Counting Systems

Scintillation Detectors
• Detects Indirect and Directly ionizing radiation

• Has a Scintillator that “de-excites” atoms thus

emits light

• Light goes to PMT and produces electrons

• Emitted electrons goes through signal analysis

stage
 Photomultiplier Tube (PMT)
• Used to stimulate weak signals such as
photons
• Composed of 3 major components:
– Dynodeproduces more electrons when struck
by and electron.
– Photocathode Emits an electron when struck by
a photon. Usually made of CsSb (Cesium
Antimony )
– Collector/Anode Collects all electrons produced.
 Process of PMT
• Photons hit the Photocathode
• Photoelectrons are emitted
• Photoelectrons hit the Dynode
• Dynode emits more electron
• Electrons hits another Dynode and process
repeats (Usually 10 Dynodes)
• Collector collects electrons
PMT
 Inorganic Scintillators
• Crystalline Solids
• Scintillator only in crystalline form
• Most common: NaI(Tl) and CsI(Tl)
• Maybe Pure or may have impurities
– Pure (NaI)Scintillates in liquid nitrogen
temperatures only
– Impure (NaI(Tl) has activator centers
 Sodium Iodide NaI(Tl)
• “grown” from molten Sodium Iodide
• Added with Thallium (0.1-0.4 mole percent)
 Advantages of NaI(Tl)
• Relatively dense
• Contains an element with high atomic number
(Z)
• Efficient Scintillator (1 visible light photon per
30 eV)
• Transparent to its own scintillation emissions
• Can be “grown” inexpensively in large plates
Disadvantages of NaI(Tl)
 NaI(Tl) Well Counter
• Dimension: 4.5x5cm crystal and 1.6x3.8 well

• Used for counting samples in a standard test

tube

• Has 5cm or greater thickness of lead shielding

NaI(Tl) Well Counter
 Detection Efficiency
• Near 100% geometric efficiency
• High detection efficiency and low background
counting levels
• Good in counting samples with very small
quantities of ɣ ray activity
• Intrinsic efficiency ε depends on crystal
thickness and γ ray energy (ε=100% for 1.3-4.5
well thickness and γ ray energy less than 150
keV).
 Intrinsic Efficiency
• Photo-peak fraction decreases with increasing
γ ray energy (scattering increases as γ ray
energy increased within 0-2 MeV)
• Photo-peak fraction increases with increasing
well detector size (more multiple scattered
photons added into the photopeak)
• Intrinsic photopeak efficiency may be used to
estimate the photo-peak counting rate.
 Sample Volume Effects
• Geometric efficiency depends on the sample
positioning
• Geometric efficiency decreases if the sample is
displaced on top of the well.
• For a constant activity, increase the volume by
diluting the solution thus decreasing the counting
rate
• For a constant activity concentration, increase the
volume this will increase the counting rate and fill
it until the top of the well
 Assay of Absolute Activity
• Methods used to determine absolute activity
from counting rate: calibration table and
calibration (standard) source
• Long-lived radionuclides are used as
calibration “mock” source
• Sample’s absolute activity X is given by X =
A(Bq)[R(sample)/R(mock)]
 Shielding and Background
• The well counter is surrounded with lead
• Typically 2.5-7.5cm thick
• Unit should be free from unnecessary
radiation
 Energy Calibration
• Single channel analyzer attached to well
counter is generally calibrated with 137Cs
• Commercial well counters use a push button
selection of the appropriate window setting
 Multiple Radionuclide source
couting
• There is a “crosstalk” interference
• Correction is required in order to determine the true
counts
• The count ratios of its photo-peak to other
radionuclide’s photo-peak energies should be
measured by using single radionuclide sample and for
each radionuclide involved.
• For a two radionuclides system, the true counts for
each radionuclide are Nt1=(N1-R12N2)/(1-R12R21) and
Nt2=(N2-R21N1)/(1-R12R21) where R12 and R21 are the
count ratios of pure sample at these two photo-peak
energies
Crosstalk Interference
 Dead Time
• Activities that are not detected due to
processing of previous data

• High levels of activity leads to higher dead

time losses.

• Well counter is only good for detection of

small radioactivity.
 Automated Multiple-Sample
Systems
• Automatic multiple sample systems are
necessary for counting large number of
samples or repeated tests
• Main problem is background and shielding on
top of the wells
• SCA, MCA and computers are all being used
for the interface with the detectors.
Multiple sample well counter
 Applications
• In vitro assay in nuclear medicine (γ or x rays):
– blood and urine sample
– radiopharmaceutical quality control

• NaI(Tl) can also be used for β emission by

detecting bremsstrahlung radiation.
 Liquid and Gas Flow Counting
• NaI(Tl) well counters can be used in
conjunction with gas or liquid chromatographs
• Chromatographs are used to identify different
chemical compounds
• species are identified by
comparing radioactivity with
the flowing chemical species
(mass signals).
 Liquid Scintillation Counter
• Radioactive sample is dissolved
• Has two detectors opposite to one another
• Used for counting low energy β emitters
• Low Density and Low-Z
• Pulse Height Analysis Used to reduce
background counting rate

Wallac 1414 Liquid Scintillation Counter

 Liquid Scintillator

http://www.ehs.psu.edu/radprot/LSC_Theory2.pdf
 Advantages of Liquid Scintillation
• “intimate” relationship between sample and
detector
• Efficient detection of low energy x and ɣ rays
 Disadvantages of Liquid
Scintillation
• Inefficient detectors of x and ɣ rays of
moderate energy
• Low density and low-Z materials
• Low light output
• Special sample preparations
• Quenching any mechanism that reduces
light output
 Quenching
• Chemical quenching caused by substance
that compete with primary fluor
• Color quenching  absorbs the emission of
primary and secondary solute
• Dilution quenching  reduction of primary
and secondary solutes
 Quenching Corrections
• Internal standardization method

• Channel ratio method

• Automatic external standardization method

– AES = [cpm(sample+STD) - cpm(sample channel
2)]/ [spm(sample+STD)-cpm(sample Channel 1)]
 Counting Vials
• Potassium 40 is not used to reduce
background radiation
• Should not be exposed to sunlight to prevent
phosphorescence
• Are kept in a dark container before use called
“Dark Adaptation” of the sample
Sample Preparation Techniques
• LSC cocktails
– Emulsifying cocktail
• Organic aromatic solvent
• Emulsifier
• Scintillator
– Organic
• Organic aromatic solvent
• Scintillator
 Applications
• Radioimmunoassay

• Studies of metabolic and physiologic

properties

• Wipe tests
 Dose Calibrator
• Inefficient for most ɣ ray energy
• Used for assaying large ɣ ray radioactivity
• sealed to avoid variations in temperature and
atmospheric pressure
• The volume used should be consistent
 Semiconductor Detectors
• Assessment of radionuclide purity
• Thermal Noise
• Must operate on liquid nitrogen temperatures
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and
Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT)
• Operates at room temperature

• Expensive and small in size

• High-Z
 In Vivo Counting System
• detect single organ or specific parts of the
body
• A typical probe system employs 5x5cm NaI(Tl)
cylinder crystal plus cylindrical or conical
shaped collimator
• Whole body counting system
 Uptake Probe
• The uptake probe is a radionuclide counting
system comprising a wide-aperture, diverging
collimator; a thallium-doped sodium iodide
crystal; a PMT and associated electronics; an
MCA; and a gantry (stand)
 Reference
• Cherry S, Sorenson J, and Phelps M. Physics in
Nuclear Medicine, 3rd Ed.