in ESP. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) on their
turn have developed a "Tree of ELT" in which they clearly subdivided ESP branches. ESP is
broken down into three branches:
- English for Science and Technology (EST).

- English for Business and Economics (EBE).
- English for Social Studies (ESS).
Each of the above subject areas is further divided into two branches:
- English for Academic Purposes (EAP).
- English for Occupational Purposes (EOP).
In addition, Carter's basis for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of ESP
is that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP is the same: employment.
2.4.3. English For Science And Technology (EST)

The rapid advances of Technology gave birth to a new language called EST; English
for Science and technology. EST belongs to ESP approach; that is, EST is in the context of
ESP. EST started soon after the Second World War when a large expansion in scientific,
technical and economic activity began. The world was dominated by technology and
commerce. Hence, the aim of states and educational institutions was to develop people who
wanted to learn English. They knew what they would use, the knowledge of special English
for “Learners were seen to have different needs and interests, which would have an important
influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning”
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1992, Page 96).
This kind of English EST is important not only in scientific and technological
activities but also in universities which are responsible for providing EST-related English
skills to an ever-expanding population of science and technology students.
“EST is known to have been developed especially rapidly.

English for Science and Technology has always set and
continues to set the trend in theoretical discussion, in ways
analyzing language and the variety of actual teaching
materials”
(Swales, 1985,
page 96)
Many theorists started producing EST courses and syllabuses, which would give
priority to the language and learners’ needs. Thus ESP and its branch EST are the approaches
to language learning-teaching in which the choice of the content and techniques are based on
the learners’ reasons to study. In other words, EST courses are usually taught designed to
teach students the ability to read and write the scientifically and technologically oriented
English that they are likely to encounter in their professional careers. Therefore, the following
quotation clearly shows that EST is considered by the majority as an indistinguishable part of
ESP.
“Much of the demand for ESP has come from scientists

and technologists who need to learn English for a number
of purposes connected with their specializations. It is
natural; therefore, that English for Science and
Technology (EST) should be an important aspect of ESP
programmes”
(Kennedy and Bolitho, 1990, page 96)

2.5. The Basic Conceptions of ESP
Five conceptions are considered to be the foundations, essential features of ESP.

Swale (1990) uses the term 'enduring conceptions' that is permanent principles to refer to
them. These five conceptions are:
- Authenticity.
- Research-base.
- Language/text.
- Need and learning Methodology.
These five conceptions originate from both the real world that is the 'target situation'
of the ESP and ESP pedagogy. It is therefore essential to discuss each of them in an attempt to
survey the development and directions of ESP.
2.5.1. Authenticity
Authenticity was the earliest concept to emerge from the development of ESP. The
first generation of ESP materials that appeared in the mid-1960s took skills as their principal
means of selection (Close, 1992). ESP teachers would need to establish the skills priorities of
students in order to develop appropriate ESP teaching materials. As Close (1992) argues, the
conception of authenticity is central to the approach taken to the reading skill.
As previously explained, ESP aims at developing communicative competence, which

could be achieved only through an adoption of authentic materials that serve the needs of
learners in different fields such: as aviation, business, technology, etc.
Some courses prepare learners for various academic programs. Others prepare
learners for work in the fields such as law, medicine, engineering, etc. The problem that
frequently arises with such ESP courses is the teachers' dependence on published textbooks
available. These textbooks rarely include authentic materials in their design. A trained teacher
should, therefore, resort to supplementary material that compensate for the lack of
authenticity in textbooks. Skills-based approaches to ESP have enlarged the conception of

authenticity in two types:
2.5.1.1. Authenticity of Text
This was developed as to include more texts available, and, at the same time, was
narrowed in the sense that in each skill, a distinction is made between different types of texts
of the same skill. For example: Reading may be sub-divided into: reading reports, reading
technical journals, reading instruction manuals, etc.
2.5.1.2. Authenticity of Task
Authenticity of Task means designing tasks requiring students to practice texts as

they would in the real world. That is the tasks designed for students would be particularly
planned for helping them in the real life, depending on students' needs and the target, for
instance: a task Business with a special vocabulary related to that domain would serve them in
their jobs. In other words, ESP learners are required to use ESP materials which employed the
same skills and strategies as would be required in the target situation (Morrow, 1980)
2.5.2. Research Base
The first scholars who have pointed out to the importance and the need for a research
base for ESP and call for a program of research into ESP registers are Halliday, McIntosh and
Strevens (1964). The principal limitation of this approach was a research conception of text as
register, restricting the analysis to the word and sentence levels as register.
2.5.3. Language/Text
In the 1990s, there was a project called Seaspeak in applied linguistics and language
engineering published in 1987-1988, (a Restricted Language adopted in 1988 by the
International Maritime Organization (Imo)of the United Nations for use in ship-to-ship and
ship-to-shore communications as a necessary consequence of vastly increased shipping during
the 1960s–70s.) It was the establishment for the first time of an International Maritime
English. Strevens and Johnson (1983) explain that other ESP projects were published later as
a result of the success of the first project. Strevens and Johnson (1983) specifically argued
that one might usefully distinguish two kinds of ability which ESP Course aims to develop:
The first is the ability to recognize how sentences are used in the performance of
communication acts, or the ability to understand the stylistic functioning of
language in use.
The second is the ability to recognize and manipulate the formal strategies which
are used to combine sentences to create continuous passages of prose. Briefly
speaking, the first has to do with rhetorical unity of discourse whereas the second
with the grammatical structure of text.
In practice, however, the discourse-analysis approach tended to concentrate on the

grammar of sentences, but now attention shifted to understanding how sentences were
combined in discourse to produce meaning. The concern hence is to identify the
organizational patterns in texts and to specify the linguistic means by which these patterns are
signaled. These patterns would then form the syllabus of the ESP course.
The analysis of this approach seeks to see the text as a whole rather than as a
collection of isolated units. According to Johnson (1995), this can be achieved by trying to
identify the overall pattern of the text through a series of phases or 'moves'. The major
difference between discourse analysis and genre analysis is that, while discourse analysis
identifies the functional components of text, genre analysis enables the material’s writer to
arrange these functions into a series to capture the overall structure of such texts.
2.5.4. Need and Learning Methodology
One of the most important aspects that have been addressed frequently in the
literature on ESP is learning needs. All language teaching should be designed for the “specific
learning and language use purposes of identified groups of students” (Mackay and Mountford,
1978: 6). Thus, a systematic analysis of these specific learning needs and language use
purposes (communication needs) is a requirement for making the content of a language
programmes relevant to the learners’ needs.
The definition of “purposes” is essentially a decision that should lead ESP learners to
be aware of the ways in which this component of the language teaching program is possible to
help them achieve immediate learning needs and potential professional needs. A question, in
the context of needs assessment that is often asked with respect to ESP, who should be
involved in the definition of such needs?
Obviously, the teachers themselves are the most concerned in this process. But, it
appears essential that both the learners and their potential employers are given an opportunity
to voice their own views in the matter. Before beginning a NA one should first know whether
students will use English at university or in their job or not. In case they will not use it; ESP is
not a reasonable option for the university’s English language program. Whereas if they will
use English; then ESP is probably the brightest option for the university curriculum. ESP
begins with some basic questions to survey what will be needed.
Deficiency analysis Strategy Means analysis

analysis
According to Allwright It seeks to According to

(1982), deficiency analysis Gives establish how the Swales (1989), means
us information about what the learners wish to learn. analysis investigates
learners’ learning needs are (i.e., Strategy analysis precisely those
which of their target-situation provides a picture of considerations that
needs they lack or feel they lack) the learners’ conception MUNBY excluded. These
and takes into account their lacks of learning. relate to the educational
and wants. environment in which the
ESP course is to take place.
Table 2.1. ESP Course Design Needs
Needs analysis was firmly established in the mid-1970s as course designers came to
see learners’ purposes, the table above represents Munby’s(1978) model. This researcher
established needs by investigating the target situation for which learners were being prepared.
Munby’s model clearly established the place of needs as central to ESP, indeed the necessary
starting point in materials or course design.
2.6. Learning Methodology
As a result of the strategy analysis, a new generation of ESP materials was founded.
This latter, is based on conceptions of language. The concern was with language learning.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) called this approach the learning-centered approach and
stressed the importance of a lively, interesting and relevant teaching/learning style in ESP
materials.
In the context of a language program that emphasizes the needs of the learners, a
learner/learning-centered syllabus and methodology is bound to create contradictions that will
negatively affect students’ perceptions of the program. Content and teaching-learning
procedures should take into account the interests and concerns of the learners.
A syllabus normally refers to “what is to be learnt with some indication of the order
in which the items should be presented” and “the interpretations that it is put to” (Hutchinson
And Waters, 1987 81). The syllabus will incorporate aspects of the students’ discipline of
study which will reinforce their motivation and the usefulness of the language to be learnt.
One very important issue in the context of ESP is the program assessment which
involves an evaluation of the learners’ ability to communicate effectively using the target
language, as well as their ability to participate fully in the target discourse communities which
have been initially defined as relevant to their needs.
The formative purpose of such assessment is reflected in the possibility for the
learners to use it as feedback on how they can improve their performance, and for the teacher
on how s/he can adapt his/her teaching to better fit with the needs of the learners.
Figure 2.4.Stages in the ESP Process
(Dudley Evans and S. John,1998, 121)
2.7. ESP Learners

ESP learners and more specifically Engineering students have specific needs. This
fact has inspired a variety of ESP course designs to address them. Following the fundamental
ESP principle of NA, satisfactory results are always reported in these courses. A basic ESP
philosophy is to supply to specific needs of learners as much as possible (Robinson, 1991). It
might be appropriate to say that no ESP courses should be conducted without NA, be it
formal or informal.
In the ESP class, the students’ needs should be taken into consideration. The teachers
should know and specify these needs. With the ESP purposes and need’s variety, the ESP
teacher should be very specific in his/her approach. His/her teaching should be targeted in
order to satisfy the learners’ needs and their occupational subjects. The material’s courses
have to be carefully chosen taking into account the specialty of the students, their level and
their pedagogical needs. For example: One should not to teach military texts to students in a
business school.
2.8. Approaches To Needs Analysis
Five models of learning needs approaches can be distinguished:
 A sociolinguistic model (Munby, 1978).

