Paper

Subject:

Animal Form & Function

Submitted To:

Dr. Saleem
Submitted By:
:
M. Umair Munir
F19-BS-ZOOL-1011
BS ZOOLOGY 4th (morning)
 Overview
Nutrition & Types:

Nutrition includes all of those processes by which an animal takes in, digests, absorbs,
stores, and uses food (nutrients) to meet its metabolic needs. Digestion is the chemical and/or
mechanical breakdown of food into particles that individual cells of an animal can absorb.
Animals such as rabbits that subsist entirely on plant material are herbivores. Carnivores are
animals that eat only meat. Omnivores eat both plant and animal matter. Insectivores, such as
bats, eat primarily arthropods. Animals, fungi and bacteria cannot synthesize many of their
own organic molecules and must obtain by consuming other organisms or their products are
heterotrophs.

Nutrients:

Macronutrients are needed in large quantities and include the carbohydrates, lipids,
and proteins. Monosaccharides are the major fuel source for metabolism, being used both as
an energy source and in biosynthesis. The most abundant carbohydrate, cellulose, is a
structural component of the cell wall of plants and many forms of algae. Lipids are
molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the building blocks of the structure and
function of living cells. Examples of lipids include fats, oils, waxes, certain vitamins (such as
A, D, E and K), hormones and most of the cell membrane that is not made up of protein.
A protein is a naturally occurring, extremely complex substance that consists of amino acid
residues joined by peptide bonds. Proteins are present in all living organisms and include
many essential biological compounds such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies.

Micronutrients are needed in small quantities and include organic vitamins and
inorganic minerals. Micronutrients are usually small ions, organic vitamins, inorganic
minerals, and molecules. Even though they are needed in small amounts, animals cannot
synthesize them rapidly thus, they must be obtained from the diet. Sodium and potassium are
vital to the functioning of every day Normal metabolic activity depends on very small
amounts of more than a dozen organic substances called vitamins. Vitamins may be water
soluble or fat soluble. Most water-soluble vitamins, such as the B vitamins and vitamin C, are
coenzymes needed in metabolism.

Digestion:

There are two types of digestion.

Intercellular digestion occurs in simplest form of life like protest and sponges that
take in whole food by active transport, diffusion, etc. and then break down them with
enzymes to obtain nutrients.

Extracellular digestion is enzymatic break down of large pieces of food into small
pieces in special organs.
Animal Strategies:
Continuous Feeders: continuous feeders are slow moving or complete sessile for
example in aquatic suspension feeders tube worms and barnacles remain in one place and
continuously strain food particles from water.
Discontinuous Feeders: they are mobile animals and have more digestive
specializations and take in large pieces of food that is either stored or ground up.
Suspension Feeders: these animals remove suspending food particles from water by
capture, trapping structures such as sponges, ascidians, etc.
Deposit Feeders: deposit feeders are primarily omnivores. They feed on sediments
from which usable food is digested and unusable is passed out through anus. It occurs in
many polycheates, annelids, some snails, earthworm, etc.
Herbivory: it is the consumption of plants. For this feeding behavior animal should
have the ability to bite and chew. Invertebrates that have evolved herbivory are molluscs,
polycheate worms, arthropods, etc. molluscs have radula that scraps algae off rocks and tear
leaves of plants and polycheates have sets of large chitinous teeth for scarping algae.
Predation: this type of feeding strategy requires capture of live prey. They are
classified into categories. Motile stalkers actively pursue their prey such as gastropods,
squids, etc. lurking predators sit and wait for prey to come in seizing distance such as crabs,
polycheates, etc. sessile opportunists capture the prey that come into contact with them such
as cnidarians. Grazing carnivores move about substrate for picking small organisms.
Surface Nutrient Absorption: these animals directly absorb nutrients from external
environment. Example include free living protozoa, cetode worms, etc.
Fluid feeders: the animals that feed on fluids are called fluid feeders. The biological
fluid of plants and animals are rich source of nutrients. Some parasites such as intestine
nematode bite and rasp off host tissues. External parasites are leeches, lampreys, etc. insects
have highly developed sucking structures for fluid feeding. Nectar feeding birds and vampire
bats are also fluid feeders.
Diversity in digestive structure of Invertebrates:
Protozoa: Protozas may be autotrophs and heterotrophs. Cilliated protozas are good
example of protists that utilize heterotrophic nutrition. Cilliatory action direct from the
environment into buccal cavity and cytosome. The cytosome open into cytopharynx which
enlarged as food enter and pinches of a food containing vacuoles.
Bivalve Molluscs: Many bivalve molluscs suspension feed and ingest small food
particles. The digestive track has a short esophagus opening into a stomach, midgut, hindgut
and rectum. These three have a function of extracellular digestion and absorption. Digestion
is coordination of three cycle: feeding, extracellular digestion and intracellular digestion. The
resting phase is preparative for extracellular digestion.
Insects: The grasshopper js a representative insect with a complete digestive track
and extracellular digestion. During feeding the mendible and maxilla first break up the food
which is then taken into the mouth. Salaiva also contain amylase enzyme. The digestion
continue during food storage in crop. During the entire feeding process the nervous system
the endocrine system and present of food exert considerable control over enzyme reduction at
various point in digestive track.
Diversity in digestive structure of Vertebrates:
Tongues: A tongue or tongue like structure develops in the floor of the oral cavity in
many vertebrates. Lamprey has protusible tongue with horny teeth that rasps prey’s flesh.
Fishes have primary tongues that bears teeth. Tetrapod’s evolves mobile tongue for gathering
food. . woodpecker has a long, spiny tongue for gathering insects and grubs .Ant- and
termite-eating mammals also gather food with long, sticky tongues
Teeth: With exception of birds, turtles, and baleen whales, most vertebrates have
teeth. Birds lack teeth, probably to reduce body weight for flight. Teeth are specialized,
depending on whether an animal feeds on plants or animals, and on how it obtains its food.
There in diversity in their structure.
Salivary Glands: Most fishes lack salivary glands in the head region except lamprey .
Most birds don’t have salivary glands . All mammals have salivary glands. Snakes modified
salivary glands produce venom.
Esophagi: it is short in fishes and amphibians but longer in amniotes due to larger
neck . Grain and seed eating birds have crop that evolved from esophagus. This structure
allows birds to reduce frequency of feeding and still maintain high metabolic rate.
Stomachs: stomach is an ancestral vertebrate structure that evolved as Vertebrates
began to feed on larger organisms that were caught at less frequent intervals and required
storage. Gastric glands and their secretion HCl is for killing bacteria according to some
zoologist. Pepsinogen is not evolved later.
Stomach:It is evolved in verterbrates when they start to feed on organisms.The
production of gastric juice is for killing bacteriaand preserving food.Pepsinogen evolved later
because it is not for digestion.
Gizzards: Some fishes,birds and reptiles have gizzard for grinding food.In birds,it is
developed from posterior part of stomach.Pbbles are also retained in the gizzard of grain
eating birds and facilitate the grinding.
Rumen; These are animals that can chew their cud like cows goats,sheep,deers
etc.They can use large amount of food and chew them laterIt also facilitates the
microorganisms to digest cellulose.Gut microorganisms can produce cellulose.Upper portion
of stomach forms rumen and lower portion forms rectum.Lower portion consists of
antechamber,the omasum abomasumbehind it.Food first enter the rumen,where it kills the
organisms.Pullpy mass moves into rectum .
Ceca:Microorganism attack the food before gastric juiceand nourishment is
herbivore,microbial action or cellulose .Rabit horses digest cellulose in their caecum,the blind
pouch.Mice and rabbits eat some of their own feaces to process remaining materialin them
such as vitamins.
Liver and Gallbladder: Liver manufactures bile, which the gallbladder then stores.
Bile is a fluid containing bile salts and bile pigments.
Pancreas: Every vertebrate has a pancreas (pl., pancreata) In lampreys and lampreys
it is embedded in the wall of the intestine and is not a visible organ.
Intestine: The intestines are moderately long in most amphibians and reptiles and
longer in birds and mammals. The intestine increases in length and begins to coil in more
advanced bony fishes, the intestine increases to a coil in bony fish.
The Digestive System of Mammalian:
The process of digesting and absorbing nutrients in a mammal includes: the digestive
system and the elimination from the body of undigested and unabsorbed material.

