Electric motor

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse
process, that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, is accomplished
by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives and some electric and
hybrid automobiles often perform both tasks if the vehicle is equipped with dynamic
brakes. Electric motors are found in household appliances such as fans, refrigerators,
washing machines, pool pumps, floor vacuums, and fan-forced ovens.


History and development

Jedlik's electric car of 1828.

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by

electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in
1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A
permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current
was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the
current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often
demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in
place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors
called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were
demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due to limited power.

The first real electric motor, using electromagnets for both stationary and rotating
parts, was demonstrated by Ányos Jedlik in 1828 Hungary. He built an electric-motor
propelled vehicle in 1828.

The first English commutator-type direct-current electric motor capable of a practical

application was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Following
Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the
intention of commercial use was built by the American Thomas Davenport and
patented in 1837. Although several of these motors were built and used to operate
equipment such as a printing press, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the
motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several
inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the
same cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been
developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial
market for these motors.

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe Gramme
connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor.
The Gramme machine was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.

In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the
polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in
the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.

Categorization of electric motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Direct Current (DC) types vs
Alternating Current (AC) types. This is more a de facto convention, rather than a rigid
distinction. For example, many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors
being referred to as universal motors.

The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as
modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed
of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or
some approximation of. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the
stepping motor, both being poly-phase AC motors requiring external electronic
control.

Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a
moving magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production,
there is a clearer distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types.
An asynchronous motor requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a
winding set to induce current in the winding set by mutual inductance; the most
ubiquitous example being the common AC induction motor which must slip in order
to generate torque. In the synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for
magnetic field or current production (eg. permanent magnet motors, synchronous
brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).
Comparison of motor types

Typical Typical
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Application Drive

Rotation slips
Least expensive
AC Induction from frequency Uni/Poly-
Long life Fans
(Shaded Pole) Low starting phase AC
high power
torque

AC Induction High power

Rotation slips Uni/Poly-
(split-phase high starting Appliances
from frequency phase AC
capacitor) torque

Rotation in-sync
Clocks
AC with freq Uni/Poly-
More expensive Audio turntables
Synchronous long-life phase AC
tape drives
(alternator)

Precision
Slow speed Positioning in
positioning Multiphase
Stepper DC Requires a printers and floppy
High holding DC
controller drives
torque

Long lifespan High initial cost Hard drives

Brushless DC Multiphase
low maintenance Requires a CD/DVD players
electric motor DC
High efficiency controller electric vehicles

Low initial cost

High maintenance Treadmill
Brushed DC Simple speed Direct
(brushes) exercisers
electric motor control (PWM)
Low lifespan automotive starters
(Dynamo)

[1]

Torque capability of motor types

When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage,
pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and core flux
density, all categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same
maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given physical size
of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the
maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric
vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating
temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum
operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or
generators.

Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field Weakening
capability inherent in fully electromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet
(PM) electric machine are excluded). Field Weakening, which is not readily available
with PM electric machines, allows an electric machine to operate beyond the designed
frequency of excitation without electrical damage.

Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound (i.e.,

electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines cannot
realize bursts of torque higher than the maximum designed torque without saturating
the magnetic core and rendering any increase in current (i.e., torque) as useless.
Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric machines
can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the maximum operating
torque rating are attempted.

Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such Induction (i.e.,

asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and
Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines,
exhibit very high bursts of torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-
Force or the product of current and winding-turns) induced on either side of the
transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current contributes nothing to
the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead to
core saturation.

Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit one

port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the
transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of
active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher than
the maximum design torque are realizable.

The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly
dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with
no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be
unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited
power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously
control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or generating
while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set (see
Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the
Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be independent of the reactive
impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the
maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type
of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times
operating torque have been calculated.
DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC
designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball
bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types
are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation
respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source -- so they are not
purely DC machines in a strict sense.

Brushed DC motors

Main article: Brushed DC electric motor

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor with a
split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor
consists of a coil wound around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for
brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds,
brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the
irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. This limits the maximum
speed of the machine. The current density per unit area of the brushes limits the
output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes electrical noise.
Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is
subject to wear and maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is a
costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. There are three types of
DC motor:

1. DC series motor
2. DC shunt motor
3. DC compound motor - these are also two types:
1. cumulative compound
2. differentially compounded

Brushless DC motors

Main article: Brushless DC electric motor

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design.
In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is
replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position.
Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear
are typically 75-80% efficient.

Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the
brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use
a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall
effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics.
The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by
the signals from the Hall effect sensors. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous
motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class
of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase
connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These
motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured
with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelists as outrunner
motors.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as
in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-
ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers
and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:

 Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient,

running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads
to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.
 Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be
significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator.
Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise;
without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in
electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
 The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a
convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled)
applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK"
signal.
 The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading
to precise speed control.
 Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making
them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also,
sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings
risking harm to occupants' health.
 Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and
are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
 They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many

kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric
vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.
Coreless or Ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron
(steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of
the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC
motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid
acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The
rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket
surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat pancake (possibly formed on a printed wiring
board) running between upper and lower stator magnets. The windings are typically
stabilized by being impregnated with Electrical epoxy potting systems. Filled epoxies
that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. These systems are
highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm. Typically UL 1446 recognized as a
potting compound for use up to 180C (Class H) UL File No. E 210549.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed
from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more
rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true
if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no
metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be
cooled by forced air.

These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives
and are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like radio-
controlled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation, medical
devices, etc.
Universal motors
A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from
the fact that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly
always used with AC supplies. The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the
current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields)
will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same time, and hence the mechanical force
generated is always in the same direction. In practice, the motor must be specially
designed to cope with the AC current (impedance must be taken into account, as must
the pulsating force), and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than an
equivalent pure DC motor.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, the maximum output of universal motors
is limited and motors exceeding one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower) are rare. But
universal motors also form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in
electric railways. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were
operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation
being common. Because they are universal motors, locomotives using this design
were also commonly capable of operating from a third rail powered by DC.

The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors
which have the typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque
and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the
maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result such
motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are
used only intermittently. Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on
AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor circuit, while stepped speed control can be
accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise
many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be
inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).

Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances
such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is
desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills,
circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum
cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other
similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.

Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of

design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden
loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated
into the motor's protection and control schemes. In smaller applications, a fan blade
attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe
value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over the armature and field
windings.

With the very low cost of semiconductor rectifiers, some applications that would have
previously used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a
permanent magnet field.

AC motors
Main article: AC motor

In 1882, Nikola Tesla invented the rotating magnetic field, and pioneered the use of a
rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a unique
two-phase induction motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently
researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the
Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

Introduction of Tesla's motor from 1888 onwards initiated what is sometimes referred
to as the Second Industrial Revolution, making possible the efficient generation and
long distance distribution of electrical energy using the alternating current
transmission system, also of Tesla's invention (1888).[2] Before the invention of the
rotating magnetic field, motors operated by continually passing a conductor through a
stationary magnetic field (as in homopolar motors).

Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine could be removed and the
device could operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated
that would be akin to building a perpetual motion machine.[3] Tesla would later attain
U.S. Patent 0,416,194 , Electric Motor (December 1889), which resembles the motor
seen in many of Tesla's photos. This classic alternating current electro-magnetic
motor was an induction motor.

Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase "cage-rotor" in

1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial
applications.

Components

A typical AC motor consists of two parts:

1. An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce

a rotating magnetic field, and;
2. An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the
rotating field.
Torque motors
A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form of
induction motor which is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled, that is, with
the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation,
the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name).

A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel
motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the
characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-constant light tension to be applied
to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from
a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also
achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any additional
mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer world, torque motors are used
with force feedback steering wheels.

Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion

engine in conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works
against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance with the output of the
governor. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the
ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and, depending on the speed, makes small
adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor. If the engine starts to slow
down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor will
develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle.
Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to
the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and close the throttle.

Slip ring
The slip ring or wound rotor motor is an induction machine where the rotor comprises
a set of coils that are terminated in slip rings to which external impedances can be
connected. The stator is the same as is used with a standard squirrel cage motor.

By changing the impedance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and
speed/torque curves can be altered.

The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires
a very high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the
resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to
produce maximum torque at a relatively low current from zero speed to full speed. A
secondary use of the slip ring motor is to provide a means of speed control. Because
the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the resistance connected to
the rotor circuit, the speed of the motor can be altered. Increasing the value of
resistance on the rotor circuit will move the speed of maximum torque down. If the
resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond the point where the maximum
torque occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced.

When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor
will operate at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load
torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load
will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated
in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very
significant. The speed regulation is also very poor.

Stepper motors
Main article: Stepper motor

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are stepper motors,

where an internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a large iron core with salient
poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A
stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a
solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic
field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its
application, the motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps" from one
position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence.
Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards.

Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field
windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more
sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings,
allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby rotate extremely
smoothly. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of
positioning systems, particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.

Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle with ease, and hence stepper motors
are used in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision they offered
was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive.
As drive density increased, the precision limitations of stepper motors made them
obsolete for hard drives, thus newer hard disk drives use read/write head control
systems based on voice coils.

Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM
(switched reluctance machine).
 Linear motors

A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead
of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a linear force along its length by setting
up a traveling electromagnetic field.

Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You can find a
linear motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train, where the train "flies" over the ground,
and in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is
controlled by the rail.

Doubly-fed electric motor

Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase windings that actively
participate in the energy conversion process with at least one of the winding sets
electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two is the most active
multiphase winding sets possible without duplicating singly-fed or doubly-fed
categories in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed electric motors are machines
with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a
given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as singly-
fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set.

A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor
winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components.
Difficulties with controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications.[4]

Singly-fed electric motor

Singly-fed electric machines incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is
connected to a power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either induction or
synchronous. The active winding set can be electronically controlled. Induction
machines develop starting torque at zero speed and can operate as standalone
machines. Synchronous machines must have auxiliary means for startup, such as a
starting induction squirrel-cage winding or an electronic controller. Singly-fed electric
machines have an effective constant torque speed range up to synchronous speed for a
given excitation frequency.