 A systemic approach (Richterich & Chancerel, 1977).
 A learning-centered approach (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

 Learner-Centered approaches (Berwick, 1989; Brindley, 1989) .
 Task-based approach (Long 2005a, 2005b).
2.8.1. A Sociolinguistic Model
Munby (1978) has developed an influential sociolinguistic model for defining the
content of purpose-specific language programmes . This model provides a lot of details; it is
impractical, inflexible, complex and time-consuming (West, 1994).
2.8.2. A Systemic Approach
Richterich &Chancerel (1977) have proposed a systemic approach for identifying the
needs of adults learning a foreign language. This approach shows a distinct concern for
learners. It is their main focus, and their ‘present situations’ (Jordan, 1997) of their
investigation. The emergent nature of learner needs is also taken into account. Learner needs
are approached by examining information before a course starts as well as during the course
by the learners themselves and by ‘teaching establishments’ such as their place of work.
Richterich & Chancerel (1977)also recommend using more than one or two data collection
methods for needs analysis such as surveys, interviews and attitude scales. Although this
approach has not received much criticism, two concerns should be raised:
 lack of awareness to learners’

 Real-world needs and over-reliance on learners’ perceptions of their needs.
Over-reliance on learners’ perceptions becomes an issue because many learners are

not clear about what they want (Long, 2005a). As ‘Learner training’ (Trim, 1988, cited in
Holec, 1988) aims at training learners how to learn, it is important for engineering students in
particular because their needs are continually changing. Engineers should be able to identify
emerging needs and gain new skills to satisfy them.
2.8.3. Learning-Centered Approach
Hutchinson & Waters (1987)offer a learning-centered approach to ESP. They argue

that other approaches give too much attention to language needs, whereas more attention
should be given to how learners learn.
These researchers suggest that a learning needs approach is the best route to carry
learners from the starting point to the target situation. Learner needs are approached from two
directions; “target needs” and “learning needs”.
2.8.3.1. Target Needs
It is defined as “what the learner needs to do in the target situation” (Hutchinson &
Waters, 1987, P. 54). They are broken down into three categories:
Necessities Lacks Wants
Necessities are considered to Are defined as the Wants

be what the learner has to know in order gaps between what the are described as
to function effectively in the target learner knows and the what the learners
situation. necessities. think they need.
(Hutchinson and Waters 1987: (Hutchinson and

p 56) Waters 1987: p 56)
Table 2.2. The Main Components of Target Needs
2.8.3.2. Learning Needs
It is the second focus in this approach referring to numerous factors, including:
who the learners are, their socio-cultural and learning back-ground, age, gender,
background knowledge of specialized contents, back-ground knowledge of English, attitudes
towards English, attitudes towards cultures of the English speaking world and studying
English. Learner needs also involve:
- Teaching and learning styles with which the learners are familiar.
- Appropriate or ineffective teaching and learning methods.
- Knowledge of specialized contents that teachers should have.
- Suitable instructional materials and study location.
- Time of study and status of ESP courses.
- Expectations about what learners should achieve in the courses.
- How necessary the courses are for the learners.
Needs analysis in this approach is well-supported (Nation, 2000; West, 1994).

Richterich & Chancerel (1977) insist on considering the learners’ schemata from the outset of
the teaching and learning process.
2.8.4. Learner-Centered Approach
Berwick (1989) and Brindley (1989) are leaders in contributing learner-centered

approaches to needs analysis. Three ways to look at learner needs are offered:
Learner Centered
Perceiv Product Selective

ed vs. Felt vs. Process vs. Objective Needs
Oriented
Figure2.5.The Main Areas of Learner Centered Approaches
2.8.4.1. Perceived vs. Felt Needs
Perceived needs are the perspective of experts while ‘felt needs’ are from the
perspective of learners (Berwick, 1989).In other words, Perceived needs are what the expert
thinks the learner needs to learn whereas felt needs are what the learner thinks or even feels
s/he needs to learn.
2.8.4.2. Product vs. Process Oriented Interpretations
In the former, learner needs are viewed as the language that learners require in target
situations while in the process-oriented interpretation, the focus is on how individuals respond
to their learning situation, involving affective and cognitive variables which affect learning.
2.8.4.3. Objective vs. Subjective Needs
Objective needs are explored prior to a course, According to Brindley (1989),

objective needs can be derived from various kinds of factual information about learners, their
real-life language use situations, their current language proficiency and difficulties. Whereas
subjective needs are addressed while the course is underway; they can be derived from
information concerning their affective and cognitive factors such as personality, confidence,
attitudes, learning wants, learning expectations, cognitive style and learning strategies.
2.8.5. Task-Based Approach

The concept of task has become an important element in classroom teaching and
learner assessment. The Task-based approach seems to suggest that activities in which
language is used to complete meaningful tasks enhance learning. Foster (1999) explains that
there are different task-based approaches which share a common idea: giving learners tasks to
transact, rather than items to learn, providing an environment which best promotes the natural
language learning process:
“Learners are far more active and cognitive-

independent participants in the acquisition process than is
assumed by the erroneous belief that what you teach is
what they learn, and when you teach it is when they learn
it”
(FLT journal, 2009;209–220)
In this approach, tasks are the units of analysis and “samples of the discourse
typically involved in performance of target tasks” (from an Electronic Journal of Foreign
Language Teaching 2009, pp. 209–220) are collected. An example of a ‘real-world task’ or
‘target task’ for engineers is: the reading of textbooks (Mudraya, 2006).
The concept of tasks is similar to the profile of communicative need as defined by

Munby (1978),the difference is that language variables, rather than sociolinguistic variables,
are highlighted in the task-based approach.
2.9. ESP Course Design
What ? How ?
E
Langua Learni
SP
ge Description S Method ng Theories
yllabus ology
Nature of
Particular Target and
Learning Situation
Who? Why?
Where? When?
Needs
Analysis
Figure 2.6.Affecting ESP Course Design
(Howard B. Altman and Peter Strevens, 1987: Page 22)
A course design is the process by which the raw data about learning needs are
interpreted in order to produce an integrated series of teaching learning experiences, whose
ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. This entails the use of
the theoretical and empirical information available to produce a syllabus, to select, adapt or
write materials in accordance with syllabus, to develop a methodology for teaching those
materials and establish evaluation procedures by which progress towards the specified goals
will be measured:
“I keep six honest serving men; they taught me all

I knew, their names are what and why and when, and how
and where and who”
(Howard B. Altman and Peter Strevens; 1987; Page 21)
As Howard B and Peter Strevens state above, every ESP course design plays a
relatively minor part in the life of the General English teachers; the course design is often
substantial and important part of the workload. Designing a course is fundamentally a matter
of asking questions in order to provide a reasoned basis for the subsequent process of syllabus
design, materials writing, classroom teaching and evaluation. We need to outline the basic
questions up to Kipling’s” serving men”:
1. Why does the student need to learn?

2. Who is going to be involved in the process?
3. Where and when is the learning going to take place?
4. What does the student need to learn?
5. What level of proficiency should be achieved? And what topic areas
will be covered?
2.9.1. Types of ESP Course Design
There are probably as many different approaches to ESP course design as there are
course designers. But the three main ones are:
1. Language –centered.
2. Skills- centered.
3. Learning- centered.
2.9.1.1. Language – Centered Course Design
This is the simplest kind of course design process and is probably the most familiar
one to English Teachers; it is particularly prevalent in ESP. It aims at drawing a direct
connection between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course. It
proceeds as follows:
Identify Select
Learners Target Theoretical Views
Identify Linguistics Features

of Target Situation
C
reate
Design Materials
to Exemplify Syllabus
Establish evaluation
Procedures to Test Acquisition of
Figure 2.7. A Language Centered Approach To Course
At first sight, the above figure may seem to be a very logical procedure. It starts with
the learner, proceeds through various stages of analysis to a syllabus, from there to materials
in use in the classroom and finally to evaluation of mastery of the syllabus items. However,
logical and straightforward as it may seem, it has a number of weaknesses:
Learners are simply used, as a means of identifying the target situation; teachers center
upon the learners’ needs, only specific language or zone will be taught to students. In
other words; Instead of taking the general areas of English and teach them to the
learner, as happens in general English, only a restricted area of the language is taught.
Figure 2.8.The Learner Restricted Syllabus
As the figure above shows, the learner is used only as a way of locating the restricted
area. Thereafter; the learner plays no further skill in the process. That is, the learning needs in
this model are not accounted; it is called learner restricted rather than learner centered.
Secondly, the language centered process can also be criticized for being a statistic
and flexible procedure, which can take a little account of the conflicts and contradictions that
are inherent in any human effort. Once the initial analysis of the target situation is done, the
course designer is locked into a relentless process. This model seems systematic; the
systematic analysis and presentation of language data will produce methodical learning in the
learners; that is learners have to choose their own method of learning and make it meaningful
to themselves.
The language centered model gives no acknowledgement to factors which should

inevitably play a part in the creation of any course. Data should be interpreted; this makes use
of all sorts of knowledge that are not revealed in the analysis itself. The language centered
analysis of the target situation data is only at the surface level. It reveals very little about the
competence and emphasizes on the performance.
2.9.1.2. Skills Centered Course Design
This skill approach to ESP has been widely applied in a number of countries,
particularly in Latin America. It is made of two fundamental principles, one theoretical and
the other pragmatic. A Skill Centered approach aims to get away from the surface
performance data and look at the competence that underlies performance. So, the Skill
centered course will present its learning objectives in terms of both performance and
competence.
Identify Target
Analyse Skills/
Srategies required to scope
in target situation
Theoriti Theoriti
cal View of cal View of
Write
Select Texts and

write exercises, to focus on
skills / strategies in syllabus.
Establish
evaluation procedures
which require the use of
Figure 2.9. A Skill Centered Approach To Course Design
As the figure above shows, the basic theoretical hypothesis is that underlying any
language behavior are certain skills and strategies, which the learner uses in order to produce
or comprehend discourse. Then, the pragmatic basis for the Skills centered approach derives
from a distinction made by Widdowson(1981) between “goal oriented courses and process
oriented courses”. Holmes 1982points out that:
“In ESP the main problem is usually one of time

available and student’s experience. First, the aim may be
defined in terms of what is desirable, but there may not be
enough time to reach this aim during the period of the
course”
(A learning centered Approach, 1987;

