BIO354: Cell Biology Laboratory 1

BIO 354: Virtual Lab Exercise

Analysis of Cell Structure and Function using “Cell: An Image Library”

I. Purpose
• Understand the relationship between structure and function.
• Develop an awareness of the diversity of cellular architecture.
• Articulate the function of cellular organelles.
• Compare and contrast images from various techniques of microscopy

II. Introduction

All living organisms are composed of cells. While some organisms are unicellular and consist of a single,
independent cell, others are multicellular and consist of thousands or millions of physically-connected,
interacting cells. In eukaryotic cells, specific functions are localized to different types of organelles such as the
nucleus and mitochondria. In a multicellular organism, cells are often organized into tissues, which in turn are
assembled into organs and organ systems. Each tissue of a plant or animal is composed of different cell types,
which vary in structure and function. A variety of techniques are currently available for studying the cells by
both light and electron microscopy.
In this experiment, you will analyze a series of microscopic images of cells contained within “The Cell: An
Image Library”. These analyses will be used to highlight how the organelles that dominate any cell type dictate
the function of that cell and associated tissues, organs, and organ systems.
This experiment is adapted from one originally described in Saunders, C. and Taylor, A. (2014) Close the
Textbook & Open “The Cell: An Image Library”. The American Biology Teacher. 76(3):201-207.

III. Pre-Lab Preparation

Read the Introduction, Background Information, and Experimental Procedures for this laboratory session.
Also, read the sections of your Cell Biology textbook which deal with cell structure and organelle function.
After preparing for the lab, you should be able to answer the following questions. These questions will not be
graded; however, they are fair game for quizzes and exams.
1. What is a cell?

2. Why do we call them cells?

3. What are the major differences between a cell, a tissue, and an organ?

4. Explain the following phrase in your own words: Form follows function

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IV. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

A. Levels of body organization

The human body has many levels of structural organization (Figure 1). The simplest level is the
chemical level, which includes tiny building blocks such as atoms. Atoms are linked together to form
molecules. Molecules are used to make cells, the smallest units of life. The simplest living creatures,
such as amoeba, are single cell creatures, but in multicellular organisms such as human beings, cells
are organized into tissues (1,2).
Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together for a common purpose. The four basic tissue
types are epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous tissue. Each of the four tissue types has a
characteristic role in the body (1,2).
Tissues are organized into organs, structures made up of two or more tissues that are organized to
carry out a particular function. Groups of organs with related functions make up the different organ
systems (1,2).
At each level of organization—cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems—structure is closely related to
function. For instance, the cells in the small intestine that absorb nutrients look very different from the
muscle cells needed for body movement. The structure of the heart reflects its job of pumping blood
throughout the body, while the structure of the lungs maximizes the efficiency with which they can
take up oxygen and release carbon dioxide (1,2).

Figure 1. Levels of body organization in the human body. From left to right: single muscle cell, multiple muscle
cells together forming muscle tissue, organ made up of muscle tissue (bladder), and organ system made up of
kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra (3)

1. Cells and Organelles

All living things are made from one or more cells. Cells are the simplest units of life and they are
responsible for keeping an organism alive and functioning. There is a massive variety of
different types of cells, but they all have some common characteristics. All cells are essentially
genetic material in a gel-like substance surrounded by a membrane. Animal, plant, and fungal

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cells also have many other features such as organelles and ribosomes that perform specific
functions (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Structure of a typical plant (A) and animal cell (B). (4,5)

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The genetic material of cells is found as molecules called DNA. The DNA of a cell holds all the
information that a cell needs to keep itself alive. A DNA molecule contains a code that can be
translated by a cell and tells it how to perform different tasks. A gene is a specific segment of a
DNA molecule and each gene tells a cell how to perform one specific task (6).
The gel-like substance that the genetic material is found in is called the cytoplasm. The
cytoplasm fills a cell and gives it it’s shape. The cytoplasm also allows for different materials to
move around the cell. All cells have other structures in their cytoplasm that help the cell stay
alive (6).
The cytoplasm of all cells is surrounded by a membrane called the plasma membrane. The
plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside world and keeps the contents of the cell
together. The plasma membrane provides a barrier that substances must pass through before
they can enter or exit a cell (6).
In eukaryotic cells, organelles perform various roles within cells (Table 1). Some are widespread
across most of the Eukaryota domain. Others are less common and only found in one or two
groups of eukaryotes (6).
Table 1. Eukaryotic Structures and Functions

ORGANELLE FUNCTION
Nucleus DNA Storage
Nucleolus Assembles Ribosomal Subunits
Mitochondria Energy Production
Chloroplasts Sugar Production via Photosynthesis
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Production of Membrane Proteins and Secreted Proteins
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Lipid Production
Detoxification
Golgi Apparatus Protein Modification and Export
Lysosomes Protein Catabolism (Break-Down)
Vacuoles Varies
Peroxisomes Waste Metabolism

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments (Actin) Cell Movement
Intermediate Filaments Organelle Support and Anchoring
Microtubules Mitotic Spindle
Cell Shape Support
Cell Movement (as part of cilia and flagella)
Ribosomes Protein Production

In biology, the phrase “form follows function” means that the form or shape of a structure is
correlated to the function of that structure. This can be seen in cells where the type and
relative amounts of organelles and other structures present will correlate to the function of
that cell. For example, actin microfilaments that support cell movement are at high

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concentrations in muscle cells compared to other cell types, reflecting the function of muscle
cells in muscle contractions. Compare this to adipose (fat) cells which have low levels of actin
but contain large vacuoles used to store fat molecules (6,7).