The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or wound rotor),
synchronous motors (i.e., field-excited, permanent magnet or brushless DC motors,
reluctance motors, etc.), which are discussed on the this page, are examples of singly-
fed motors. By far, singly-fed motors are the predominantly installed type of motors.
There are many different types and sizes of electric motors. Electric motors are everywhere now.
There are likely even some in the computer you are using to read this article. The fans, disk drives,
and DVD or CD-ROM player all use electric motors.

Electric motors can be divided into two types: alternating current (AC) electric motors and direct
current (DC) electric motors. A DC electric motor will not run when supplied with AC current, nor
will an AC motor run with DC current. AC electric motors are further subdivided into single phase
and three phase motors. Single phase AC electrical supply is what is typically supplied in a home.
Three phase electrical power is commonly only available in a factory setting.

DC electric motors are also split into types. These include brush motors, brushless motors, and
stepper motors. Of these types, brush electric motors are by far the most common. They are easy
to build and very cost effective. Their major drawback is that they use carbon brushes to transfer
electrical current to the rotating part, and these brushes wear over time and eventually result in the
failure of the electric motor. The DC brushless motor eliminates the brushes, but is more costly
and requires much more complicated drive electronics to operate.

A stepper motor is a special type of brushless motor that is used primarily in automation systems.
A stepper motor uses a special type of construction that allows a computerized control system to
“step” the rotation of the motor. This is very important when controlling a robotic arm. For instance,
when you wish to move a specific distance as directed by a procedure in a program on the
computer, a stepper motor may be the best Electric motors are usually sized in horsepower. The
most common sizes are what are called fractional horsepower motors, i.e. ½ horse power or ¼
horsepower. Larger motors are typically only found in factories, where they can range in size to
thousands of horsepower.

Electric motors also come with various speed ratings. Speed is usually specified as rotations per
minute (RPM) at no load condition. As the motor is loaded down, the speed will slow down. If the
electric motor is loaded too heavily, the motor shaft will stop. This is known as the stall speed and
should be avoided.

Finally, before you order an electric motor, you should determine the mounting type you require,
the start up torque, the type of enclosure required, and the type of shaft output required. There are
many choices in each of these categories. Hopefully, you just need to replace an existing motor
that has failed and the salesperson can help you find a direct replacement. Otherwise, specifying
the correct electric motor can be a daunting task.
The Selection, Connection, Reversing and Repair of
Electric Motors
Selecting a motor and connecting the electricals are the first challenges encountered
after purchasing that long coveted machine tool. There are several types of single
phase AC motors in current production in the U.S., but only two types are commonly
used in powering our equipment.

TYPES OF MOTORS

For the purpose of clarity I will describe the features of the common types of
fractional horsepower motors.

Universal or series motors are those having brushes and a wound rotor. An example
of this type is that found in a portable drill or a Dremel tool. They are also
distinguished by their noisiness.

Induction or shaded pole motors are the ones commonly sold in window fans. They
have a solid (squrrel cage) rotor and start slowly, gradually building up to speed.

Repulsion motors are old and uncommon, in my experience, but they may be
encountered at a yard sale or flea market. Being old, they tend to be on the large size.
They have a wound rotor and brushes electrically connected to each other but not to
the stator windings. A large motor with brushes (assuming that the nameplate doesn't
indicate a DC motor or generator) is the tip-off that you are likely examining a
repulsion motor. This type of motor can be reversed by shifting the position of the
brushes. Having seen one of these powering a large drill press in a local blacksmith's
shop, I would not recommend investing in a repulsion motor since the remaining
types of motor to be described will do the job much better.

The final three types of motors are the ones most suitable for powering home shop
machinery: split phase motor (split phase start - induction run), capacitor start motor
(capacitor start - induction run), and capacitor start - capacitor run motor. All are
distinguished by a solid squirrel-cage rotor and an audible click when the motor has
been turned off and is slowing down. The split phase motor has no cylindrical hump
on the outside for the capacitor; the other two types obviously do. The capacitor start-
capacitor run motor will have either two capacitor humps or will have a capacitor with
three separate electrical connections. By the process of elimination, it should seem
obvious that a capacitor start motor will have a single capacitor that has only two
electrical connections.

All of the motors described operate on house current, which is single phase. Three
phase motors are commonly found on used industrial machines and will not run on
house current without an expensive rotary phase converter. The solid state phase
converters are cheaper, but our local electric motor rewinder intimates they have a
tendency to burn out. Perhaps another reader with personal experience with solid state
phase converters could enlighten us. Because of a lack of experience with three phase
power, I have found it best to avoid these motors. The maker's plate with the electrical
information states whether the motor is single phase or three phase.
RECOMMENDATIONS ON TYPE AND SIZE OF MOTOR

Capacitor motors have a much greater starting torque than split phase motors. I prefer
to use capacitor start motors on all tools except bench grinders. When the starting load
is heavy, a split phase motor will take a long time to come up to speed. There are two
problems with this. One is that a great deal of current is drawn, causing the shop lights
to dim. The other is that the starting windings are a lighter gage wire; with repeated
two- or three-second starting periods, the starter windings will eventually burn out.

Split phase motors are considered to be adequate for easy starting tools, such as
grinders, drill presses, jigsaws and the like. I have found the 1/3 hp split phase motor
on my old Delta drill press to be adequate for all but the higher speeds. I plan to
replace it with a 1/2 hp capacitor motor when I find one at a yard sale. If I had an
industrial drill press with a No. 2 or No. 3 Morse taper, I would want a 3/4 or 1 hp
motor. A respected practitioner of our craft is quite satisfied with a 1/3 hp split phase
motor on his 9" South Bend lathe but admits to doing only light turning. I believe the
manufacturer recommends a 1/2 hp capacitor motor. I had a 1/2 hp capacitor motor on
my 12" Clausing lathe. This never seemed to slow down even under heavy cuts, but a
winding eventually burned out. From this experience, I infer that something more
robust than a 1/2 hp motor is needed for a 12" lathe. I suspect that a 3/4 hp motor
would have been adequate, but a 1.5 hp motor was the only used motor available
when the old one burned out.

ADEQUACY OF SHOP WIRING AND THE MERITS OF 220-VOLT

OPERATION

Next comes the job of wiring the motor. First look on the motor's information plate
for the operating amperage and determine if the shop wiring and fusing are adequate.
According to Sears and Roebuck's "Simplified Electrical Wiring," the starting
currents of motors are roughly three times the operating current listed. For practical
purposes, unless the starting time of the motor is prolonged by a heavy load, the
operating current of the motor will determine if the breaker is going to trip. As an
example, at 110v, a typical 1/2 hp motor will operate on 7 amps or less, but will draw
22 amps when starting. In my old house which had 15-amp breakers, I never
overloaded the circuit with a 1/2 hp motor.

If you acquire a piece of equipment that exceeds your shop's electrical capacity,
you're going to have to do some wiring. The purchase of my air compressor presented
me with this problem. At 110v its operating current was 17.8 amps and the 15-amp
breaker would trip rather frequently. At the time, I didn't know how easy it was to add
a circuit breaker and run a 220v line, so I tapped into one of the 20-amp circuits in the
house and used 12-gage wire to run a new 110v line to the shop.

A few years later, a machinist friend of mine introduced me to the concept of using
220v current for the machines. I had always assumed that heavy wires such as that
used on dryers and ranges was needed for 220v work. Not so! Those wires are heavy
because dryers and ranges pull currents in the range of 30 and 50 amps, respectively.
Actually, a reduction in the wire gage may be enabled by running a motor at 220v.
When a motor is rewired to run at 220v, its operating amperage is halved. Thus, the
compressor that pulled 17.8 amps at 110v only drew 8.9 amps at 220v. When I finally
ran my 220v line to the shop, I used a 15-amp breaker and 14-gage wire. What a
difference it made in how quickly the compressor started. I used the same outlet as I
was using for 110v, but painted a sign on the outlet that labeled it as being 220v. I
doubt this outlet meets the electrical code since the special receptacles for 220v
physically prevent a 110v appliance from being plugged in; however, I feel this
practice is acceptable in one's home shop. On motors that will operate at either 110v
or 220v, I prefer to run them on 220v since there is much less dimming of the lights
and much quicker starting at this voltage.

For future reference, remember that fuses and circuit breakers protect the wiring of
the house from overheating and burning while inside a wall, and therefore are sized to
be compatible with the house wiring they protect - not the machine connected to it.
This is why it's dangerous to just put a larger fuse or breaker on the circuit to your
shop without improving the wiring. 12-gage wire will carry 20 amps, 14-gage wire 15
amps, and 16-gage wire 10 amps. Home wiring is fairly straightforward, but the
details are beyond the intent of this article. I refer the reader again to the previous
mentioned booklet sold by Sears and Roebuck for an expanded description of the
procedure.

INTERNAL WIRING CONNECTIONS: CHANGING FROM 110V to

220V OPERATION

Next we turn our attention to the internal wiring arrangements of split phase and
capacitor motors. They are almost identical except the capacitor start motor has a
capacitor. Both motors have two types of windings - starter windings and running
windings. The starter windings determine the direction of rotation. They are of a light
gage wire since they are only used briefly for starting and then are disconnected from
the circuit by a centrifugal switch when the motor is almost up to speed. The click
heard when the motor is slowing to a halt is the centrifugal switch clicking the starting
windings back into the circuit. The lead numbering I present in my diagrams, Figures
1 through 4, is used in three motors in my shop, all of which are of different
manufacture. One of them is British in origin. I assume the numbering system is
universal, but I can't be assured of this since I haven't found these diagrams in print. If
there is a wiring diagram on your motor, so much the better; you don't need me. If
not, I'll give you as many tricks to identify the leads as I can:

Lead No. 8 is the one usually attached to the capacitor or centrifugal switch. Leads
No. 6 and 7 are usually buried somewhere in the motor and aren't seen. If three leads
are twisted together, they probably represent two running winding leads and a starting
winding lead. According to an article in "Model Engineer" (Volume 145, Number
3620, November 1979, page 1262) the starting windings have a slightly higher
resistance than the running windings. On my Brooks 1.5 hp motor, the starting
windings have a resistance of 2.2 ohms and running windings have 1.2 ohms of
resistance. Take the utmost care in making these measurements since a dirty contact
will alter the measurement. If only four leads come to the terminal board, two are
probably running winding leads and two are probably the starting winding leads No. 5
and 8. I can't cover all the possibilities, but that should help you in getting started.