Page 69)
As Holmes has explained, if the ESP course is designed in terms of goals, a large
number of students will fail the course. ESP is a process that is intended to enable people to
achieve a purpose. The ESP course and the ESP target situation are seen as a continuum of
constantly developing degrees of proficiency with no cut off point of success or failure. The
emphasis in the ESP course ,then, is not on achieving a particular set of goals but on enabling
learners to achieve what they can within the given constrains, therefore, The Skill centered
approach certainly:
1. Views language in terms of how the mind of the learner processes it.
2. Tries to build on the positive factors that the learners bring to the course.
3. It frames its objectives in open-ended terms, so enabling learners to achieve at
least something.
2.9.1.3. Learning Centered Approach
The learner centered approach is based on the principle that learning is totally
determined by the learner. Learning is considered as the process in which the learners use
whatever knowledge or skills they have in order to make sense of the flow of new
information. Learning therefore, is an internal process which is crucially dependent upon the
knowledge that the learners already have and their ability and motivation to use it. Learning is
not just a mental process; it is a process of negotiation between individuals and society.
Society sets the target (in case of ESP, performance in the target situation) and the individual
should do their best to get as close to that target as possible.
A language centered approach states that this is the nature of the target situation
performance and that will determine the ESP course. Whereas a skill centered approach says:
That is not enough; we should look behind the target performance data to discover what
processes enable someone to perform.
Those processes will determine the ESP course. Whereas according to a learning
centered approach this is not enough either. We should look beyond competence that enables
someone to perform, because what we really want to discover is not competence itself, but
how someone become competent. We might see the relationship in this diagram:
Identify
Target Situation
Analyze Target
A Skilled Centered
Approach Consider the learner
Analyze Learning
Situation
Write
Write
Teach
Evaluate A learning Centered

Learning Approach must consider the
Figure 2.10. A Comparison of Approches To Course Design
(Howard B. Altman and Peter Strevens , 1987: Page 73)
After all, as noticed in the above figure, a learning centered approach avowed the
aim of maximizing the potential of the learning situation. Such an approach is inevitably more
complex: It is based on recognition of the complexity of the learning process. But everything
should have the defects of its qualities.
2.9.2. Principles of ESP Courses
Every successful and relevant ESP course needs first to have certain theoretical and
practical principles underpinning it. Generally, ESP course principles reflect a theory of
language learning and a methodology that it implies as well as to the learners’ needs.
According to Chris Offord Gary and Deborah Aldred (1998), there are seven principles that
underline a course design:
P Teaching and learning materials should reflect the needs as

rinciple I
perceived by the discourse community.
Teaching and learning materials need to be based on knowledge of

what is regarded as effective written communication in the discourse
P
rinciple 2 community.
Teaching and learning materials need to reflect the communicative

P
rinciple 3 purposes for which the discourse community produces written texts.
P The forms and functions that characterize the internal linguistic

rinciple 4 structure of the texts need to be made explicit in the course materials.
The course materials need to go beyond making the language

explicit but provide a means by which learners can engage in a process of
P
rinciple 5 reconstruction
Teaching and learning materials need to engage the learners in

process of developing skills for evaluating their own writing and becoming
P
rinciple 6 independent learners in the workplace.
The methodology and content of the teaching and learning

P
rinciple 7 materials need to be sensitive to learners’ previous learning experience.
Table 2.3.The Main Principles of ESP Course
2.9.3. Features of ESP Courses
Organizing the ESP course is a very important step to achieve a satisfying goal.
There exist many factors that play a crucial role in organizing ESP courses without which the
learning process would not be effective. Considering the characteristics of ESP courses,
Carver (1983) states that there are three common ones:
2.9.3.1. Authentic Materials
The use of authentic learning materials is possible if we accept the claim that ESP
courses should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level. The use of authentic content
materials, modified or unmodified in form, are indeed a feature of ESP, particularly in self-
directed study and research tasks. For example : regarding Language Preparation for
Employment in the Health Sciences, a large component of the student evaluation is based on
an independent study task in which the learners are required to investigate and present an area
of interest. The students are encouraged to conduct research using a variety of different
resources, including the Internet.
2.9.3.2. Purpose-Related Orientation
It refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required by the target situation.

The teacher can give students different tasks to simulate the conference preparation, involving
the preparation of papers, reading, note-taking and writing.
2.9.3.3. Self-Direction
It means that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users. For self –direction, it
is necessary that teacher encourage students to have a certain degree of autonomy to decide
when, what, and how they will study. For high-ability learners it is essential to learn how to
access information in a new culture. Since ESP courses are of various types, depending on a
specific scientific fields and professions, and have specific features, teachers need to play
different roles and acquire certain knowledge.
2.10. The ESP Teacher’s Role
Teachers of a Foreign Language for Specific Purposes(TFLSP) have a lot in common

with teachers of General foreign language(TGFL). It is essential to understand the needs of
the learners and their professions for both TFLSP and TGFL in order to make them motivated
and ready to accommodate what they have learnt in their real life, as Winston Churchill says:
“Give Us the Tool and We Will Finish the Job”.
ESP has been seen as a separate activity within English language teaching (ELT),
since it is believed that ESP has developed its own methodology. This means that ESP has
always been with needs analysis and preparing learners to communicate effectively in the
tasks prescribed by their field of study or work situation. The theory of ESP could be based on
specific texts that learners need to learn;
“In ESP classes, the teacher becomes like a language

adviser, having equal status with learners who are often
experts in the subject matter”
(Halina Sierocka , 2008, Page 43)
Most scientists admit that the ESP teacher’s work involves much more than teaching.
Swales (1985) preferred to use the term ESP practitioners instead of ESP teachers to reflect
this specific scope. Several researchers regard ESP teaching as extremely varied, and for this
reason they use the term practitioners rather than teachers to emphasize that ESP teaching
involves much more than only writing. According to Dudley-Evans and St John (1998), the
ESP practitioner has five key roles:
1. Teacher.
2. Course designer and material provider.
3. Collaborator.
4. Researcher.
5. Evaluator.
Briefly speaking, the ESP teacher has additional roles to those of the general
purposes that English teachers play. Robinson (1991) has stated that the ESP teacher does not
only teach, very often, he is involved in designing, setting up and administering the ESP
course. During and at the end of the course, the ESP teacher is more likely to be involved in
evaluation and testing.
2.10.1. The ESP Practitioner As a Teacher ESP
Methodology changes as the teaching process becomes more specific. In the case of
ESP classes, most of the time, the students themselves are frequently the primary knower’s;
they may know more about the course contents than the teacher. In other words, the teacher
has sometimes the opportunity to draw on students’ knowledge of the content in order to
generate communication in the classroom. For example: while teaching “How to write a
business report?” it is vital that the teacher adopts the position of the consultant who has the
knowledge of communication practices. He may negotiate with the students on how to
explore these practices in the right way to reach the objectives. Thus, the teacher-students
relationship is more than a partnership.
In some situations, the role of the ESP teacher extends to giving one-to-one piece of
advice to students (more specifically in non-English speaking countries). ESP teachers need
to have considerable flexibility, and be willing to listen to learners, take interest in the
disciplines or professional activities the students are involved in.
2.10.2. The ESP Practitioner As A Course Designer and Material Provider
Because of the lack of materials for ESP courses, the more specialized the course, the
greater the fewness of teaching materials. One of the ESP teacher’s roles is planning the
course and providing materials for it. In other words, since it is rarely possible to find suitable
published material (Textbooks) for identified needs, ESP practitioner’s basic role is to arrange
for the course materials. The teacher’s task includes adapting materials when published
materials are unsuitable, or writing his/her own material
2.10.3. The ESP Practitioner As Researcher
Research has been particularly strong in the area of EAP (genre analysis). Regarding
the research into English for Business Purposes, there is a growing interest in investigating
the genres, the language and the skills involved in business communication.
ESP teachers need to be in touch with the research; that is, for the purpose of
carrying out student needs analysis. First of all, the teacher should research their aims in what
really they want to achieve. Then, research is necessary to design a course, to write teaching
materials, and to find out the ESP students’ particular interest.
2.10.4. The ESP Practitioner As Collaborator
Dudley Evans and John (1998) also see the ESP teacher as a collaborator. By this
term they mean cooperating with subject specialists. This may involve cooperation in which
ESP teacher finds out about the subject syllabus in an academic context or the tasks that
students have to carry out in a work or business situation. Or it may involve specific
collaboration between specialist studies or activities and the language. It might also involve
the language teacher specifically in preparing learners for the language of subject lectures or
business presentations. Another possibility is that a specialist checks and comments on the
content of teaching materials that the ESP teacher has prepared.
The fullest collaboration is where a subject expert and a language teacher team-
teach1classes; in EAP such lessons might help to understand the subject lectures or to write
the examination’s answers, essays or theses. While in EOP they might involve the language
teacher and a business trainer working together to teach both the skills and the language
related to Business communication.
2.10.5. The ESP Practitioner As Evaluator
An evaluator is not a new function, and evaluation is actually performed in General