2. Tissues

Tissues are groups of cells that serve a similar function. The four basic tissue types are
connective, epithelial, muscle, and nervous tissue and each tissue type has a characteristic role
in the body (Figure 3) (7,8).

Figure 3. Four types of animal tissue (8).

Connective tissue supports and protects body organs. Connective tissue consists of diverse
groups of cells, which are often suspended in an extracellular matrix, an extracellular network
of macromolecules that provide structural and chemical support to cells. The matrix can be in
the form of a solid (as in bone), liquid (as in blood) or gel-like substance (cartilage), depending
on the molecules that are present. The major types of connective tissues are loose (areolar)
connective tissue, adipose (fat) tissue, dense (fibrous) connective tissue, blood, bone, and
cartilage (Figure 4). The diverse tissues that constitute connective tissue are unified by the
presence of a large amount of extracellular matrix and a function of connecting one tissue to
another. For example, loose connective tissue connects epithelial tissue to underlying muscle
tissue. Dense connective tissue connects muscles to bone and bone to bone (8).

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Figure 4. Some representative types of connective tissue (9).

Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed layers of cells that cover free surfaces, that line body
cavities, and that coat tubular structures including the digestive and respiratory tracts.
Epithelial tissues are characterized by the shape and the number of layers of cells that are
contained within. Squamous epithelial cells resemble flattened pancakes. Cuboidal and
columnar epithelial cells are named based on shape (either cubes or elongated columns).
Epithelial tissue can exist as a single cellular sheet (simple epithelium) or as multiple layers of
cells (stratified epithelium). (Figure 5). Cells within an epithelium are linked tightly together,
which prevents leaks between adjacent cells and allows them to regulate the movement of
fluids from one side of the epithelium to the other (8).

Figure 5. Examples of epithelial tissues (10, 11).

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Muscle tissue consists of groups of cells that have the ability to contract. The major types of
muscle tissue are smooth muscle, striated muscle, and cardiac muscle (Figure 6). Smooth
muscle tissue, made of small, spindle-shaped cells, surrounds internal organs and the
contraction of smooth muscle is involuntary. Contraction of cardiac (heart) muscle is also
involuntary. Cardiac muscle consists of striated (striped) cells, linked together into highly
connected, branched fibers. Skeletal muscle consists of striated cells that are fused together to
form unbranched, multinucleated fibers. Nuclei are located towards the outer edges of the
muscle fibers. Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and is the only muscle tissue under
voluntary control (8).

Figure 6. Three kinds of vertebrate muscle (A) Skeletal Muscle, (B) Cardiac Muscle, (C) Smooth
Muscle (12-14).

Nervous tissue is involved in sensing stimuli and provides a means of rapid internal
communication by transmitting electrical impulses. Nervous tissue consists of two cell types:
neurons and neuroglial cells. Neurons are electrically-active cells that can sense and transmit
information from both the external environment and the internal environment. Various types
of neuroglial cells or glia support neuronal function (Figure 7) (8).

Figure 7. Diagram and stained tissue section of neural tissue. (A) Nervous tissue contains
electrically-active cells called neurons and supportive neuroglial cells including microglia, astrocytes
and oligodendrocytes. (B) H&E stain of neural tissue showing a neuron and many glial cells (15-16)

3. Organs

In organs, such as the heart, lungs, stomach, and skin, the multiple tissue types are combined in
varying proportions to make a complex structure optimized to serve a particular function

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(Figure 8). For example, the heart pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon
dioxide, and the skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures from the external
environment (17).
Most organs contain all four tissue types. The layered walls of the stomach provide a good
example of how tissues form an organ. The inside of the stomach is lined by the gastric mucosa,
a simple columnar epithelium, of which some cells secrete hydrochloric acid, mucus, or
digestive enzymes. Around the epithelial layer is the submucosa, a layer made of connective
tissue interspersed with blood vessels and neurons. The submucosa connects the epithelial
layer to the layers of smooth muscle that surround the stomach. The smooth muscle contracts
to mix and break apart food, then move the resulting suspension into the gut (17).

Figure 8. Tissue layers of the stomach. The wall of the stomach and other tubular organs of the
digestive system has four main tissue layers. (A) Stomach cross-section showing the tissue types
that make up the stomach wall including epithelial tissue (mucosa; serosa), connective tissue
(submucosa), and muscle layers. Neurons innervating the stomach are not shown. (B) H&E-
stained section of the stomach wall showing the different layers (18).