Figures 1 and 3 show the comparison between a motor set up to run on 220v versus
one wired to run at 110v. Note that the starting windings are connected in series with
one of the running windings when the motor is wired to run at 220v. A few years ago
when I bought a used 3/4 hp motor to replace the three phase one that came in my
Hardinge mill, a less than attentive employee at the motor rewinders instructed me to
connect starting winding leads No. 5 and 8 to running winding leads No. 1 and 4 - in
essence, to the full 220v input. The motor ran fine for two months, and then one time
on starting, it smoked, made a horribly loud vibrating noise, and rotated at only a
fraction of its normal speed. Fortunately, only the capacitor had failed. When I
purchased the new capacitor, I inquired about the wiring connection on this motor
since it was different from two others in my shop. The owner of the rewinding shop
instructed me to place the starting windings in series with the running windings so
that they would absorb some of the current going to the starting windings and
capacitor, prolonging their life expectancy.

Having converted a motor to run on 220v, it is worthwhile to test it at 110v first. If

wired correctly, it will run at a somewhat slower than normal speed.

R = running winding
S = starting winding

REVERSING THE ROTATION AND WIRING DRUM SWITCHES

Reversing the rotation of a motor is often desired. From Figures 1 through 4, it is

evident that reversing the connections of the starting winding leads No. 5 and 8 is all
that is necessary. In Figures 5 and 6 are the wiring diagrams for the terminals in a
drum switch controlling a 220v motor. Figures 7 and 8 show the same switch wired
for a 110v motor. Note that the only difference in the internal wiring of the drum
switch between 110v and 220v is a link between the terminals on the lower left. Pay
attention to the fact that in Figures 7 and 8 Line 2 is the hot or live wire.

(TYPEWRITER ARTIST NOTE: Please bear with me. It isn't trivial to pass graphic
information through ASCII. The following legend is to help the suffering reader to
follow the typewriter art.)

DRUM SWITCH LEGEND: There are 9 connection points depicted. The central 3
points connect either to the right 3 points, as shown first, or to the left 3 points, as
shown second. In Figures 5 through 8, some of these points are wired together, and
some are connected to wiring points in the motor. These motor wiring points are
numbered the same as they were above in Figures 1 through 4.

/ --__
(2&3)-----+ -------------------(*)
|^------------------(8)
|
|
line 2 | (4)-----------------V
-------------(*)------------------------------------(*)
(hot) Reverse (110v)
Figure 8
Several years ago, when the previously mentioned 1/2 hp motor in my lathe burned
out, I didn't have a reversing switch but only the standard single pole wall switch
controlling the current flow. Thoughtlessly, I had connected this switch to the neutral
(white) lead. When the motor started to hiss and smoke, I quickly flipped the switch
off. Much to my alarm, the motor continued to hiss, smoke and run! When the
winding burned, it shorted to the motor frame and a circuit was completed from the
hot wire through the remaining windings to the ground wire. I had to dash to the
breaker box to shut off my lathe. (Thank goodness I've never tried to save a few cents
by buying electric cord without a ground wire or, in this case, I might have *been* the
ground wire.)

This same flow occurs in the wiring of the drum switch for 220v since both of the
lines are hot (live), and Line 1 is directly connected to the motor without an
intervening switch. In my own shop, I solved this problem with a magnetic starter;
more on these later. Figure 9 shows an alternate type of drum switch configuration
which may be encountered. By now you should have some idea of how to arrange the
connections, so I won't illustrate these. If you're still in your salad days and can't
afford a drum switch, an alternative is to utilize a four-way switch, the type used in
household wiring when three or more switches control the same circuit. The electrical
connections are illustrated in Figures 9 through 13.

There are two types of four-way switches - cross type and through type - and you'll
have to determine which type you have with an ohmmeter or test lamp. I have
illustrated the connections for a 110v motor only, but there's no reason the same setup
couldn't be used for 220v operation. With a four-way switch you'll need a separate
switch to turn the motor on and off.

While we're on the subject of making-do, I'll pass on another pearl. Shoe eyelets make
nice electrical connectors. Just wrap the bare wire around the post and crimp.
Sometimes a rap in the hole with a center punch is needed to expand it so that it will
fit over a screw terminal. Next you'll need four- or five-wire "cable" to run from the
switch to the motor. Since cable is not available in my small town, I've made my own
using 5/8" ID clear plastic tubing and different colors of 14 or 16 gage *multistrand*
wire. If the cable isn't too long, a coat hanger can be used to pull the wires through.
MOTOR PROTECTION AND MAGNETIC STARTERS

Motor protection is often neglected. The fusebox or circuit breaker does nothing to
protect the motor in case of an overload. They just protect the house wiring so it
doesn't start to burn while hidden in a wall.

Dayton sells a single pole fractional horsepower manual motor starter, stock No.
5X269, that lists (used to list) for $22. Their two-pole model No. 5X270 should be
used for 220v hookups and lists (used to list) for $26. A heater element matched to the
operating amperage of the motor must be bought separately and lists (used to list) for
$4.

Many used machines come with the motor protection device still attached. In some
cases they are manual devices and in others they are magnetic starters. Almost
invariably these devices are set up for three-phase operation, so you'll have to follow
the instructions inside the lid to make the conversion to single-phase operation and the
proper voltage. You'll have to buy one or two heater elements to match the operating
amperage of the motor to be protected. A list of the parts numbers for the heater
elements is usually printed inside the lid with the connection instructions. These cost
about $7 apiece. On magnetic starters, also look at the label on the magnetic coil to be
sure it's the correct one for the voltage you intend to use. The protection device is
placed in the circuit between the plug and the drum switch. Thus, the sequence is:
plug and cord leading into protection device, then the drum switch, and then the
motor. Some motors have thermal overload protectors built in. I suppose they work,
but I've been less than trusting of them since the only motor in my shop to have one
was the lathe motor that burned out. I confess that only the more expensive motors in
my shop are protected.

Before moving on to the next topic, a final reminder - always include a ground wire in
all your circuits so that if a short develops, you aren't the ground.

TROUBLESHOOTING

There are only a limited number of things that can go wrong electrically with split
phase and capacitor motors. Listing what can go wrong is easy. Explaining how to
isolate the circuits for testing can be difficult, and you'll have to use your own
ingenuity plus the wiring schemes I've given you. You'll need an ohmmeter or a test
lamp to do the testing.

If the motor doesn't even hum when you plug it in, it's either not getting any power at
all or there's a break in one of the circuits inside the motor. Look at the windings. If
one or more looks blackened and smells burnt, it's probably burned out. It doesn't
seem profitable for motor repairmen to rewind small single-phase motors, so if you've
burned out a winding, you're probably going to have to replace the motor.

If the motor hums but won't turn, there are several possibilities, all dealing with the
starting windings. Check to see that all the connections are in the right place. Look for
burned windings. Examine the capacitor. If it has leaked a few drops of oil, it's no
good.
Remove the wires to the capacitor and test it with an ohmmeter set on the 100x or
1000x scale. The needle should briefly swing toward 0 ohms and then drift back to the
high end of the scale. If it doesn't swing toward 0 ohms, short the capacitor with a
screwdriver and try the test again; the capacitor may have had a small charge that
would interfere with this test.

The centrifugal switch normally is closed and passes current when the motor is
stopped. If it doesn't, pull the bell ends off of the motor frame and look at the
centrifugal switch contacts. Push the contacts together and test them with the
ohmmeter to be certain they do or don't transmit current. Oil or grease from the
bearings can prevent the contacts from closing. Look at the contact surfaces for pitting
or burning. If they need it, brighten them up with a point file or emery paper, taking
care not to get the emery dust in the bearing.

If you don't hear a click when the motor's slowing down, the centrifugal switch isn't
working. Pull the bell ends off the frame and look at the centrifugal switch. The
weights should be moveable although stiff because of spring tension. If the bearings
are extremely worn, the rotor may touch the frame and prevent the motor from
operating. I've never seen this, but I'd expect to find a lot of play in the motor shaft
and either bright spots or burned spots inside the frame where the motor was rubbing.

If the motor starts but just doesn't seem to have as much power as it should, look to
see if one of the windings looks burned. Check to see that all the electrical
connections are correct and clean. Make sure you don't have the motor wired to run
on 220v when you're only using 110v.
 Synchronous motor
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with
coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting
magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under
usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip in
order to produce torque.

Uses
Sometimes a synchronous motor is used, not to drive a load, but to improve the power
factor on the local grid it's connected to. It does this by providing reactive power to,
or consuming reactive power from the grid. In this case the synchronous motor is
called a Synchronous condenser.

Electrical power plants almost always use synchronous generators because it's very
important to keep the frequency constant at which the generator is connected.

Low power applications include positioning machines, where high precision is

required, and robot actuators.

Mains synchronous motors are used for electric clocks.

Advantages
Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non-synchronous motors:

 Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is applied.

 Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls, eg. stepper
motors.
 They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator
and the rotor windings.
 Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current
relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads
voltage phase), can be obtained by increasing this current slightly, which can
help achieve a better power factor correction for the whole installation.
 Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed
is required (as in ball mills and similar apparatus).

Examples
 Brushless permanent magnet DC motor.
 Stepper motor.
 Slow speed AC synchronous motor.
 Switched reluctance motor.
Synchronous Generators

3-Phase Generator (or Motor) Principles

All 3-phase generators (or motors) use a rotating magnetic field.

In the picture to the left we have installed three electromagnets around a circle. Each of the three magnets is connected to its

own phase in the three phase electrical grid.

As you can see, each of the three electromagnets alternate between producing a South pole and a North pole towards the

centre. The letters are shown in black when the magnetism is strong, and in light grey when the magnetism is weak. The

fluctuation in magnetism corresponds exactly to the fluctuation in voltage of each phase. When one phase is at its peak, the

other two have the current running in the opposite direction, at half the voltage. Since the timing of current in the three

magnets is one third of a cycle apart, the magnetic field will make one complete revolution per cycle.