English classes, too. But as far as ESP is concerned, this role seems to be very significant. All
teachers should be involved in various types of evaluation: the most popular is “testing
students”.
1
Team teaching involves a group of instructors working purposefully, regularly, and cooperatively to
help a group of students of any age learn. Teachers together set goals for a course, design a syllabus, prepare
individual lesson plans, teach students, and evaluate the results.
Tests are conducted first, to assess whether students have the necessary language and
skills to undertake a particular academic course or career. Second, tests are used to assess the
level of their achievement; how much learners have gained from a course. In brief, tests are
conducted to evaluate the students’ progress and teaching effectiveness.
Course evaluation design and teaching materials should be done to assess whether
the learners are able to make use of what they learn and to find out what they were not
prepared for. Dudley Evans’s statement proves that evaluation should be done while the
course is being taught, at the end of the course, and after the course has finished. The
evaluation can be used to adapt the syllabus.
On the other hand, ESP courses are unique, though it is not possible to create one
ESP course that would satisfy all ESP students; still the evaluation of such a course is a must.
Hence, constant evaluation is said to create a successful ESP course.
Figure 2.11.Teaching ESP Main Steps

The above figure is put forward as a general winding up to what has been seen and
elucidated in the present chapter; it is a clear image of the ESP chief stages that we have
studied in the current chapter. Accordingly, we can sum up that ESP is primarily based on
planning courses to meet learners’ needs. This latter could be done only through setting up a
well structured syllabus which should include needs analysis. On the purpose of achieving
learners’ needs analysis, the tutor should adopt the appropriate approach to course design. The
next step is to select the right curriculum, and to choose the suitable materials for evaluation.
Moreover, s/he has to use the most fitting methodology to be able at the end to evaluate
learners. These phases prove the existence of several roles of instructors.
2.3. Definition of Motivation

Educational psychology has long been interested in studying students’ behaviours

and attitudes especially toward language learning. Because of its great importance in one’s
life, and since it is one of the prime leading means to improve students’ skills and so to
prepare them for the real world challenges, it is usually viewed as being a must especially in
an ESP class.
Indeed, the first decades of the 20th century marked an important contribution in the
definition of motivation as concept. As the term itself indicates, it is a “motive force”,
something that prompts, incites or stimulates action. According to the Short Oxford English
Dictionary, “motivation moves or induces a person to act in a certain way; a desire, fear,
reason, etc which influences a person’s volition...”, similarly, Williams and Burden (1997)
see motivation as “a state of cognitive and emotional arousal, a state which leads to a
conscious decision to act and gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or
physical effort”. The same idea is conveyed in different words by Gardner (1985) who
explains the term as:”the combination of effort plus desire to achieve a goal plus favorable
attitudes towards the goal to be accomplished”.
Likewise, according to Gardner (1985) as: “… the extent to which the individual
works to learn the language because of a desire to do so …” Meanwhile; according to the
Pocket Oxford English Dictionary (2004), motivation is: “The reasons behind one’s
actions or behavior”. Hence, motivation is the learner’s willing to invest effort in learning
activities and to progress. Motivation is needed in every occasion, especially in learning
process. To put it simply, motivation is a provocation, desire, which moves and leads learner
to do a particular action in order to attain a set of goals of learning process.
As a matter of fact, although several studies were carried out, still there is no
agreement on its clear definition as well as its influence as Dornyei, (1998) comments,
“Although ‘motivation’ is a term frequently used in both educational and research
contexts, it is rather surprising how little agreement there is in the literature with regard
to the exact meaning of the concept”.
To put it simple, motivation is solely said to be “the reasons underlying behaviour”

(Guay et al., 2010, p. 712). Then, even if the “term motivation” is a common used one in
research fields and psychology, still there are no agreements about its appropriate and strictly
right definitions. This means, that there are a wide range of definitions as the number of
scholars themselves.
The term “motivation” is originally Latin from the verb “movere” that stands for “to
move”; means, what moves a person to make certain choices, to engage in action, to expend
effort and persist in action; so, this question centers the heart of motivation theory and
research.
Owing other researchers as Heckhausen (1991, 06), motivation “refers to goal-

directed behaviours”, and when attempting to measure it, several elements and features of
individuals are involved. A motivated person is always ready to invest the necessary amount
of efforts and the required time for the alter of the activity at hand due to his/her insight
desires to attain the preordained goals, because of the enjoyments it evokes, experiences that
reinforce success or the disappointment that comes out of failure, and to make use of his/her
personal strategies during the learning process. That is, the motivated individual exhibits
many behaviours, feelings, cognitions …ect which the unmotivated individual does not
possesses.
On the same stream, Gottfried (1990) defines academic motivation as “enjoyment of

school learning characterized by a mastery orientation; curiosity; persistence; task-
endogeny; and the learning of challenging, difficult, and novel tasks” (p. 525). That is to say,
that motivation is the sense of pleasure that students find in class learning, thing which leads
them to be more curious and eager to further learn as so undertaking more activities and
persevering. Turner (1995), in his turn, viewed motivation to be the equivalent of cognitive
engagement, which he defines as “voluntary uses of high-level self-regulated learning
strategies, such as paying attention, connection, planning, and monitoring” (p. 413).
2.4. Motivation Theories
Remarkably, the variety of motivation’s definitions has, up to now, created wide

debates and leading to a large number of researches, and thus, giving birth to numerous
theories, as Dornyei (1996) points out: “motivation theories in general seek to explain no less
than the fundamental question of why humans behave as they do”.
Historically speaking, Motivation was one of the foremost influential factors in the
language teaching and learning. Theories have been developing from early to contemporary
ones. Yet, they can be generally classified into two broad categories: “Process” and
“Content”. On the one hand, “Content motivation” that is basically studied by Maslow,
Alderfer, Herzberg and McCelland is mainly concerned with the “what”; what lies behind
people’s desires focusing on their needs and goals; on the other hand, “Process motivation”
which was the main emphasis of Vroom, Porter & Lawler, Adams and Locke cutters the
“process”, i.e. “how” motivation occurs.
2.4.1. Early Motivation Theories
The early motivation theories were based on studying people’s motivation in terms
of content.
2.4.1.1. Hierarchy Of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow a humanist psychologist, was the first to coin the concept of
hierarchy of needs in his 1343 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" and his successive
book Motivation and Personality that was published in 1954 (second edition 1970).
According to him, human’s actions are motivated in order achieve certain needs. He
suggested that the desire to fulfill basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced
needs is the prime force behind students’ motivation.
This theory was basically developed in USA during the period of 1940-50s; it is still
remains valid today since it is viewed as a means to understand human motivation
management training, and personal development. The chief idea of this theory is the
responsibility of employers to afford a workplace environment that encourages and enables
employees to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization) are today more relevant
than ever.
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Figure 2.1. Abraham Maslow’ Hierarchy of Needs Theory
(Abraham Maslow, 1954)
The above hierarchy is often displayed as pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid
are made up of the most basic needs, while the more complex needs are located at the top of
the pyramid. Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including
the need for food, water, sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met,
people can move on to the next level of needs, which are for safety and security.
As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and

social. Soon, the need for love, friendship, and intimacy become important. Further up the
pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority. Like Carl
Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of
growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.
2.4.1.1.1. Types Of Needs
Owing to Abraham Maslow, these needs are alike to instincts and are pertinent in
motivating behaviours. The lower level of needs is called deficiency needs (or D-needs) that
are: Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs that increase due to deprivation.
Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or

consequences.
Whereas the highest level of the pyramid is named growth needs (also known
as being needs or B-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather
from a desire to grow as a person. There are five different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs:
2.4.1.1.2. Physiological Needs
Water, air, food, and sleep are some crucial needs to human’s survival. Maslow
believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive 2 needs in the hierarchy because all
needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met.
2.4.1.1.3. Security Needs
These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for
survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security
needs include a desire for steady employment, health care, safe neighborhoods, and shelter
from the environment.
2.4.1.1.4. Social Needs
These include needs for belonging, love, and affection. Maslow described these
needs as less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships,
romantic attachments, and families help fulfill this need for companionship and acceptance, as
does involvement in social, community, or religious groups.
2.4.1.1.5. Esteem Needs
After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasingly
important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social
recognition, and accomplishment.
2.4.1.1.6. Self-Actualizing Needs
2
Instinctive: Instinctive behaviour or reactions are not thought about, planned, or developed
by training.
This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are

self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and
interested fulfilling their potential. What exactly is self-actualization? Located at the peak
of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy, he described this high-level need in the following way:
"What a man can be, he must be. This need we

may call self-actualization...It refers to the desire for self-
fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become
actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be
phrased as the desire to become more and more what one
is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming."
Abraham Maslow (1954)
While the theory is generally portrayed as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that
the order in which these needs are fulfilled does not always follow this standard progression.
For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important
than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the
most basic needs.
2.3.1.1.2. Characteristics of Self-Actualized People
Beside to the self-actualization theory, Maslow also identified some of the key characteristics
of self-actualized people.
2.3.1.1.2.2. Acceptance and Realism: Self-actualized people have realistic perceptions of

themselves, others and the world around them.
2.3.1.1.2.3. Problem-centering: Self-actualized individuals are concerned with solving

problems outside of themselves, including helping others and finding solutions to
problems in the external world. These people are often motivated by a sense of
personal responsibility and ethics.
2.3.1.1.2.4. Spontaneity: Self-actualized people are spontaneous in their internal thoughts and

outward behavior. While they can conform to rules and social expectations, they
also tend to be open and unconventional.
2.3.1.1.2.5. Autonomy and Solitude: Another characteristic of self-actualized people is the

need for independence and privacy. While they enjoy the company of others, these
individuals need time to focus on developing their own individual potential.
2.3.1.1.2.6. Continued Freshness of Appreciation: Self-actualized people tend to view the

world with a continual sense of appreciation, wonder and awe. Even simple
experiences continue to be a source of inspiration and pleasure.
2.3.1.1.2.7. Peak Experiences: Individuals who are self-actualized often have what

