Name:

Muhammad Abdullah
Registration No:
FA19-BCS-033-A
Subject:
Microprocessor & Assembly Language
Submitted to:
Ma’am Maham Fatima

COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD SAHIWAL

CAMPUS
Memory System:
DRAM:
Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM) is a type of RAM that stores each bit in a
memory cell containing a small capacitor and a transistor. DRAMs were invented in 1967.
Because of the capacitors in DRAM, it has to be refreshed before fetching data from it.
Therefore, Computer has to first refresh the DRAM by sending electric pulses and then was able
to retrieve data from it. DRAMs were used in “8086” Microprocessors. It is a type of RAM
which allows you to stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within a particular integrated
circuit. It is a standard computer memory of any modern desktop computer. DRAM has a higher
access time. It is slower than SRAM. DRAM cost is lesser compared to SRAM. DRAM requires
reduced power consumption as the information stored in the capacitor. The DRAM is mostly
found as the main memory in computers.

SRAM:
Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM) is a type of RAM that uses latching circuitry to
store each bit of data. SRAM is a type of semiconductor memory that uses bi-stable latching
circuitry to store each bit. In this type of RAM, data is stored using the six transistor memory
cell. Static RAM is mostly used as a cache memory for the processor (CPU). SRAM is relatively
faster than other RAM types, such as DRAM. It also consumes less power. One main advantage
for using SRAM over DRAM was that, SRAM use latches that does not require being refreshed
during each data retrieval. That makes the processing speed faster as Computer can directly
access data from SRAM without refreshing it. SRAMs were used in 8088 Microprocessors.

Cache:
Cache memory (pronounced as cash) is the fastest memory type that acts as a buffer
between CPU and the RAM. It stores the data that was recently used or frequently needed by the
user. It stores that data from the RAM. Cache memory is a chip-based computer component that
makes retrieving data from the computer's memory more efficient. It acts as a temporary storage
area that the computer's processor can retrieve data from easily. CPU first checks the data into
cache, if it finds it there, it returns that data to the user, otherwise, it checks RAM for that data.
Cache is a French word (meaning “Hidden”) and was invented in 1976 and was used in “80186”
Microprocessor. There are three general cache levels:
L1 cache, or primary cache, is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually embedded in
the processor chip as CPU cache.
L2 cache, or secondary cache, is often more capacious than L1. L2 cache may be embedded on
the CPU, or it can be on a separate chip and have a high-speed alternative system bus connecting
the cache and CPU. That way it doesn't get slowed by traffic on the main system bus.
L3 cache is specialized memory developed to improve the performance of L1 and L2. L1 or L2
can be significantly faster than L3, though L3 is usually double the speed of DRAM.

Flash Memory:
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data
between a personal computer (PC) and digital devices. It has the ability to be electronically
reprogrammed and erased. It is often found in USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras
and solid-state drives. Flash Memory is a portable non-volatile storage media. It is an advanced
form of floppy disks and can store a huge amount of data as compared to floppy disk. Unlike
ROM, data stored in flash memory can easily be erased and modified by the user. Flash memory
is “Plug n Play” device that operates as soon as it is plugged into the Computer system
externally. It was also invented in 1980s to replace floppy disks and magnetic tapes. It was used
in “80286” Microprocessor.

ROM:
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is a permanent storing device that does not lose
its data even when the computer is turned off. It is a solid-state semiconductor memory that can
only read data stored in advance. Its characteristic is that once the data is stored, it can no longer
be changed or deleted. It is usually used in computer or other electronic devices, and even if the
power is turned off, the data will not disappear.As the name shows, data stored in ROM can only
be read. It can neither modified nor removed. It stores those instructions that are directly required
by the CPU to startup. It was invented in 1982 and was used in “80188” Microprocessors.

EEPROM:
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) is the advanced
form of ROM. It removes the major disadvantage of ROM that could only be used to read data.
EEPROM enables the user to modify and delete data stored in it. EEPROM is also a non-volatile
memory that permanently stores data unless user deletes it. It was invented in 1978 and was used
in “80386” Microprocessor. It can be erased and reprogrammed about 10,000 times. Both erasing
and programming take about 4 to 10 milliseconds. In the EEPROM, users can selectively erase
and program any location and it can be erased one byte at a time instead of being erased the
entire chip. Therefore, the process of reprogramming can be flexible but slow.

SDRAM:
Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory (SDRAM) is a type of DRAM that is
synchronized with the processor’s system bus for a speed advantage . It is advanced form of DRAM as
it retrieves data alternately between two memory sets. It is also volatile memory and requires
constant refreshing to retrieve data. It was invented in 1993 and was used in “80486”
Microprocessor. The use of SDRAM was so effective that it is used in PCs because of its greater
speed of operation. Nowadays SDRAM based memory is the major type of dynamic RAM used
across the computing spectrum.
RAMBUS:
Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (RDRAM) is a memory subsystem designed
to transfer data at faster rates. RDAM is made up of a random access memory (RAM), a RAM
controller and a bus path that connect RAM to microprocessors and other PC devices. RAMBUS
is the advanced technology of DRAM. It serves faster data transfer rates than DRAM. RAMBUS
uses 16-bit bus instead of 8-bit bus used by DRAM. It was invented in 1990 and is used in
“Pentium” Microprocessor. RDRAM is known as a narrow channel system because data is
transferred only 2 bytes (16 bits) at a time. This might seem small, but those 2 bytes move
extremely fast! The Rambus data bus is 16 bits wide, as opposed to the more typical 32 or 64 bits
wide. Additionally, Rambus memory sends data more frequently. It reads data on both the rising
and falling edges of the clock signal.

DDR DRAM:
Double Data Rate Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DDR DRAM) is used in modern
processors. DDR RAM can transfer data twice as fast as SDRAM because it can send and
receive data signals twice per clock cycle. DDR RAM also consumes less power. It was invented
in 1997 and was used in “Pentium Pro” Microprocessor. Compared to single data rate (SDR)
DRAM, the DDR DRAM interface makes higher transfer rates possible by more strict control of
the timing of the electrical data and clock signals. Implementations often have to use schemes
such as phase-locked loops and self-calibration to reach the required timing accuracy.

Comparison:
Memory Microprocessor I/O Construction Memory Invention
System System Type Date
DRAM 8086 Printer Capacitor & Volatile 1967
Transistors
SRAM 8088 Serial Latches Volatile 1987
Ports
CACHE 80186 Floppy Transistor Volatile 1976
Disk
Drive
ROM 80188 Hard Disk Decoder + OR Non-volatile 1982
Drive Gate
Flash 80286 Mouse Transistor with Non-volatile 1980s
Memory Control gate
EEPROM 80386 CD-ROM 2 Transistors + Non-volatile 1978
Drive Control gate
SDRAM 80486 Plotter Memory Cells Volatile 1993
RAMBUS Pentium Keyboard Narrow Channel Volatile 1990
System
DDR Pentium Pro Monitor Dual in-line Volatile 1997
RAM Memory