Synchronous Motor Operation

The compass needle (with the North pole painted red) will follow the magnetic field exactly, and make one revolution per

cycle. With a 50 Hz grid, the needle will make 50 revolutions per second, i.e. 50 times 60 = 3000 rpm (revolutions per

minute).

In the picture above, we have in fact managed to build what is called a 2-pole permanent magnet synchronous motor.

The reason why it is called a synchronous motor, is that the magnet in the centre will rotate at a constant speed which is

synchronous with (running exactly like the cycle in) the rotation of the magnetic field.

The reason why it is called a 2-pole motor is that it has one North and one South pole. It may look like three poles to

you, but in fact the compass needle feels the pull from the sum of the magnetic fields around its own magnetic field. So,

if the magnet at the top is a strong South pole, the two magnets at the bottom will add up to a strong North pole.

The reason why it is called a permanent magnet motor is that the compass needle in the centre is a permanent magnet,

not an electromagnet. (You could make a real motor by replacing the compass needle by a powerful permanent magnet,

or an electromagnet which maintains its magnetism through a coil (wound around an iron core) which is fed with direct

current).

The setup with the three electromagnets is called the stator in the motor, because this part of the motor remains static

(in the same place). The compass needle in the centre is called the rotor, obviously because it rotates.

Synchronous Generator Operation

If you start forcing the magnet around (instead of letting the current from the grid move it), you will discover that it

works like a generator, sending alternating current back into the grid. (You should have a more powerful magnet to
produce much electricity). The more force (torque) you apply, the more electricity you generate, but the generator will

still run at the same speed dictated by the frequency of the electrical grid.

You may disconnect the generator completely from the grid, and start your own private 3-phase electricity grid,

hooking your lamps up to the three coils around the electromagnets. (Remember the principle of magnetic / electrical

induction from the reference manual section of this web site). If you disconnect the generator from the main grid,

however, you will have to crank it at a constant rotational speed in order to produce alternating current with a constant

frequency. Consequently, with this type of generator you will normally want to use an indirect grid connection of the

generator.

In practice, permanent magnet synchronous generators are not used very much. There are several reasons for this. One

reason is that permanent magnets tend to become demagnetised by working in the powerful magnetic fields inside a

generator. Another reason is that powerful magnets (made of rare earth metals, e.g. Neodynium) are quite expensive,

even if prices have dropped lately.

Wind Turbines With Synchronous Generators

Wind turbines which use synchronous generators normally use electromagnets in the rotor which are fed by direct current

from the electrical grid. Since the grid supplies alternating current, they first have to convert alternating current to direct

current before sending it into the coil windings around the electromagnets in the rotor.

The rotor electromagnets are connected to the current by using brushes and slip rings on the axle (shaft) of the

generator.

Direct on line starter

A direct on line starter, often abbreviated DOL starter, is a widely-used starting
method of electric motors. The term is used in electrical engineering and associated
with electric motors. There are many types of motor starters, the simplest of which is
the DOL starter.

Definition
A motor starter is an electrical/electronic circuit composed of electro-mechanical and
electronic devices which are employed to start and stop an electric motor. Regardless
of the motor type (AC or DC), the types of starters differ depending on the method of
starting the motor. A DOL starter connects the motor terminals directly to the power
supply. Hence, the motor is subjected to the full voltage of the power supply.
Consequently, high starting current flows through the motor. This type of starting is
suitable for small motors below 5 hp (3.75 kW). Reduced-voltage starters are
employed with motors above 5 hp. Although DOL motor starters are available for
motors less than 150 kW on 400 V and for motors less than 1 MW on 6.6 kV. Supply
reliability and reserve power generation dictates the use of reduced voltage.

DOL Reversing Starter

Most motors are reversible or, in other words, they can be run clockwise and anti-
clockwise. A reversing starter is an electrical or electronic circuit that reverses the
direction of a motor automatically. Logically, the circuit is composed of two DOL
circuits; one for clockwise operation and the other for anti-clockwise operation.

Example of Motor Starters

A very well-known motor starter is the DOL Starter of a 3-Phase Squirrel-Cage
Motor. This starter is sometimes used to start water pumps, compressors, fans and
conveyor belts. With a 400V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply, the power circuit connects the
motor to 400V. Consequently, the starting current may reach 3-8 times the normal
current. The control circuit is typically run at 24V with the aid of a 400V/24V
transformer.

Motor direction reversal

Changing the direction of a 3-Phase Squirrel-Cage Motor requires swapping any two
phases. This could be achieved by a contactor KM1 swapping phase L2 and L3
between the supply and the motor.

Safety Devices within the Starting Circuit

These devices are used to protect the motor as well as the user of the motor being
operated:
1. Overload Coil The overload coil, also known as a thermal overload, is designed to
open the starting circuit and thus cut the power to the motor in the event of the motor
drawing too much current from the supply. The overload coil is a normally closed
device which opens due to heat generated by excessive current flowing through the
circuit. Thermal overloads have a small heating device that increases in temperature
as the motor running current increases. A bi-metallic strip located close to the heater
deflects as the heater temperature rises until it mechanically causes the device to trip
and open the circuit, cutting power to the motor should it become overloaded. A
thermal overload is basically a circuit breaker that will accommodate the brief high
starting current of a motor whilst being able to accurately protect it from a running
current overload. This is because the heater coil and the action of the bi-metallic strip
introduces a time delay that affords the motor time to start and settle into normal
running current without the thermal overload tripping. Thermal overloads can be
manually or automatically resettable depending on their application and have an
adjuster that allows them to be accurately set to the motor run current.

2. KM1 No-Volt Coil The No-Volt coil serves the purpose of keeping the holding-in
contactor closed, this is connected in parallel across the start switch (which is a
normally open switch) in the control circuit. The no-volt coil is energized once the
start switch is initiated and keeps current flowing through the control circuit. In the
event of no power being supplied to the motor, the motor will stop. In order for the
motor to be turned on again, the start switch must be initiated and therefore be the
catalyst for closing the holding in contactor and hence energize the no-volt coil. Only
once the no-volt coil is energized, will current remain flowing in the control circuit.

Motor soft starter

A motor soft starter is a device used with AC electric motors to temporarily reduce
the load and torque in the powertrain of the motor during startup. This reduces the
mechanical stress on the motor and shaft, as well as the electrodynamic stresses on the
attached power cables and electrical distribution network, extending the lifespan of
the system.

Motor soft starters can consist of mechanical or electrical devices, or a combination of

both. Mechanical soft starters include clutches and several types of couplings using a
fluid, magnetic forces, or steel shot to transmit torque, similar to other forms of torque
limiter. Electrical soft starters can be any control system that reduces the torque by
temporarily reducing the voltage or current input, or a device that temporarily alters
how the motor is connected in the electric circuit.

Electrical soft starters can utilize solid state devices to control the current flow and
therefore the voltage applied to the motor. They can be connected in series with the
line voltage applied to the motor, or can be connected inside the delta (Δ) loop of a
delta-connected motor, controlling the voltage applied to each winding. Solid state
soft starters can control one or more phases of the voltage applied to the induction
motor with the best results achieved by three-phase control. Typically, the voltage is
controlled by reverse-parallel-connected silicon-controlled rectifiers (thyristors), but
in some circumstances with three-phase control, the control elements can be a
reverse-parallel-connected SCR and diode.

Adjustable-speed drive
Adjustable speed drive (ASD) or variable-speed drive (VSD) describes equipment
used to control the speed of machinery. Many industrial processes such as assembly
lines must operate at different speeds for different products. Where process conditions
demand adjustment of flow from a pump or fan, varying the speed of the drive may
save energy compared with other techniques for flow control.

Where speeds may be selected from several different pre-set ranges, usually the drive
is said to be "adjustable" speed. If the output speed can be changed without steps over
a range, the drive is usually referred to as "variable speed".

Adjustable and variable speed drives may be purely mechanical, electromechanical,

hydraulic, or electronic.

Fixed speeds of electric motors

Alternating-current electric motors run at speeds closely determined by the number of
poles in the motor and the frequency of the alternating current supply. This is unlike
the steam engine, which can be made to run over a range of speeds by adjusting the
timing and duration of valves admitting steam to the cylinder.

AC motors can be made with several sets of poles, which can be chosen to give one of
several different speeds (say, 720/1800 RPM for a 60 Hz motor). The number of
different speeds available is limited by the expense of providing multiple sets of
windings. If many different speeds or continuously variable speeds are required, other
methods are required.

Direct-current motors allow for changes of speed by adjusting the shunt field current.
Another way of changing speed of a direct current motor is to change the voltage
applied to the armature.

An adjustable speed drive might consist of an electric motor and controller that is
used to adjust the motor's operating speed. The combination of a constant-speed
motor and a steplessly adjustable mechanical speed-changing device might also be
called an adjustable speed drive. Electronic variable frequency drives are rapidly
making older technology redundant.
Reasons for using adjustable speed drives
Process control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an
adjustable speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for
process control, but energy conservation has emerged as an equally important
objective.

Adjusting speed as a means of controlling a process

The following are process control benefits that might be provided by an adjustable
speed drive:

 Smoother operation

 Acceleration control

 Different operating speed for each process recipe

 Compensate for changing process variables

 Allow slow operation for setup purposes

 Adjust the rate of production

 Allow accurate positioning

 Control torque or tension

Example

An adjustable speed drive can often provide smoother operation compared to an

alternative fixed speed mode of operation. For example, in a sewage lift station
sewage usually flows through sewer pipes under the force of gravity to a wet well
location. From there it is pumped up to a treatment process. When fixed speed pumps
are used, the pumps are set to start when the level of the liquid in the wet well reaches
some high point and stop when the level has been reduced to a low point. Cycling the
pumps on and off results in frequent high surges of electrical current to start the
motors resulting in electromagnetic and thermal stresses in the motors and power
control equipment, the pumps and pipes are subjected to mechanical and hydraulic
stresses, and the sewage treatment process is forced to accommodate surges in the
flow of sewage through the process. When adjustable speed drives are used, the
pumps operate continuously at a speed that increases as the wet well level increases.
This matches the outflow to the average inflow and provides a much smoother
operation of the process.
Saving energy by using adjustable speed drives

An adjustable speed drive often uses less energy than an alternative fixed speed mode
of operation. Fans and pumps are the most common energy saving applications. When
a fan is driven by a fixed speed motor, the airflow may sometimes be higher than it
needs to be. Airflow can be regulated by using a damper to restrict the flow, but it is
more efficient to regulate the airflow by regulating the speed of the motor. It follows
from the affinity laws that reducing fan speed to 50% results in a power consumption
drop to 12.5%.