Maslow termed peak experiences, or moments of intense joy, wonder, awe and
ecstasy. After these experiences, people feel inspired, strengthened, renewed or
transformed.
2.3.1.2. Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Despite the fact that Maslow’s theory on Needs hierarchy is wild known up today, a
wide number of researchers have criticized it. Most research has not been able to verify the
idea of a needs hierarchy. Wahba and Bridwell reported that there was little evidence for
Maslow's ranking of these needs and even less evidence that these needs are in a hierarchical
order.
Other criticisms of Maslow's theory note that his definition of self-actualization is

difficult to test scientifically. His research on self-actualization was also based on a very
limited sample of individuals, including people he knew as well as biographies of famous
individuals that Maslow believed to be self-actualized, such as Albert Einstein and Eleanor
Roosevelt. Regardless of these criticisms, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs represents part of an
important shift in psychology. Rather than focusing on abnormal behavior and development,
Maslow's humanistic psychology was focused on the development of healthy individuals.
2.3.1.3. EDG Theory
Based on Maslow’s theory, ERG theory was developed by organizational behavior

scholar Clayton Alderfer. It classifies Maslow’s five human needs into three broad
categories: Existence, Relatedness and Growth.
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Figure 2.2. ERG Motivation Theory
This figure means simply that “existence needs” correspond to Maslow’s

physiological and safety needs. “Relatedness needs” refer mainly to Maslow’s belongingness
needs. “Growth needs” correspond to Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization needs.
2.3.1.3.2. Relationships between Alderfer's ERG theory concepts
There are three relationships among the different categories in Alderfer's ERG theory:
2.3.1.3.2.2. Satisfaction-progression: The progression upward from relatedness satisfaction

to growth desires does not presume the satisfaction of a person's existence needs.
2.3.1.3.2.3. Frustration-regression: If a higher level need remains unfulfilled, a person may

regress to lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy. Frustration-regression
suggests that an already satisfied need can become active when a higher need
cannot be satisfied. Thus, if a person is continually frustrated in his/her attempts to
satisfy growth, relatedness needs can resurface as key motivators.
2.3.1.3.2.4. Satisfaction-strengthening: Satisfaction-strengthening indicates that an already

satisfied need can maintain satisfaction or strengthen lower level needs
interactively when it fails to gratify high-level needs.
2.3.1.3.3. Differences between ERG theory and Maslow's Model
Alderfer's ERG motivation theory differs from Maslow's theory in three ways:
2.3.1.3.3.3. A lower level of needs does not have to be appreciative (i.e., a person may satisfy
a need at hand, whether or not a previous need has been satisfied).
2.3.1.3.3.4. If a relatively more significant need is not gratified, the desire to gratify a lesser
need will be increased (i.e., the frustration in meeting high-order needs might lead
a person to regress to a more concrete need category).
2.3.1.3.3.5. Alderfer's ERG theory allows the order of the needs to differ for different people
(e.g., it accounts for the "starving artist" who may place growth needs above
existence ones).
2.3.1.4. McGregor Theory X & Theory Y
These theories were originally developed by McGregor (1960) in his book The
“Human Side of Enterprise” to describe human behaviour at work: Theory and X and Theory
Y. He did not assume that one individual will be classified in the X or Y theory but rather he
saw the two theories as two extremes with a whole spectrum of possible behaviours in
between.
The theory X describes workers as being individuals who dislike work and totally
avoid it whenever possible. Their hate is due to their lack of ambition, dislike responsibility
and prefer to be led, and desire security.
Whereas the theory Y portrays workers as employees who consider effort at work as
just like rest or play. They are viewed as ordinary people who are fond of work. Depending
on the working conditions, work could be considered a source of satisfaction or punishment;
they seek responsibility (if they are motivated).
2.3.1.5. Herzberg’s Motivation Theory ( Hygiene/ Two Factors Theory)
Herzberg's Two Factor Theory is a "content theory" of motivation" Herzberg

analyzed the job attitudes of 200 accountants and engineers who were asked to recall when
they had felt positive or negative at work and the reasons why. From this research, Herzberg
suggested a two-step approach to understanding employee motivation and satisfaction:
Figure.2.3. Herzberg’s Motivation Theory (Hygiene/ Two Factors Theory)
The key factors that include “Job Content” tend to be the source of motivation and
satisfaction. Their absence creates employees’ demotivation and the outcome is not restricting
productivity, and vice versa.
While factors that involve “Job Context” tend to led to job dissatisfaction. Despite
the fact that these factors are good, workers continue to be not satisfied. The upshot is lack of
productivity.
2.3.1.5.3. Motivation factors
2.3.1.5.3.3. Growth: including learning new skills, with greater possibility of advancement
within the current occupational specialty as well as personal growth.
2.3.1.5.3.4. Work Itself: the actual content of the job and its positive and negative effects
upon the employee if the job is characterized as interesting or boring, varied or
routine, creative or not.
2.3.1.5.3.5. Responsibility: the actual doing of a job or a task of the job as a source of either a
good or bad feeling about it. It can impact job’s satisfaction either passively or
negatively.
2.3.1.5.3.6. Advancement: actual change in the status or position of a person in a company. It

also includes the possibility of advancement.
2.3.1.5.3.7. Achievement: This included the personal satisfaction of completing a job, solving
problems, and seeing the results of one’s efforts.
2.3.1.5.3.8. Recognition: This is the recognition by others for a job well done or personal
accomplishment.
2.3.1.5.4. Hygiene Theory
2.3.1.5.4.1. Company Policy and Administration: events in which some overall aspects of
the company is a factor. These include unclear channels of communication,
inadequate authority for satisfactory completion of tasks, and inadequate
organization of tasks.
2.3.1.5.4.2. Supervision: The competence or incompetence, fairness or unfairnessof the

supervision. Also the willingness or unwillingness of the supervisor to delegate
responsibility or willingness to teach.
2.3.1.5.4.3. Salary: all sequences of events in which compensation play a role, including:
increased salary.
2.3.1.5.4.4. Interpersonal Relations: Interaction between individual and supervisors, peers,

and subordinates, encompassing: working/ social relationships.
2.3.1.6. McClelland’s Theory “The Three Needs”
In the early 1960s, and in his book “The Achieving Society”, David McClelland built
on this theory by identifying three motivators that generally all human beings have and learn
from life experiences; it is for this reason that the theory is sometimes called the Learned
Needs Theory.
According to his beliefs, McClelland says that, regardless of people’s gender,

culture, or age, they all have three motivating drivers which are: achievement, affiliation, and
power, and one of these will be the dominant motivating driver. This dominant motivator is
largely dependent on the culture and life experiences. People will have different
characteristics depending on their dominant motivator. These characteristics are as follows:
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2.3.1.6.4. Needs for achievement
Figure. 2.4. McClelland’s Theory
People with high needs for achievement seeks to attain it and try to overcome
challenges just to get their goals real. Feedback is as necessary as the need for
achievements. People possessing such kind of needs tend to be ready to be responsible.
2.3.1.6.5. Needs for affiliation
The need for harmonious relationship is required for people who need affiliation;
they need compassion and being accepted by others. They are people oriented.
2.3.1.6.6. Needs for power
Such needs tend to make people self-responsible and wanting to direct and command
others that is why most managers have a high need for power. Although these categories of
needs are not exclusive, generally individuals develop a dominant bias or emphasis towards
one of the three needs. Entrepreneurs usually have high degree of achievement needs.
2.3.2.
2.3.2.5.
Contemporary Motivation Theory
Goal Setting Theory
This theory was basically developed by Edwin Locke in 1968. He advocated that
motivation and performance will increase if an individual sets out some specific acceptable
(people have got both the desire and the energy to realize them) , believable ( able to achieve
them) , conceivable (at the level of people) and desirable (people want to attain them) goals,
and where feedback is provided for their performance. The two most important findings of
this theory are:
2.3.2.5.4. Setting Specific Goals: For instance: I want to earn a million before I am 30,
generates higher levels of performance than setting general goals (e.g. I want to
earn a lot of money).
2.3.2.5.5. The Goals That Are Hard To Achieve: They are linearly and positively
connected to performance. The harder the goal, the more a person will work to
reach it.
2.3.2.6. The Goal Orientation Theory
Goal orientation theory is a social-cognitive theory of achievement motivation. Goal

theory originated early in the 20th century but became a particularly important theoretical
framework in the study of academic motivation after 1985.
Owing to Dornyei (2001), the “Goal-orientation Theory” was developed in a

classroom context to give an explanation to students’ learning and performance, at the mean
time, it is related to the student’s perception of the causes why she is interested in learning a
task. There are two types: “performance” and “mastery”. Learners having the first orientation
are mainly interested in looking good and capable, whereas those having the second are more
interested in enhancing their knowledge and being capable.
2.3.2.7. Reinforcement Theory
B.F. Skinner was the begetter of the “reinforcement theory” as well as his associates.
It states that individual’s behaviour is a function of its consequences. It depends on a “law of
effects”, i.e. positive individual behaviours tend to be repeated, and vice versa. This theory
focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action. Thus, according
to Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be designed effectively and
positively so as to motivate the employee.
2.3.2.8. Equity Theory
The “Equity theory” was first developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams. It suggest
that individuals who perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or over-rewarded will
experience distress, and that this distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the
relationship, for instance: if an employee feels underpaid then it will result in the employee
feeling hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result in the
employee not performing well at work anymore.
Adams' Equity Theory calls for a fair balance to be strike between an employee's
inputs (hard work, skill level, tolerance, enthusiasm, and so on) and an employee's outputs
(salary, benefits, intangibles such as recognition, and so on). According to the theory, finding
this fair balance serves to ensure a strong and productive relationship is achieved with the
employee, with the overall result being contented, motivated employees.
2.3.2.9. The Expectancy Value Theory
“Expectancy- Value Theory”, it is based on the combination between the