Gastrointestinal molality and control: During peristalsis (Gr. peri, around + stalsis,
contraction), food advances through the gastrointestinal tract when the rings of circular
smooth muscle contract behind it and relax in front of it.

Oral cavity: A pair of lips protects the oral cavity (mouth). The oral cavity is
continuously bathed by saliva, a watery fluid that at least three pairs of salivary glands
secrete.

Stomach: The human stomach is a muscular, distensible sac with three main
functions. It contains cells that contain the hormone gastrin, which travels to target cells in
the gastrias and the cells in its stomach to target the cells of the stomach and protect it from
the HCl and digestive enzymes.

Small intestine:It is the main site of digestion. Its diameter is 4 centimetre and length
is about 7-8 m. It's size is in between those of herbivores and carnivores. Length determines
the total surface area for absorbing nutrients. Its has circular folds and finger like projection
called villi. These are so dense that the inner surface area become 300 m2, size of a tennis
court. It's first part is deudenum that functions in digestion. Next is jejunum and last is ileum,
Both functions in nutrients absorption. In deudenum, the digestion of protein and carbs take
place. Jejunum and ilium absorbs the end products of digestion. Sugars and amino acids are
absorbed into capillaries. Small intestine absorbs water and dissolved minerals. It absorbs 9
liters of water per day.

Large intestine:It has smaller surface area than small intestine because of absence of
folds, billi and microvilli. Small intestine joins large intestine at secum. Human cecum and
appendix are storage sites. Appendix may also function as part of immune system. Large
intestine's functions are reabsorption of water and minerals. Food residues are moved through
large intestine to bloodstream. Osmosis occurs and water return to lymphatic system and then
to bloodstream. Insufficient water reabsorption results in diarrhea. Too much water
absorption results in constipation. Many bacteria and fungi are present in large intestine.

Pancreas: Pancreas is present just ventral to stomach and has ebdocrine and exocrine
functions. Pancreatic enzymes complete the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins. It
converts proteins to smaller amino acids, polysaccarides to disaccharides and
monosaccharides, it also secretes bicarbonates that raises pH from 2-7.

Liver: Liver is largest organ in human body present under diaphragm. Hepatocytes
present in liver take nutrients and release in bloodstream. Liver functions in urea formation
from proteins, formation of plasma protein, synthetis of non essential amino acids, formation
of lipoproteins, maintenance of body temperature and main storage center.

Gallbladder: Present near the liver and stores bile. Bile is very alkaline and contain
pigments. Bile salts combine with end products of fat digestion to form micelles. Micelles are
lipid aggregates with bile salt coat. They are smaller and can cross tge microvilli.