Types of adjustable speed drives

Speed adjustment techniques have been used in transmitting mechanical power to
machinery since the earliest use of powered machinery. Before electric motors were
invented, mechanical speed changers were used to control the mechanical power
provided by water wheels and steam engines. When electric motors came into use,
means of controlling their speed were developed almost immediately. Today, various
types of mechanical drives, hydraulic drives and electric drives compete with one
another in the industrial drives market.

Mechanical adjustable speed drives

There are two types of mechanical drives, variable pitch drives and traction drives.

Variable pitch drives are pulley and belt drives in which the pitch diameter of one or
both pulleys can be adjusted.

Traction drives transmit power through metal rollers running against mating metal
rollers. The input/output speed ratio is adjusted by moving the rollers to change the
diameters of the contact path. Many different roller shapes and mechanical designs
have been used.

Hydraulic adjustable speed drives

There are three types of hydraulic drives, those are : hydrostatic drives, hydrodynamic
drives and hydroviscous drives.
A hydrostatic drive consists of a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic motor. Since
positive displacement pumps and motors are used, one revolution of the pump or
motor corresponds to a set volume of fluid flow that is determined by the
displacement regardless of speed or torque. Speed is regulated by regulating the fluid
flow with a valve or by changing the displacement of the pump or motor. Many
different design variations have been used. A swash plate drive employs an axial
piston pump and/or motor in which the swash plate angle can be changed to adjust the
displacement and thus adjust the speed.

Hydrodynamic drives or fluid couplings use oil to transmit torque between an

impeller on the constant-speed input shaft and a rotor on the adjustable-speed output
shaft. The torque converter in the automatic transmission of a car is a hydrodynamic
drive.

A hydroviscous drive consists of one or more discs or connected to the input shaft
pressed against a similar disc or discs connected to the output shaft. Torque is
transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft through an oil film between the
discs. The transmitted torque is proportional to the pressure exerted by a hydraulic
cylinder that presses the discs together.

Continuously variable transmission (CVT)

Mechanical and hydraulic adjustable speed drives are usually called transmissions or
continuously variable transmissions when they are used in vehicles, farm equipment
and some other types of equipment.

Electric adjustable speed drives

There are three general categories of electric drives: DC motor drives, eddy current
drives and AC motor drives. Each of these general types can be further divided into
numerous variations. Electric drives generally include both an electric motor and a
speed control unit or system. The term drive is often applied to the controller without
the motor. In the early days of electric drive technology, electromechanical control
systems were used. Later, electronic controllers were designed using various types of
vacuum tubes. As suitable solid state electronic components became available, new
controller designs incorporated the latest electronic technology.

DC drives

DC drives are DC motor speed control systems. Since the speed of a DC motor is
directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to field current,
either armature voltage or field current can be used to control speed. Several types of
DC motors are described in the electric motor article. The electric motor article also
describes electronic speed controls used with various types of DC motors.
Eddy current drives

An eddy current drive consists of a fixed speed motor and an eddy current clutch. The
clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and an adjustable speed rotor separated by a small
air gap. A direct current in a field coil produces a magnetic field that determines the
torque transmitted from the input rotor to the output rotor. The controller provides
closed loop speed regulation by varying clutch current, only allowing the clutch to
transmit enough torque to operate at the desired speed. Speed feedback is typically
provided via an integral AC tachometer.

Eddy current drives are a type of slip controlled drive. Slip controlled drives are
generally less efficient than other types of drives. The motor develops the torque
required by the load and operates at full speed. The output shaft transmits the same
torque to the load, but turns at a slower speed. Since power is proportional to torque
multiplied by speed, the input power is proportional to motor speed times operating
torque while the output power is output speed times operating torque. The difference
between the motor speed and the output speed is called the slip speed. Power
proportional to the slip speed times operating torque is dissipated as heat in the clutch.

AC drives

AC drives are AC motor speed control systems.

Slip controlled drives control the speed of an induction motor by increasing a

motor's slip. This is accomplished by reducing the voltage applied to the motor or
increasing the resistance of the rotor windings. Because they are generally less
efficient than other types of drives, slip controlled drives have lost popularity and
have recently been used only in special situations. See eddy current drives above.

Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD) control the speed of either an induction motor

or a synchronous motor by adjusting the frequency of the power supplied to the
motor. Adjustable frequency drives are also known as variable-frequency drives
(VFD).

When changing the frequency of the power supplied to an AC motor, the ratio of the
applied voltage to the applied frequency (V/Hz) is generally maintained at a constant
value between the minimum and maximum operating frequencies. Operation at a
constant voltage (reduced V/Hz) above a given frequency provides reduced torque
capability and constant power capability above that frequency. The frequency or
speed at which constant-voltage operation begins is called the base frequency or
speed. Whether the applied voltage is regulated directly or indirectly, the V/Hz tends
to follow the general pattern described for the performance described. The variable-
frequency drive article provides additional information on electronic speed controls
used with various types of AC motors.

Commutator (electric)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Contents
[hide]
 1 Principle of Operation
o 1.1 Simplest Practical commutator
 2 Ring/Segment Construction
 3 Brush Construction
o 3.1 Brush Holders
o 3.2 Brush Contact Angle
 4 The Commutating Plane
o 4.1 Compensation for stator field distortion
o 4.2 Further Compensation for Self-Induction
 5 Limitations and alternatives
 6 See also
 7 Patents
 8 References

 9 External articles

A commutator is an electrical switch that periodically reverses the current

direction in an electric motor or electrical generator. A commutator is a common
feature of direct current rotating machines. By reversing the current direction in the
moving coil of a motor's armature, a steady rotating force (torque) is produced.
Similarly, in a generator, reversing of the coil's connection to the external circuit
produces unidirectional current in the circuit. The first commutator-type direct current
machine was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832, based on a suggestion by André-Marie
Ampère.

[edit] Principle of Operation

In the image to the right, direct electrical current flows through the circuit, driven by
the battery. The commutator itself is the orange and blue curved segments. The
brushes are dark gray and in contact with the commutator segments, and the rotor
winding is violet. The rotor winding and the commutator segments are rigidly fixed to
the rotor.

As the rotor turns, the current in the winding reverses every time the commutator
turns through 180 degrees. This reversal of the winding current compensates for the
fact that the winding has rotated 180 degrees relative to the fixed magnetic field (not
shown). The current in the winding causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a
rotational force (a torque) on the winding, making it turn.

Note that no practical, real-world motor or generator uses the commutators shown in
these two examples. In these elementary diagrams, there is a dead position where the
rotor will not spin.

For the image to the right, when the brushes make contact across both commutator
segments, the commutator is shorted and current passes directly from one brush to the
other across the commutator, doing no work in the rotor windings. For the image to
the left, there is a dead spot when the brushes cross the insulation between the two
segments and no current flows. In either case, the rotor cannot begin to spin if it is
stopped in this position.

[edit] Simplest Practical commutator

All practical commutators contain at least three rotor segments to prevent a dead spot
in the rotation of the commutator, as shown in these example images of a very small
CD drive spindle motor.

Although the rotor can potentially stop in a position where two commutator segments
touch one brush, this only de-energizes one of the three rotor arms while the other two
are correctly powered. The motor produces sufficient torque with the two powered
rotor arms to begin spinning the rotor, and no direct shorting can occur between the
commutator brushes.
[edit] Ring/Segment Construction

Cross-section of a commutator that can be disassembled for repair.[1]

A commutator typically consists of a set of copper segments, fixed around part of the
circumference of the rotating part of the machine (the rotor), and a set of spring-
loaded brushes fixed to the stationary frame of the machine. The external source of
current (for a motor) or electrical load (for a generator) is connected to the brushes.
For small equipment the commutator segments can be stamped from sheet metal. For
very large equipment the segments are made from a copper casting that is then
machined into the final shape.

Each conducting segment on the armature of the commutator is insulated from

adjacent segments. Initially when the technology was first developed, mica was used
as an insulator between commutation segments. Later materials research into
polymers brought the development of plastic spacers which are more durable and less
prone to cracking, and have a higher and more uniform breakdown voltage than mica.

The segments are held onto the shaft using a dovetail shape on the edges or underside
of each segment, using insulating wedges around the perimeter of each commutation
segment. Due to the high cost of repairs, for small appliance and tool motors the
segments are typically crimped permanently in place and cannot be removed; when
the motor fails it is simply discarded and replaced. On very large industrial motors it
is economical to be able to replace individual damaged segments, and so the end-
wedge can be unscrewed and individual segments removed and replaced.

Commutator segments are connected to the coils of the armature, with the number of
coils (and commutator segments) depending on the speed and voltage of the machine.
Large motors may have hundreds of segments.

Friction between the segments and the brushes eventually causes wear to both
surfaces. Carbon brushes, being made of a softer material, wear faster and may be
designed to be replaced easily without dismantling the machine. Older copper brushes
caused more wear to the commutator, causing deep grooving and notching of the
surface over time. The commutator on small motors (say, less than a kilowatt rating)
is not designed to be repaired through the life of the device. On large industrial
equipment, the commutator may be re-surfaced with abrasives, or the rotor may be
removed from the frame, mounted in a large metal lathe, and the commutator
resurfaced by cutting it down to a smaller diameter. The largest of equipment can
include a lathe turning attachment directly over the commutator.

[edit] Brush Construction

Various types of copper and carbon brushes.[2]

Early in the development of dynamos and motors, copper brushes were used to
contact the surface of the commutator. However, these hard metal brushes tended to
scratch and groove the smooth commutator segments, eventually requiring resurfacing
of the commutator. As the copper brushes wear away, the dust and pieces of the brush
could wedge between commutator segments, shorting them and reducing the
efficiency of the device. Fine copper wire mesh or gauze provided better surface
contact with less segment wear, but gauze brushes were more expensive than strip or
wire copper brushes. The copper brush was eventually replaced by the carbon brush.