Expectancy of success and value as Dörnyei (2001) stated: “we do the things best if we
believe we can succeed”. So, that theory depends on two prime factors the individual’s
expectancy of success and the value the individual gives on that task or activity, i.e. A good
way to motivate learners is to increase their expectancies by consciously organizing the
conditions in which they are more positive and hopeful.
2.3.2.10. Self-Efficacy Theory
Another theory is “Self-Efficacy Theory” that was introduced by Bandura (1977)

who defines it as “individuals’ confidence in their ability to organize and execute a given
course of action to solve a problem or accomplish a task” , and also as “people’s beliefs
about their capabilities to exercise control over events that affect their lives”; when
individuals develop a strong sense of efficacy, the effect of failure on the individual
decreases. He identifies self-efficacy as a multidimensional construct which can differ in
“strength” (i.e. positive or negative), “generality” (i.e. relating to many situations or only a
few), and “level of difficulty” (i.e. feeling efficacious for all tasks or only easy tasks.
Oxford and Shearin (1994) emphasize that most students do not have an idea in their
self-efficacy at first; hence, teachers should help them develop a strong sense of self efficacy
by giving meaningful and achievable tasks. Dörnyei (2001a) states that people whose self
efficacy is high are more self-confident than people whose self-efficacy is low. These self-
confident individuals approach threatening situations with confidence instead of giving up.
2.4. Types of Motivation
Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972) were the first two pioneers who explored the
kinds of motivation. They have developed two broad categories: “instrumental” and
“integrative”. After their successful work, other motivation types have been identified as
“extrinsic” and “intrinsic”. Then, with the increasing number of scholars interested in the
concept, other kinds have been identified as for: achievement - affiliation – competence -
power - attitude - Incentive -Fear motivation.
Motivation
Instrumental Integrative Intrinsic Extrinsic
Achievement Affiliation Power Attitudes
Incentive Fear Competence
Figure 2.5. Types of Motivation
2.4.1. Instrumental Vs Integrative Motivation

2.4.1.5. Instrumental Motivation
An “instrumental motivation” suggests and implies that a learner learns the language
in support of a purpose relating to occupation or further useful motive. These two types of
motivation can affect and control the procedure and outcome of learning.
2.4.1.6. The Integrative Motivation

The “integrative motivation” means learning the language with the intention of
participating in the culture of its people. Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972) showed that
success in a foreign/second language is likely to be lower if the underlying motivational
orientation is instrumental rather than integrative. But research since then has cast doubt on
the application of this claim to foreign language learners in general. In any case, at least one
other study (Burstall et al., 1974) has indicated that it may be impossible in practice to
distinguish between the two.
Ellis (1994) in his turn, believes that the best and the perfect motivation is the
integrative motivation. He believes that people with the integrative motivation are more
competent and well-organized. Students who don’t have instrumental or integrative
motivation, in fact, will face with problems and difficulties to learn and gain knowledge of a
second language in the classroom and generally, learning the language would be difficult for
them (Cook, 2000).
2.4.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Another distinction, perhaps more useful for teachers, is that between ‘intrinsic’ motivation
2.4.2.5. Intrinsic Motivation
The “Intrinsic motivation” is the eagerness and interest to do and take part in some
certain activities because an individual feels that they are attractive and pleasant. Students
who have intrinsic motivation are inclined to stay with intricate and complicated problems
and gain knowledge from their slips and mistakes (Walker, Greene, & Mansell, 2006).
Besides, intrinsic motivation is essential and fundamental for the integration process through
which elements of one’s accessible internal awareness and knowledge is assimilated or mixed
with new knowledge.
2.4.2.6. Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is the propensity to take part in activities
because of the reasons which do not link to the activity. These reasons can be the anticipation
of reward or punishment, like being successful in the exam or getting a good mark
(Vansteenkiste, Lens, & Deci, 2006).
To come to the point, intrinsic motivation is a motivation to do an activity because of

itself. In fact, the individuals who are intrinsically motivated do and practice the activities and
works because they feel that those activities are enjoyable. Extrinsic motivation, on the other
hand, is motivation to do a work or an activity as a means or way to achieve a target. Those
who are extrinsically motivated perform and do affairs as they think that their contribution
will cause enviable results like a reward, teacher admiration, or evasion (prevention) of
punishment (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
2.4.3. Achievement Motivation
It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement motivation
wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success; accomplishment is
important for its own shake and not for the rewards that accompany it.
2.4.4. Affiliation Motivation
It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation motivation

perform work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and co-
operation.
2.4.5. Competence Motivation
It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform high

quality work. Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take pride in developing and
using their problem-solving skills and strive to be creative when confronted with obstacles.
They learn from their experience.
2.4.6. Power Motivation
It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated people
wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take risks to do so.
2.4.7. Attitude Motivation
Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self confidence, their
belief in themselves, their attitude to life. It is how they feel about the future and how they
react to the past.
2.4.8. Incentive Motivation
It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is “You do this and
you get that”, attitude. It is the types of awards and prizes that drive people to work a little
harder.
2.4.9. Fear Motivation
Fear motivation coercions a person to act against will. It is instantaneous and gets the
job done quickly. It is helpful in the short run.
2.5. Components of the Motivation To Learn
Generally, there are six main components that increase motivation: curiosity, self-efficacy,
attitudes, needs, competence, and other external factors.
2.5.1. Curiosity
According to the behaviorists, reward and punishment have an impact on learning.

Because human’s behaviors are naturally complex, they tend to be curious. They seek new
experiences; they enjoy learning new things; they find satisfaction in solving puzzles,
perfecting skills and developing competence.
2.5.2. Self-Efficacy
Students who doubt about themselves as human beings, who have not enough
confidence in their capacities and skills tend to be not motivated. For this reason, increasing
students’ personal image about themselves helps in developing their motivation. Considering
their feelings and attitudes about what is learnt, and anxiety is also another possible source of
their motivation.
2.5.3. Attitude
Attitude is an elusive commodity. In an educational setting the performance that all

people are striving for is learning, which in some cases can be judged through behavior but
not always. The attitude of a student toward learning is very much an intrinsic characteristic
and is not always demonstrated through behaviors. The positive behaviors exhibited by the
student may only occur in the presence of the instructor, and may not be apparent at other
times.
Fleming and Levie (1993) summarize three approaches to attitude change;

“providing a persuasive message, modeling and reinforcing appropriate behavior and
inducing dissonance between the cognitive, affective and behavioral components of the
attitude.” They suggest that if a person is induced to perform an act that is contrary to that
person’s own attitude, attitude change will result.
2.5.4. Need
The needs of individual students can vary greatly and the best known classification
of human need is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The importance of this to motivation is the
lower-level needs must be satisfied at one level before the next higher order of needs become
predominant in influencing behavior.
2.5.5. Competence
Competence is an intrinsic motive for learning that is highly related to self-efficacy.

Human beings receive pleasure from doing things well. Success in a subject for some students
is not enough. For students who lack a sense of efficacy teachers must not only provide
situations where success occurs but also give students opportunities to undertake challenging
tasks on their own to prove to themselves that they can achieve.
2.5.6. External Motivators
Active participation provides a stimulating environment. Learning strategies should

be flexible, creative and constantly applied. Stimulating learning environments provide
variety in of presentation style, methods of instruction and learning materials. The learning
environment under those motivators is often tense and stressful.
2.6. Features of Motivated Learners
Naiman et al. (1978) assumed that motivated learners and de-motivated learners are not akin.
That is to say, motivated learners usually possess some peculiar characteristics that distinct
tem from others, and which allow them to learn the language easily.
Motivated
Learners
Goal Perseverance Ego Tolerance of

Orientation Involvement Ambiguity
Need for High Aspiration Positive Task

Achievement Oriented
Figure 2.5. Features of Motivate Learners
2.6.1. Positive task oriented: The learner willing to tackle tasks and challenges, and has
confidence in his or her success.
2.6.2. Ego-involvement: The learner finds it important to succeed in learning and promote

his or her own positive self-image.
2.6.3. Need for achievement: The learner has needs to achieve, to overcome difficulties and
succeed in what he or she sets out to do.
2.6.4. High aspiration: The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high
proficiency, top grades.
2.6.5. Goal orientation: The learner is very aware of the goals of learning, or of specific
learning activities, and directs his or her effort towards achieving them.
2.6.6. Perseverance: The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning, and it
is not discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack progress.
2.6.7. Tolerance of ambiguity: The learner is not disturbed or frustrated by situations

involving a temporary lack of understanding will come later.
2.7. Motivation and Language Learning

Motivation is a basic and essential part of learning (Brewer & Burgess, 2005).
Gardner (1885), believes that with the intention of being motivated, the learner necessitates,
requires, and needs to have something to anticipate, foresee, expect and long for, a reason,
principle, or rationale having to do with aim or target.
Concerning second/foreign language acquisition, this intention would be learning a

foreign language. In fact, there must be something that the learner desires to achieve or do,
being the target language the vehicle to attain it.
Ellis (1994) sees the incident of learning by means of motivation and believes that
the learning process simply occurs when a person is motivated. Relating to this matter, Ellis
(1994, p. 508) says that:
“Language teachers readily acknowledge the importance of

learners´ motivation, not infrequently explaining their own
sense of failure with reference to their students´ lack of
motivation”. Ellis (1994)
Cook (2000) states that acquisition of language is not the same among learners. He
also believes that there are three main factors which influence the Second Language
Acquisition. These three factors are: age, personality and motivation. Motivation is the most
significant factor among the mentioned three factors that affect second language acquisition.
Ellis (1994, p. 715) suggests that motivation is “the effort which learners put into learning an
L2 as a result of their need or desire to learn it”.
2.8. Motivation & Attitude
Scholars continue to have some concern about students success that is generally,
based on the extent of their desire and willingness to achieve their goals. They have
accentuated mainly on the general ways that lead students to be inspired, encouraged, to be
more diligent and how to provide appropriate incentives. (Ames & Ames, 1984; Deci &
Ryan, 1985; Dörnyei, 2000; 2001; 2005; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).
During the last decades of 21st century, “attitudes and motivation” gained popularity
and have received the attention of wide number of scholars (Dörnyei, 2001). Attitudes is
simply said to be students reactions toward the formal instructions, and it includes two
measures: evaluation of the language instructor, and language evaluation. Likewise, Sarnoff
(1970:279) defines attitude as “a disposition to react favorably or unfavorably to a class of

objects.” Holmes (1992: 346) states that “people develop attitudes towards languages which
reflect their views about those who speak the languages, and the contexts and functions with
which they are associated.”
In addition, Gardner (1985) stated that motivation is: “... the combination of effort
plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitudes toward
learning the language.” Thus, motivation is widely linked to the general attitude that usually
students have towards learning the target language. It is sometimes viewed as the driving
force behind learners’ desire for language learning.
During their doctoral studies in 1957, Gardner & Lambert (1972) started researching
on the topic. As a starting point, aptitude tended to be an acceptable answer for the reason
why some individual are better in language learning than others. Yet, when a culture wants to
keep an original language alive, they learn it and pass it on to the children to know it as well
as the spoken language (Dörnyei, 2001; Gardner & Lambert, 1972).
In their studies, their primary question was if attitude toward a culture had an impact
on the learner’s motivation to learn the new culture’s language. It is only later, that he called
such kind of motivation construct as “integrative motivation” (Gardner & Lambert, 1972;
Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005).
2.9. Motivation and Language Learning Strategies
Motivation has been believed to be the most influential factor in second/ foreign
language learning. It is a necessary factor for success in any foreign language classroom. The
concept of motivation is in many cases, related to a number of psychological variables that
may either foster or inhibit the language learning. One those variables are “language learning
strategies”.
Indeed, the concept of learning strategies have been widely studies due to its
remarkable impact of language learners. Oxford (1990) stated that strategies are particularly
important for language learning “because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement,
which is essential for developing communicative competence” . Because of its significance,
learning strategies have been extensively employed in the educational field.
In defining the language learning strategy, Oxford & Crookall (1989) stated that
“different researchers use different terms and different concepts”. Rubin (1987) proposed,
“Language learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the
language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly”. She also
suggested that language learning strategies include “any set of operations, steps, plans,
routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of
information”. Chamot (1987) gave a definition of language learning strategies as
“techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the
learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information”. She proposed that some
language learning strategies are observable, but some may not be observable. In cognitive
perspective, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) viewed language learning strategies as “the
special thoughts behaviors of processing information that individuals use to help them
comprehend, learn, or retain new information”. Oxford (1990) claimed “learning strategies
are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning”. She proposed a more specific
definition of learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning
easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to
new situations”. Ellis (1994) sought to define learning strategies by listing the main
characteristics of learning strategies.
The systematic relationship between the two concepts “motivation and learning
strategies started in the mid-1990s by Richard Schmidt, Peter MacIntyre, and their colleagues
(Dornyei, 2003); Later on, many further study and SLA related research have identified the
significant relationship between strategy use and motivation. Dornyei and Csizer (2005) argue
that motivation is only indirectly related to learning achievement, because motivation is a
concept that explains why people behave as they do rather than how successful their behavior
will be. Motivation has been always considered as a critical factor affecting strategy choice
(Ellis, 1994; Wen & Wang, 2004). ‘The type of motivation may also influence strategy choice
(Ellis, 1994).’ ‘The strength of learners’ motivation can be expected to have a causal effect
on the quantity of learning strategies they employ (Ellis, 1994).’ Highly motivated learners
use more appropriate strategies than those less motivated learners. Both language learning
motivation and strategy are closely related to the goal of language learning (Oxford, 1990).
Besides, owing O’Malley and Chamott (1875), language learning strategies can be
classified into two broad categories “Direct and Indirect”. Then, Oxford (2001) presents six
categories of language learning strategies: Cognitive- meta-cognitive- memory-related –

compensatory- affective- and social (p. 359). They can be summarized as follows:
2.9.1. Direct Strategies:
2.9.1.5. Cognitive: practicing and repeating new words; deductive reasoning, translating,
analyzing; taking notes, highlighting, summarizing.
2.9.1.6. Memory-related: creating mental linkages, such as grouping and placing words in
context; applying images and sounds to represent things in memory; structured
reviewing; using mechanical techniques, such as physical response.
2.9.1.7. Compensatory: selecting a topic for discussion based on one’s knowledge of the
language and shaping the discussion to avoid unknown vocabulary, guessing at
words based on context, using gestures and coining words to communicate.
2.9.2. Indirect Strategies:
2.9.2.5. Affective: using music or laughter as part of the learning process, rewarding oneself,
making positive statements about one’s own progress, discussing feelings
2.9.2.6. Social: seeking correction, asking for clarification, working with peers, developing
cultural understanding (Oxford 2001, pp. 363-365)Some strategies are guided by
exterior influences—teachers, activities, Interactions—and others relate to the
student’s personality, motivation, and knowledge about how to learn.
2.9.2.7. Meta-cognitive: paying attention, organizing, setting goals and objectives,

evaluating one’s own performance.
Effective use of learning strategies may sustain motivation in language (Vandergrift,

2005). Oxford and Nyikos in a study of students of foreign languages in universities in the
United States found that ‘the degree of expressed motivation was the single most powerful
influence on the choice of language learning strategies (Ellis, 1994).’. Schmidt et al. (1996)
probed EFL learning in Egypt. They found that EFL learners with high expectancy and strong
instrumental motivation attempted to use active cognitive strategies and organizing strategies.
Therefore, within an educational environment (for example a classroom), teachers

are bound to explore their learning preferred strategies. Many researches have given evidence
that students tend to be more motivated when they have more freedom to select their
preferable learning strategies than being put in a class where the teacher’s strategy is the most
accepted and imposed one.
2.10. Motivation and Classroom Management
“Classroom management” is a term used to describe the process of ensuring that

classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive students’ behaviour. According to Bellon
& Blank (1992), Classroom management reflects teachers’ styles and strategies and create
and maintain an orderly learning environment and discipline means teachers’ responses to
students’ misbehavior;“School and classroom management aims at encouraging and
establishing student self-control …” (Froyen, L. 1999. Thus, a good classroom environment
provides learners with a great desire to learn. Students’ motivation can be increased through
the appropriate and right management of the class that explore students’ insight competences.
Besides, researchers have shown that the physical arrangement can affect the
behavior of both students and teachers and that a well-structured classroom tends to improve
student academic and behavioral outcomes. In other words, the classroom climate influences
the student achievement, their self-esteem and participation in the lesson. The most important
aspect of classroom climate is the relationship between teacher and students. There must be
elements of caring, trust and respect in the interpersonal relationships between teachers and
students.
Additionally, studies in the first language classroom have shown that the language
used by the teacher affects the language produced by the learners. The classroom language
and interaction are even more important because language is at once the subject of study.
When the students listen to the teachers’ instructions and explanations, they are not only
learning about the language, but also putting the language that they are learning into use.
In fact, the chief problem that usually the teachers face is teaching large classes. That
is to say, it is quite difficult for the tutor to control learner’s different levels, or to keep the
classroom calm, or even to satisfy all the learners.
Therefore, one of the vital roles that foreign language teachers should act is to create
a relaxing atmosphere in which the students feel comfortable to try out the target language
and make mistakes. On effective ways of doing so is by using “group/pair work”. The value
of using group work is well documented. It has been widely observed that students are more
ready to interact with each other than with their teachers. Compared with the lockstep
teaching, group work provides more opportunities for learners to practice the target language.
The other way to enhance interaction in classrooms through group work activities is
“the removal of the figure of the authority” who is the teacher. This will encourage students to
take risks in the sense that they will use the target language even when they are not sure
whether they are grammatically correct or not. In the case of “evaluation”, the teacher should
make a balance between all the students, and either praise or give them a positive criticism.
Therefore, Motivation in class is based on a number of elements; enhancing

communication in class throughout the implementation of group work, encouraging and
establishing a strong relationship between teachers and students, and creating a relaxing
atmosphere where students feel comfortable and at ease when learning and communicating
their ideas and thoughts using the target language.
2.11. The Influence of the Teacher on Learners’ Motivation
Recently, researchers have emphasized on the importance of Motivation in the

second language acquisition and the general factors that affect it. (e.g., Csizer &Dörnyei,
2005; Dörnyei& Clement, 2001; Dörnyei& Otto, 1998; Oxford & Shearin, 1994). One of their
primary outcomes was that the teacher himself is the source and a relevant factor that can
either foster or inhibit students’ motivation for learning.
On the same stream, other studies have been focusing on how can teachers influence
students’ willingness positively or negatively (e.g., Kikuchi, 2009; Sakai & Kikuchi, 2009;
Tanak, 2005). These studies proposed that L2 teachers play one of the most influential roles
to help students engage and persist in the long process of second language acquisition. Some
of their essence roles are: initiator, facilitator, and motivator, ideal model of the target
language speaker, mentor, consultant, and mental supporter. These roles are assumed to
influence each learner’s motivation. Ramage (1990) suggested that teachers should attempt to
enhance learner motivation so that learners positively and actively engage in their learning
until they reach their common target in L2 learning.
Still, teachers teaching strategies have also a great impact on students’ motivation
which they should rely on students’ perceptions of the strategies, as Dörnyei (2001) has
proposed. Many empirical studies of teacher’s motivation were conducted to identify how
teachers influence learners’ motivation.
Thus, teachers are bound to set a personal behavior example, make sure that the class
atmosphere is relaxed and pleasant, present task properly to the learners, have good teacher-
student relationships, work on increasing learners’ self-confidence, ensure that the language
class is interesting to the students, promote as much as possible learners’ autonomy,
personalize the learning process, increase learners’ goals, and make sure that learners are
familiar with the target language culture.
Other studies, which propose that teachers are an important influence on learners’
motivation, include Dörnyei’s 1994 study. Dornyei (1994) claimed that teacher-associated
components that influence learners are language learners’ affiliation (i.e., learners’ desire to
please teachers), teacher’s style of teaching, and the use of particular teaching strategies,
including modeling task-presentation and feedback.
2.12. How can Teachers Promote Motivation in the Foreign Language Classroom?
There are several strategies that can help promoting students motivation in a second language
classroom. Some of them are:
2.12.1. Creating the Basic Motivational Conditions
One of the relevant steps that goes before promoting any kind of motivation in
classroom in taking some acceptable conditions into account. As scholars have proved,
actions and behaviors in the classroom have motivational influence on students. Dörnyei and
Csizer (1998) confirmed this claim through their study of 200 Hungarian teachers. They
argued that teachers’ behavior is a powerful tool of motivation in classroom. It is argued that
teachers’ behavior can influence the students’ engagement in class. Therefore, it is crucial to
establish a class atmosphere of mutual trust and respect with the learners (Alison & Halliwell,
2002).
“Interaction” can help in establishing and developing such kind of respect between
the teacher and the students on a personal level and show that they care about their students’
personal issues or challenges that they face in the classroom or even outside.
“Enthusiasm” is another factor that can impact learners’ motivation. Enthusiasm is