Carbon brushes tend to wear more evenly than copper brushes, and the soft carbon
causes far less damage to the commutator segments. There is less sparking with
carbon as compared to copper, and as the carbon wears away, the higher resistance of
carbon results in fewer problems from the dust collecting on the commutator
segments.

Copper and carbon are each better suited for a particular purpose. Copper brushes
perform better with very low voltages and high amperage, while carbon brushes are
better for high voltage and low amperage. Copper brushes typically carry 150 to 200
amperes per square inch of contact surface, while carbon only carries 40 to 70
amperes per square inch. The higher resistance of carbon also results in a greater
voltage drop of 0.8 to 1.0 volts per contact, or 1.6 to 2.0 volts across the commutator.
[3]

Due to the universal use of high voltage alternating current power in modern society,
all commutators now use carbon brushes, while copper brushes are considered
obsolete.

[edit] Brush Holders

Compound carbon brush holder, with individual clamps and tension adjustments for
each block of carbon.[4]

A spring is typically used with the brush, to maintain constant contact with the
commutator. As the brush and commutator wear down, the spring steadily pushes the
brush downwards towards the commutator. Eventually the brush wears small and thin
enough that steady contact is no longer possible or it is no longer securely held in the
brush holder, and so the brush must be replaced.

It is common for a flexible power cable to be directly attached to the brush, because
current flowing through the support spring causes heating, which may lead to a loss of
metal temper and a loss of the spring tension.

When a commutated motor or generator uses more power than a single brush is
capable of conducting, an assembly of several brush holders are mounted in parallel
across the surface of the very large commutator.
This parallel holder distributes current evenly across all the brushes, and permits a
careful operator to remove a bad brush and replace it with a new one, even as the
machine continues to spin fully powered and under load.

High power, high current commutated equipment is now uncommon, due to the less
complex design of alternating current generators that permits a low current, high
voltage spinning field coil to energize high current fixed-position stator coils. This
permits the use of very small singular brushes in the alternator design.

Modern devices using carbon brushes usually have a maintenance-free design that
requires no adjustment throughout the life of the device, using fixed-position brush
holder slot and a combined brush-spring-cable assembly that fits into the slot.
Replacement simply involves pulling out the old brush and inserting a new one.

[edit] Brush Contact Angle

Brush angle definitions.[5]

The different brush types make contact with the commutator in different ways.
Because copper brushes have the same hardness as the commutator segments, the
rotor cannot be spun backwards against the ends of copper brushes without the copper
digging into the segments and causing severe damage. Consequently strip/laminate
copper brushes only make tangential contact with the commutator, while copper mesh
and wire brushes use an inclined contact angle touching their edge across the
segments of a commutator that can spin in only one direction.

The softness of carbon brushes permits direct radial end-contact with the commutator
without damage to the segments, permitting easy reversal of rotor direction, without
the need to reorient the brushes holders for operation in the opposite direction. In the
case of a reaction-type carbon brush holder, carbon brushes may be reversely inclined
with the commutator so that the commutator tends to push against the carbon for firm
contact.

[edit] The Commutating Plane

Commutating plane definitions.[6]

The contact point of where a brush touches the commutator is referred to as the
commutating plane. In order to conduct sufficient current to or from the commutator,
the brush contact area is not a thin line but instead a rectangular patch across the
segments. Typically the brush is wide enough to span 2.5 commutator segments.

[edit] Compensation for stator field distortion

Centered position of the commutating plane if there were no field distortion effects.[7]

Most introductions to motor and generator design start with a simple two-pole device
with the brushes arranged at a perfect 90-degree angle from the field. This ideal is
useful as a starting point for understanding how the fields interact but it is not how a
motor or generator functions in actual practice.

On the left is an exaggerated example of how the field is distorted by the rotor.[8]On the right,
iron filings show the distorted field across the rotor. [9]

In a real motor or generator, the field around the rotor is never perfectly uniform.
Instead, the rotation of the rotor induces field effects which drag and distort the
magnetic lines of the outer non-rotating stator.
Actual position of the commutating plane to compensate for field distortion.[10]

The faster the rotor spins, the further this degree of field distortion. Because a motor
or generator operates most efficiently with the rotor field at right angles the stator
field, it is necessary to either retard or advance the brush position to put the rotor's
field into the correct position to be at a right angle to the distorted field.

These field effects are reversed when the direction of spin is reversed. It is therefore
difficult to build an efficient reversible commutated dynamo, since for highest field
strength it is necessary to move the brushes to the opposite side of the normal neutral
plane.

The effect can be considered to be analogous to timing advance in an internal

combustion engine. Generally a dynamo that has been designed to run at a certain
fixed speed will have its brushes permanently fixed to align the field for highest
efficiency at that speed.[11]

[edit] Further Compensation for Self-Induction

Brush advance for Self-Induction.[12]

In a coil of wire, the magnetic field of each wire compounds together to form a
magnetic field that tends to resist changes in current flow, as if the current had inertia.
This is known as self-induction.

In the coils of the rotor, there is a tendency for current to continue to flow for a brief
moment after the brush has been reached. This energy is wasted as heat due to the
brush spanning across several commutator segments and the current short-circuiting
across the segments.

Spurious resistance is an apparent increase in the resistance in the armature winding,

which is proportional to the speed of the armature, and is due to the lagging of the
current.

In order to minimize sparking at the brushes due to this short-circuiting, the brushes
are advanced a few degrees further yet, beyond the advance for field distortions. This
moves the rotor winding undergoing commutation slightly forward into the stator
field which has magnetic lines in the opposite direction and which oppose the field in
the stator. This opposing field helps to reverse the lagging self-inducting current flow
in the stator.

So even for a rotor which is at rest and initially requires no compensation for spinning
field distortions, the brushes should still be advanced beyond the perfect 90-degree
angle as taught in so many beginners textbooks, in order to compensate for self-
induction.
[edit] Limitations and alternatives
While commutators are widely applied in direct current machines, up to several
thousand kilowatts in rating, they have limitations.

Brushes and copper segments wear. On small machines the brushes may last as long
as the product (small power tools, appliances, etc.) but larger machines will require
regular replacement of brushes and occasional resurfacing of the commutator. Brush-
type motors may not be suitable for long service on aerospace equipment where
maintenance is not possible.

The efficiency of direct current machines is limited by the "brush drop" due to the
resistance of the sliding contact. This may be several volts, making low-voltage
direct-current machines very inefficient. The friction of the brush on the commutator
also absorbs some of the energy of the machine.

Lastly, the current density in the brush is limited and the maximum voltage on each
segment of the commutator is also limited. Very large direct current machines, say,
more than several megawatts rating, cannot be built with commutators. The largest
motors and generators, of hundreds of megawatt ratings, are all alternating-current
machines.

With the widespread availability of power semiconductors, it is now economic to

provide electronic switching of the current in the motor windings. These "brushless
direct current" motors eliminate the commutator; these can be likened to AC
machines with a built-in DC to AC inverter.

Commutator (electric)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Contents
[hide]
 1 Principle of Operation
o 1.1 Simplest Practical commutator
 2 Ring/Segment Construction
 3 Brush Construction
o 3.1 Brush Holders
o 3.2 Brush Contact Angle
 4 The Commutating Plane
o 4.1 Compensation for stator field distortion
o 4.2 Further Compensation for Self-Induction
 5 Limitations and alternatives
 6 See also
 7 Patents
  8 References

 9 External articles

A commutator is an electrical switch that periodically reverses the current

direction in an electric motor or electrical generator. A commutator is a common
feature of direct current rotating machines. By reversing the current direction in the
moving coil of a motor's armature, a steady rotating force (torque) is produced.
Similarly, in a generator, reversing of the coil's connection to the external circuit
produces unidirectional current in the circuit. The first commutator-type direct current
machine was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832, based on a suggestion by André-Marie
Ampère.

[edit] Principle of Operation

In the image to the right, direct electrical current flows through the circuit, driven by
the battery. The commutator itself is the orange and blue curved segments. The
brushes are dark gray and in contact with the commutator segments, and the rotor
winding is violet. The rotor winding and the commutator segments are rigidly fixed to
the rotor.

As the rotor turns, the current in the winding reverses every time the commutator
turns through 180 degrees. This reversal of the winding current compensates for the
fact that the winding has rotated 180 degrees relative to the fixed magnetic field (not
shown). The current in the winding causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a
rotational force (a torque) on the winding, making it turn.

Note that no practical, real-world motor or generator uses the commutators shown in
these two examples. In these elementary diagrams, there is a dead position where the
rotor will not spin.

For the image to the right, when the brushes make contact across both commutator
segments, the commutator is shorted and current passes directly from one brush to the
other across the commutator, doing no work in the rotor windings. For the image to
the left, there is a dead spot when the brushes cross the insulation between the two
segments and no current flows. In either case, the rotor cannot begin to spin if it is
stopped in this position.

[edit] Simplest Practical commutator

All practical commutators contain at least three rotor segments to prevent a dead spot
in the rotation of the commutator, as shown in these example images of a very small
CD drive spindle motor.

Although the rotor can potentially stop in a position where two commutator segments
touch one brush, this only de-energizes one of the three rotor arms while the other two
are correctly powered. The motor produces sufficient torque with the two powered
rotor arms to begin spinning the rotor, and no direct shorting can occur between the
commutator brushes.

[edit] Ring/Segment Construction

Cross-section of a commutator that can be disassembled for repair.[1]

A commutator typically consists of a set of copper segments, fixed around part of the
circumference of the rotating part of the machine (the rotor), and a set of spring-
loaded brushes fixed to the stationary frame of the machine. The external source of
current (for a motor) or electrical load (for a generator) is connected to the brushes.
For small equipment the commutator segments can be stamped from sheet metal. For
very large equipment the segments are made from a copper casting that is then
machined into the final shape.

Each conducting segment on the armature of the commutator is insulated from

adjacent segments. Initially when the technology was first developed, mica was used
as an insulator between commutation segments. Later materials research into
polymers brought the development of plastic spacers which are more durable and less
prone to cracking, and have a higher and more uniform breakdown voltage than mica.

The segments are held onto the shaft using a dovetail shape on the edges or underside
of each segment, using insulating wedges around the perimeter of each commutation
segment. Due to the high cost of repairs, for small appliance and tool motors the
segments are typically crimped permanently in place and cannot be removed; when
the motor fails it is simply discarded and replaced. On very large industrial motors it
is economical to be able to replace individual damaged segments, and so the end-
wedge can be unscrewed and individual segments removed and replaced.

Commutator segments are connected to the coils of the armature, with the number of
coils (and commutator segments) depending on the speed and voltage of the machine.
Large motors may have hundreds of segments.

Friction between the segments and the brushes eventually causes wear to both
surfaces. Carbon brushes, being made of a softer material, wear faster and may be
designed to be replaced easily without dismantling the machine. Older copper brushes
caused more wear to the commutator, causing deep grooving and notching of the
surface over time. The commutator on small motors (say, less than a kilowatt rating)
is not designed to be repaired through the life of the device. On large industrial
equipment, the commutator may be re-surfaced with abrasives, or the rotor may be
removed from the frame, mounted in a large metal lathe, and the commutator
resurfaced by cutting it down to a smaller diameter. The largest of equipment can
include a lathe turning attachment directly over the commutator.

[edit] Brush Construction

Various types of copper and carbon brushes.[2]

Early in the development of dynamos and motors, copper brushes were used to
contact the surface of the commutator. However, these hard metal brushes tended to
scratch and groove the smooth commutator segments, eventually requiring resurfacing
of the commutator. As the copper brushes wear away, the dust and pieces of the brush
could wedge between commutator segments, shorting them and reducing the
efficiency of the device. Fine copper wire mesh or gauze provided better surface
contact with less segment wear, but gauze brushes were more expensive than strip or
wire copper brushes. The copper brush was eventually replaced by the carbon brush.

Carbon brushes tend to wear more evenly than copper brushes, and the soft carbon
causes far less damage to the commutator segments. There is less sparking with
carbon as compared to copper, and as the carbon wears away, the higher resistance of
carbon results in fewer problems from the dust collecting on the commutator
segments.

Copper and carbon are each better suited for a particular purpose. Copper brushes
perform better with very low voltages and high amperage, while carbon brushes are
better for high voltage and low amperage. Copper brushes typically carry 150 to 200
amperes per square inch of contact surface, while carbon only carries 40 to 70
amperes per square inch. The higher resistance of carbon also results in a greater
voltage drop of 0.8 to 1.0 volts per contact, or 1.6 to 2.0 volts across the commutator.
[3]
Due to the universal use of high voltage alternating current power in modern society,
all commutators now use carbon brushes, while copper brushes are considered
obsolete.

[edit] Brush Holders

Compound carbon brush holder, with individual clamps and tension adjustments for
each block of carbon.[4]

A spring is typically used with the brush, to maintain constant contact with the
commutator. As the brush and commutator wear down, the spring steadily pushes the
brush downwards towards the commutator. Eventually the brush wears small and thin
enough that steady contact is no longer possible or it is no longer securely held in the
brush holder, and so the brush must be replaced.

It is common for a flexible power cable to be directly attached to the brush, because
current flowing through the support spring causes heating, which may lead to a loss of
metal temper and a loss of the spring tension.

When a commutated motor or generator uses more power than a single brush is
capable of conducting, an assembly of several brush holders are mounted in parallel
across the surface of the very large commutator.

This parallel holder distributes current evenly across all the brushes, and permits a
careful operator to remove a bad brush and replace it with a new one, even as the
machine continues to spin fully powered and under load.

High power, high current commutated equipment is now uncommon, due to the less
complex design of alternating current generators that permits a low current, high
voltage spinning field coil to energize high current fixed-position stator coils. This
permits the use of very small singular brushes in the alternator design.

Modern devices using carbon brushes usually have a maintenance-free design that
requires no adjustment throughout the life of the device, using fixed-position brush
holder slot and a combined brush-spring-cable assembly that fits into the slot.
Replacement simply involves pulling out the old brush and inserting a new one.

[edit] Brush Contact Angle

Brush angle definitions.[5]

The different brush types make contact with the commutator in different ways.
Because copper brushes have the same hardness as the commutator segments, the
rotor cannot be spun backwards against the ends of copper brushes without the copper
digging into the segments and causing severe damage. Consequently strip/laminate
copper brushes only make tangential contact with the commutator, while copper mesh
and wire brushes use an inclined contact angle touching their edge across the
segments of a commutator that can spin in only one direction.

The softness of carbon brushes permits direct radial end-contact with the commutator
without damage to the segments, permitting easy reversal of rotor direction, without
the need to reorient the brushes holders for operation in the opposite direction. In the
case of a reaction-type carbon brush holder, carbon brushes may be reversely inclined
with the commutator so that the commutator tends to push against the carbon for firm
contact.

[edit] The Commutating Plane

Commutating plane definitions.[6]

The contact point of where a brush touches the commutator is referred to as the
commutating plane. In order to conduct sufficient current to or from the commutator,
the brush contact area is not a thin line but instead a rectangular patch across the
segments. Typically the brush is wide enough to span 2.5 commutator segments.

[edit] Compensation for stator field distortion

Centered position of the commutating plane if there were no field distortion effects.[7]
Most introductions to motor and generator design start with a simple two-pole device
with the brushes arranged at a perfect 90-degree angle from the field. This ideal is
useful as a starting point for understanding how the fields interact but it is not how a
motor or generator functions in actual practice.

On the left is an exaggerated example of how the field is distorted by the rotor.[8]On the right,
iron filings show the distorted field across the rotor. [9]

In a real motor or generator, the field around the rotor is never perfectly uniform.
Instead, the rotation of the rotor induces field effects which drag and distort the
magnetic lines of the outer non-rotating stator.

Actual position of the commutating plane to compensate for field distortion.[10]

The faster the rotor spins, the further this degree of field distortion. Because a motor
or generator operates most efficiently with the rotor field at right angles the stator
field, it is necessary to either retard or advance the brush position to put the rotor's
field into the correct position to be at a right angle to the distorted field.

These field effects are reversed when the direction of spin is reversed. It is therefore
difficult to build an efficient reversible commutated dynamo, since for highest field
strength it is necessary to move the brushes to the opposite side of the normal neutral
plane.

The effect can be considered to be analogous to timing advance in an internal

combustion engine. Generally a dynamo that has been designed to run at a certain
fixed speed will have its brushes permanently fixed to align the field for highest
efficiency at that speed.[11]

[edit] Further Compensation for Self-Induction

Brush advance for Self-Induction.[12]

In a coil of wire, the magnetic field of each wire compounds together to form a
magnetic field that tends to resist changes in current flow, as if the current had inertia.
This is known as self-induction.

In the coils of the rotor, there is a tendency for current to continue to flow for a brief
moment after the brush has been reached. This energy is wasted as heat due to the
brush spanning across several commutator segments and the current short-circuiting
across the segments.
Spurious resistance is an apparent increase in the resistance in the armature winding,
which is proportional to the speed of the armature, and is due to the lagging of the
current.

In order to minimize sparking at the brushes due to this short-circuiting, the brushes
are advanced a few degrees further yet, beyond the advance for field distortions. This
moves the rotor winding undergoing commutation slightly forward into the stator
field which has magnetic lines in the opposite direction and which oppose the field in
the stator. This opposing field helps to reverse the lagging self-inducting current flow
in the stator.

So even for a rotor which is at rest and initially requires no compensation for spinning
field distortions, the brushes should still be advanced beyond the perfect 90-degree
angle as taught in so many beginners textbooks, in order to compensate for self-
induction.

[edit] Limitations and alternatives

While commutators are widely applied in direct current machines, up to several
thousand kilowatts in rating, they have limitations.

Brushes and copper segments wear. On small machines the brushes may last as long
as the product (small power tools, appliances, etc.) but larger machines will require
regular replacement of brushes and occasional resurfacing of the commutator. Brush-
type motors may not be suitable for long service on aerospace equipment where
maintenance is not possible.

The efficiency of direct current machines is limited by the "brush drop" due to the
resistance of the sliding contact. This may be several volts, making low-voltage
direct-current machines very inefficient. The friction of the brush on the commutator
also absorbs some of the energy of the machine.

Lastly, the current density in the brush is limited and the maximum voltage on each
segment of the commutator is also limited. Very large direct current machines, say,
more than several megawatts rating, cannot be built with commutators. The largest
motors and generators, of hundreds of megawatt ratings, are all alternating-current
machines.

With the widespread availability of power semiconductors, it is now economic to

provide electronic switching of the current in the motor windings. These "brushless
direct current" motors eliminate the commutator; these can be likened to AC
machines with a built-in DC to AC inverter.

Commutator (electric)
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Contents
[hide]
 1 Principle of Operation
o 1.1 Simplest Practical commutator
 2 Ring/Segment Construction
 3 Brush Construction
o 3.1 Brush Holders
o 3.2 Brush Contact Angle
 4 The Commutating Plane
o 4.1 Compensation for stator field distortion
o 4.2 Further Compensation for Self-Induction
 5 Limitations and alternatives
 6 See also
 7 Patents
 8 References

 9 External articles

A commutator is an electrical switch that periodically reverses the current

direction in an electric motor or electrical generator. A commutator is a common
feature of direct current rotating machines. By reversing the current direction in the
moving coil of a motor's armature, a steady rotating force (torque) is produced.
Similarly, in a generator, reversing of the coil's connection to the external circuit
produces unidirectional current in the circuit. The first commutator-type direct current
machine was built by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832, based on a suggestion by André-Marie
Ampère.

[edit] Principle of Operation

In the image to the right, direct electrical current flows through the circuit, driven by
the battery. The commutator itself is the orange and blue curved segments. The
brushes are dark gray and in contact with the commutator segments, and the rotor
winding is violet. The rotor winding and the commutator segments are rigidly fixed to
the rotor.

As the rotor turns, the current in the winding reverses every time the commutator
turns through 180 degrees. This reversal of the winding current compensates for the
fact that the winding has rotated 180 degrees relative to the fixed magnetic field (not
shown). The current in the winding causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a
rotational force (a torque) on the winding, making it turn.

Note that no practical, real-world motor or generator uses the commutators shown in
these two examples. In these elementary diagrams, there is a dead position where the
rotor will not spin.