contagious in classrooms; therefore, if students recognize their teacher’s enthusiasm to the
task, they, too, will be enthusiastic (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011).
Another motivational condition is “classroom atmosphere”. Students’ anxiety is one

of the most recognized factors that undermine learning effectiveness and second language
motivation (Dörnyei, 2007; MacIntyre, 2002; Young, 1999). Safe classroom environments are
the most productive in involving the learner in the learning process. In such environments,
students are encouraged to express their opinions and perspectives on different issues because
they feel safe and protected from embarrassment and sarcasm. Creating a safe teaching
environment also includes developing a sense of community and promoting “a palpable sense
of belonging” (White, 2007, p. 104).
The third basic condition is concerned with creating “a cohesive learner group” with
convenient group norms. Cohesiveness among learners has an influential motivational impact
on learning. Uncooperative groups can have ineffective results in learning. Effective group
norms are those developed by both teacher and learners. Group norms that are mandate by
teachers have been proved to be ineffective unless the majority of the class agrees that they
are appropriate and right (Ehrman &Dörnyei, 1998). Dörnyei (2003) suggested that it is
important to build group norms early and involve students in building these norms, explain
their purpose and get students agreement to include a particular rule or not, and finally the
teacher along with the whole class should agree on a particular set of rules, and the
ramifications of breaking these rules. Another important norm that contributes to cohesive
groups is “the tolerance of learners’ mistakes” and viewing them as something positive which
may contribute to improvement and an indication of learning new information.
2.12.2. Generating Students’ Motivation
One of the most common dreams of most teachers is to get a class entirely motivated
and driven by the force of curiosity to learn and achieve their goals. However, this is rarely
the case in L2 learning. Wong and Csikszentmihalyi (1991) found out in a longitudinal study
carried out in a U.S. context that schoolwork was rated as the least rewarding activity among
learners.
Thus, it is the job of the teacher to generate students’ motivation and help them build
positive attitudes towards the L2. Teachers can achieve this aim of generating students’
motivation through implementing various strategies.
First, the key step is to generate students’ motivation via “enhancing learners’ values
and attitudes toward the language”, including their intrinsic, intercultural, and instrumental
values. Teachers should know how to “whet the students’ appetite” and attract their attention
to learn the language (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p. 114). The target culture is also a useful
tool to generate the integrative orientation of the learners through introducing authentic
materials which reflect the target culture and community of the target language.
However, for some learners, learning the language is a means to an end, and teachers
should be aware of that and try to pay attention to the instrumental value of learning the
language. For instance, some learners study the target language in order to gain a rewarding
career. Therefore, teachers should draw the students’ attention to the fact that speaking the
language fluently is crucial to their achievement of their ambitions.
Second, teachers should promote the learners’ expectations of success in the L2. This
notion is based on Atkinson and Raynor’s (1974) achievement motivation model. The theory
conceptualized that students will have a greater tendency to do an activity if they feel they
will succeed in that particular activity. Brophy (1998) states that, “the simplest way to ensure
that students expect success is to make sure that they achieve it constantly” (p. 60). Other
ways to increase students’ expectancy of success include assisting them and giving them time
to prepare for tasks, explaining to them what success is involved in the task and how to
achieve it, and help them overcome any obstacle they may face (Dornyei, 2011).
Third, teachers should orient the students toward particular goals and work together
to realize these goals. In fact, in many teaching situations, teachers work with a pre-
determined syllabus and already planned goal of the course, but many research studies have
found that these goals most often do not match the students’ goals. More importantly, many
students have been reported that they do not understand why they are given a particular
activity. As a result, it is the role of the teacher to steer the class towards a particular goal and
explain to the students the purpose of each activity and help them achieve that goal.
2.12.3. Maintaining students’ Motivation
One way to maintain motivation is to make the learning experience enjoyable and
stimulating. This can occur in variety of ways. For instance, teachers can make teaching more
interesting through varying their teaching styles, presentations, different materials, and
learning tasks. Interesting tasks have been viewed as one of the greatest components of
motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2010). Teaching can also be interesting if teachers
introduce novel techniques and make the task challenging but achievable. The way teachers
present tasks can be either motivating or de-motivating depending on teachers’ administration
of the tasks. This includes clarifying the aim of the task, arousing learners’ anticipation
toward the task, and offering suitable strategies for doing the task.
Learners’ self-esteem and confidence play key roles in maintaining motivation.

Learners will not be able to progress if they have any doubts about their abilities (Dornyei&
Ushioda, 2011). Teachers can promote learners’ self-confidence in different ways. For
example, they can focus on the positive aspects of their learners by showing their learners
what they can do rather than what they cannot and by giving them a chance to make a useful
contribution in class. They can also make the students feel that they can come forward to offer
help (Alison & Halliwell, 2002), and making the teaching context relaxing and less stressful.
Motivation can also be preserved when students feel that they can demonstrate a positive
social image and show their strength.
Similarly, learners’ social image can be enhanced in an environment where learners

are not criticized or humiliated and where students can work in groups so that the norms of
tolerance and acceptance are established.
In addition, many research studies in educational psychology (e.g., Benson, 2007,

2010; Little, 1991) have pointed out that encouraging learners’ autonomy is beneficial to
learning. Teachers can foster learning autonomy in different ways, including sharing learning
responsibilities, involving them in making decisions regarding classroom materials, and
giving them positions of authority through peer teaching and project work (Dornyei&
Ushioda, 2011).
Most of the discussions on maintaining motivation emphasized the teacher’s role, but
if we also give the students the opportunity to share this responsibility, it will be beneficial.
Learners who motivate themselves exhibit more success in pursuing their goals. Teachers can
promote their students’ self-motivation by drawing their attention to useful strategies, such as
favorable expectations, incentives, dealing with procrastination and boredom, and eliminating
distractions.
2.11. Conclusion
This chapter represents a simple and general overview about what ESP and
motivation are. As it was set up into two sections, the first one attempt to define ESP, to know
its origins and how did it emerge; it tries to examine ESP various features and sub-fields.
Then, we have spotlighted the ESP learners and Needs Analysis and endeavored to introduce
the ESP several approaches to course design. After that, we have strived to accentuate on the
ESP different kinds and roles. The second section was a stab at clarifying the concept of
motivation, its chief leading theories, as well as its primary kinds. We tried to look at the
basic components influencing students’ motivation, and shed light on the relationship existing
between motivation and other concepts. We finally, endeavor to look at some of the
motivational teaching strategies.

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Section One: ESP Literary Review

Section One: ESP Literary Review

2.2. Overview of ESP

2.1.1. ESP Definitions

- The nature of language to be taught and used.

2.2.2 Origins and Development of ESP

1. The demand of a brave World.

2.2.2.1. The Demand of A Brave World

2.2.2.2 The Oil Crisis

2.2.2.3 Linguistic Revolution

2.2.2.4 Focus On The Learner

A new development in educational psychology also contributed to the rise of ESP, by

- The expansion of demand for English to suit particular need

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners.

Whereas the variable characteristics are described in five points:

"ESP is an approach to language teaching in which

2.3. Distinction between ESP and GE

Rather ironically, many GE teachers can be described as using an ESP approach,

2.4. ESP Divisions

Technology(EST) Economics (EBE) Social Sciences

English English English

Figure 2.1.The Tree of ELT

(Howard B. Altman and Peter Strevens; 1987; Page 17)

English for Specific

English for English for

English for Science and

Figure 2.2.ESP Sub-Branches

2.4.1. English For Academic Purposes (EAP)

2.4.2. English For Occupational Purposes (EOP)

English for Occupational

Busines Professional Vocational

s English English (E.g. English for English

Figure 2.3.Example of EOP Areas

- English for Science and Technology (EST).

- English for Academic Purposes (EAP).

- English for Occupational Purposes (EOP).

2.4.3. English For Science And Technology (EST)

“EST is known to have been developed especially rapidly.

“Much of the demand for ESP has come from scientists

(Kennedy and Bolitho, 1990, page 96)

2.5. The Basic Conceptions of ESP

Five conceptions are considered to be the foundations, essential features of ESP.

- Need and learning Methodology.

As previously explained, ESP aims at developing communicative competence, which

authenticity in textbooks. Skills-based approaches to ESP have enlarged the conception of

2.5.1.1. Authenticity of Text

2.5.1.2. Authenticity of Task

Authenticity of Task means designing tasks requiring students to practice texts as

2.5.2. Research Base

In practice, however, the discourse-analysis approach tended to concentrate on the

2.5.4. Need and Learning Methodology

Deficiency analysis Strategy Means analysis

According to Allwright It seeks to According to

Table 2.1. ESP Course Design Needs

2.6. Learning Methodology

Figure 2.4.Stages in the ESP Process

(Dudley Evans and S. John,1998, 121)

2.7. ESP Learners

2.8. Approaches To Needs Analysis

Five models of learning needs approaches can be distinguished:

 A sociolinguistic model (Munby, 1978).

 A learning-centered approach (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

2.8.1. A Sociolinguistic Model

2.8.2. A Systemic Approach