For the image to the right, when the brushes make contact across both commutator
segments, the commutator is shorted and current passes directly from one brush to the
other across the commutator, doing no work in the rotor windings. For the image to
the left, there is a dead spot when the brushes cross the insulation between the two
segments and no current flows. In either case, the rotor cannot begin to spin if it is
stopped in this position.

[edit] Simplest Practical commutator

All practical commutators contain at least three rotor segments to prevent a dead spot
in the rotation of the commutator, as shown in these example images of a very small
CD drive spindle motor.

Although the rotor can potentially stop in a position where two commutator segments
touch one brush, this only de-energizes one of the three rotor arms while the other two
are correctly powered. The motor produces sufficient torque with the two powered
rotor arms to begin spinning the rotor, and no direct shorting can occur between the
commutator brushes.

[edit] Ring/Segment Construction

Cross-section of a commutator that can be disassembled for repair.[1]

A commutator typically consists of a set of copper segments, fixed around part of the
circumference of the rotating part of the machine (the rotor), and a set of spring-
loaded brushes fixed to the stationary frame of the machine. The external source of
current (for a motor) or electrical load (for a generator) is connected to the brushes.
For small equipment the commutator segments can be stamped from sheet metal. For
very large equipment the segments are made from a copper casting that is then
machined into the final shape.

Each conducting segment on the armature of the commutator is insulated from

adjacent segments. Initially when the technology was first developed, mica was used
as an insulator between commutation segments. Later materials research into
polymers brought the development of plastic spacers which are more durable and less
prone to cracking, and have a higher and more uniform breakdown voltage than mica.

The segments are held onto the shaft using a dovetail shape on the edges or underside
of each segment, using insulating wedges around the perimeter of each commutation
segment. Due to the high cost of repairs, for small appliance and tool motors the
segments are typically crimped permanently in place and cannot be removed; when
the motor fails it is simply discarded and replaced. On very large industrial motors it
is economical to be able to replace individual damaged segments, and so the end-
wedge can be unscrewed and individual segments removed and replaced.

Commutator segments are connected to the coils of the armature, with the number of
coils (and commutator segments) depending on the speed and voltage of the machine.
Large motors may have hundreds of segments.

Friction between the segments and the brushes eventually causes wear to both
surfaces. Carbon brushes, being made of a softer material, wear faster and may be
designed to be replaced easily without dismantling the machine. Older copper brushes
caused more wear to the commutator, causing deep grooving and notching of the
surface over time. The commutator on small motors (say, less than a kilowatt rating)
is not designed to be repaired through the life of the device. On large industrial
equipment, the commutator may be re-surfaced with abrasives, or the rotor may be
removed from the frame, mounted in a large metal lathe, and the commutator
resurfaced by cutting it down to a smaller diameter. The largest of equipment can
include a lathe turning attachment directly over the commutator.

[edit] Brush Construction

Various types of copper and carbon brushes.[2]

Early in the development of dynamos and motors, copper brushes were used to
contact the surface of the commutator. However, these hard metal brushes tended to
scratch and groove the smooth commutator segments, eventually requiring resurfacing
of the commutator. As the copper brushes wear away, the dust and pieces of the brush
could wedge between commutator segments, shorting them and reducing the
efficiency of the device. Fine copper wire mesh or gauze provided better surface
contact with less segment wear, but gauze brushes were more expensive than strip or
wire copper brushes. The copper brush was eventually replaced by the carbon brush.

Carbon brushes tend to wear more evenly than copper brushes, and the soft carbon
causes far less damage to the commutator segments. There is less sparking with
carbon as compared to copper, and as the carbon wears away, the higher resistance of
carbon results in fewer problems from the dust collecting on the commutator
segments.

Copper and carbon are each better suited for a particular purpose. Copper brushes
perform better with very low voltages and high amperage, while carbon brushes are
better for high voltage and low amperage. Copper brushes typically carry 150 to 200
amperes per square inch of contact surface, while carbon only carries 40 to 70
amperes per square inch. The higher resistance of carbon also results in a greater
voltage drop of 0.8 to 1.0 volts per contact, or 1.6 to 2.0 volts across the commutator.
[3]

Due to the universal use of high voltage alternating current power in modern society,
all commutators now use carbon brushes, while copper brushes are considered
obsolete.

[edit] Brush Holders

Compound carbon brush holder, with individual clamps and tension adjustments for
each block of carbon.[4]

A spring is typically used with the brush, to maintain constant contact with the
commutator. As the brush and commutator wear down, the spring steadily pushes the
brush downwards towards the commutator. Eventually the brush wears small and thin
enough that steady contact is no longer possible or it is no longer securely held in the
brush holder, and so the brush must be replaced.

It is common for a flexible power cable to be directly attached to the brush, because
current flowing through the support spring causes heating, which may lead to a loss of
metal temper and a loss of the spring tension.

When a commutated motor or generator uses more power than a single brush is
capable of conducting, an assembly of several brush holders are mounted in parallel
across the surface of the very large commutator.

This parallel holder distributes current evenly across all the brushes, and permits a
careful operator to remove a bad brush and replace it with a new one, even as the
machine continues to spin fully powered and under load.

High power, high current commutated equipment is now uncommon, due to the less
complex design of alternating current generators that permits a low current, high
voltage spinning field coil to energize high current fixed-position stator coils. This
permits the use of very small singular brushes in the alternator design.
Modern devices using carbon brushes usually have a maintenance-free design that
requires no adjustment throughout the life of the device, using fixed-position brush
holder slot and a combined brush-spring-cable assembly that fits into the slot.
Replacement simply involves pulling out the old brush and inserting a new one.

[edit] Brush Contact Angle

Brush angle definitions.[5]

The different brush types make contact with the commutator in different ways.
Because copper brushes have the same hardness as the commutator segments, the
rotor cannot be spun backwards against the ends of copper brushes without the copper
digging into the segments and causing severe damage. Consequently strip/laminate
copper brushes only make tangential contact with the commutator, while copper mesh
and wire brushes use an inclined contact angle touching their edge across the
segments of a commutator that can spin in only one direction.

The softness of carbon brushes permits direct radial end-contact with the commutator
without damage to the segments, permitting easy reversal of rotor direction, without
the need to reorient the brushes holders for operation in the opposite direction. In the
case of a reaction-type carbon brush holder, carbon brushes may be reversely inclined
with the commutator so that the commutator tends to push against the carbon for firm
contact.

[edit] The Commutating Plane

Commutating plane definitions.[6]

The contact point of where a brush touches the commutator is referred to as the
commutating plane. In order to conduct sufficient current to or from the commutator,
the brush contact area is not a thin line but instead a rectangular patch across the
segments. Typically the brush is wide enough to span 2.5 commutator segments.

[edit] Compensation for stator field distortion

Centered position of the commutating plane if there were no field distortion effects.[7]

Most introductions to motor and generator design start with a simple two-pole device
with the brushes arranged at a perfect 90-degree angle from the field. This ideal is
useful as a starting point for understanding how the fields interact but it is not how a
motor or generator functions in actual practice.

On the left is an exaggerated example of how the field is distorted by the rotor.[8]On the right,
iron filings show the distorted field across the rotor. [9]

In a real motor or generator, the field around the rotor is never perfectly uniform.
Instead, the rotation of the rotor induces field effects which drag and distort the
magnetic lines of the outer non-rotating stator.
Actual position of the commutating plane to compensate for field distortion.[10]

The faster the rotor spins, the further this degree of field distortion. Because a motor
or generator operates most efficiently with the rotor field at right angles the stator
field, it is necessary to either retard or advance the brush position to put the rotor's
field into the correct position to be at a right angle to the distorted field.

These field effects are reversed when the direction of spin is reversed. It is therefore
difficult to build an efficient reversible commutated dynamo, since for highest field
strength it is necessary to move the brushes to the opposite side of the normal neutral
plane.

The effect can be considered to be analogous to timing advance in an internal

combustion engine. Generally a dynamo that has been designed to run at a certain
fixed speed will have its brushes permanently fixed to align the field for highest
efficiency at that speed.[11]

[edit] Further Compensation for Self-Induction

Brush advance for Self-Induction.[12]

In a coil of wire, the magnetic field of each wire compounds together to form a
magnetic field that tends to resist changes in current flow, as if the current had inertia.
This is known as self-induction.

In the coils of the rotor, there is a tendency for current to continue to flow for a brief
moment after the brush has been reached. This energy is wasted as heat due to the
brush spanning across several commutator segments and the current short-circuiting
across the segments.

Spurious resistance is an apparent increase in the resistance in the armature winding,

which is proportional to the speed of the armature, and is due to the lagging of the
current.

In order to minimize sparking at the brushes due to this short-circuiting, the brushes
are advanced a few degrees further yet, beyond the advance for field distortions. This
moves the rotor winding undergoing commutation slightly forward into the stator
field which has magnetic lines in the opposite direction and which oppose the field in
the stator. This opposing field helps to reverse the lagging self-inducting current flow
in the stator.

So even for a rotor which is at rest and initially requires no compensation for spinning
field distortions, the brushes should still be advanced beyond the perfect 90-degree
angle as taught in so many beginners textbooks, in order to compensate for self-
induction.
[edit] Limitations and alternatives
While commutators are widely applied in direct current machines, up to several
thousand kilowatts in rating, they have limitations.

Brushes and copper segments wear. On small machines the brushes may last as long
as the product (small power tools, appliances, etc.) but larger machines will require
regular replacement of brushes and occasional resurfacing of the commutator. Brush-
type motors may not be suitable for long service on aerospace equipment where
maintenance is not possible.

The efficiency of direct current machines is limited by the "brush drop" due to the
resistance of the sliding contact. This may be several volts, making low-voltage
direct-current machines very inefficient. The friction of the brush on the commutator
also absorbs some of the energy of the machine.

Lastly, the current density in the brush is limited and the maximum voltage on each
segment of the commutator is also limited. Very large direct current machines, say,
more than several megawatts rating, cannot be built with commutators. The largest
motors and generators, of hundreds of megawatt ratings, are all alternating-current
machines.

With the widespread availability of power semiconductors, it is now economic to

provide electronic switching of the current in the motor windings. These "brushless
direct current" motors eliminate the commutator; these can be likened to AC
machines with a built-in DC to AC inverter.