4. Organ Systems

The next level is the organ system level. Many organs working together to accomplish a
common purpose create an organ system. For example, the heart and the blood vessels of the
cardiovascular system circulate blood and transport oxygen and nutrients to all the body cells.
Human organ systems are highlighted in Figure 9 (2, 17).

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Figure 9. Human organ systems (2) (A) Integumentary System. (B) Skeletal System. (C) Muscular System. (D) Nervous
System. (E) Endocrine System. (F) Cardiovascular System.

B. Types of Microscopy

1. Light Microscopy

Light microscopes use visible light and magnifying lenses to examine small objects not visible to
the naked eye. Light microscopes can magnify specimens up to 1000 times, allowing for the
visualization of cells which are between 1 and 1000 µm in diameter. There are many types of
light microscopes that can be used to study various aspects of cell biology (Figure 10). One of
the most commonly used forms of light microscopy is brightfield microscopy, in which light
passes through the sample that is frequently stained with dyes to improve contrast. The result
is an image with a bright background. Many of the images examined as part of this laboratory
exercise were obtained using brightfield microscopy on specimens that were stained with a
variety of dyes such as the commonly used hemotoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain, which stains
nuclear components blue (hemotoxylin) and cytoplasmic and extracellular matrix components
pink (eosin) (7,19,20)

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Figure 10. Types of Light Microscopy (19).

2. Electron Microscopy

Electron microscopes use beams of electrons rather than light to illuminate the samples.
Because of the short wavelengths of electrons, electron microscopy results in higher resolutions
than light microscopes. There are two types of electron microscopy: transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Figure 11). In TEM, electron beams
are passed through thinly sliced samples to visualize the interior of cells while SEM is useful for

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visualizing the surface of samples. The images analyzed in part 3 of this laboratory exercise
have been obtained using TEM. (7,19,20).

Figure 11. Types of Electron Microscopy (19).

Organelles are relatively easy to visualize using electron microscopy when compared to bright
field microscopy. The appearances of common organelles using TEM are shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Appearance of common organelles as observed using transmission electron

microscopy. Note that the appearance of many structures can vary depending on the plane
(longitudinal vs cross-section) being viewed. Abbreviations: nucleolus (nu). Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER). Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). All TEM images were obtained from the
Cell Image Library (21). The cell diagram was obtained from Wikipedia Commons (22).

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C. Cell: An Image Library

Cell: An Image Library is a free public database containing images and videos of different cell types
from different organisms and during different processes (21). The database is maintained by the
Center for Research in Biological Systems (CRBS) within the University of California San Diego. Files for
each image and video contain useful annotations including, but not limited to, a general description of
the image or video, details regarding the biological sample that is shown, the type of microscopy that
was used to obtain the image or video, and sources that are credited with obtaining that image or
video (Figure 13).
Images can be searched by a variety of factors including cell type, organism, cellular process, and cell
component. An example of a typical image data file is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Example of a Cell Image Library data file (22).

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V. PROTOCOL

A. Exploring your idea of a cell

1. In the space below or on a separate piece of paper, draw a picture of your idea of a
eukaryotic cell. Label all organelles/structures in your picture. Take a picture of this drawing
to save in your lab notebook.

2. Watch the following video: The Inner Life of the Cell

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJyUtbn0O5Y)

a. What cellular process(es) did you observe?

b. What organelles do you recognize?

c. Describe any additional observations you made while watching this video

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B. Analysis of cell morphology

This section seeks to enhance your understanding of the diversity of cell morphologies (shape) and
their connections with other cells.
1. Examine the cells from the tissues listed in Table 1 and shown in Appendix A. Complete the
table and record any observations that you might have. Possible observations include, but
are not limited to, the following:

a. General shape of cell(s)

b. Whether or not the cells are touching each other, separated by a matrix, or not touching
at all
c. Position of the cells relative to one another (i.e. single or multiple layers, arranged end-
to-end in long fibers, completely separated)
d. Any noticeable characteristics (large, small, or no obvious nuclei? Irregular shape? Cilia?
Other?)

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Table 1. Analysis of Cell Morphology using micrographs obtained via Bright-Field Microscopy

Cell Type Origin Observations

Simple
Small
Columnar
Intestine
Epithelial Cells

Stratified
Squamous Esophagus
Epithelial Cells

Pseudostratified
Columnar Trachea
Epithelial Cells

Cardiac Muscle Heart

Skeletal Muscle
Cells

Surrounding
Smooth Muscle
Small
Cells
Intestine

Chondrocytes Cartilage of
(Cartilage Cells) Epiglottis

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Table 1. Continued.

Cell Type Origin Observations

Human Blood
Blood
Smear

Neurons and
Glial Cells
(Sample 1)

Neurons and
Glial Cells
(Sample 2)

C. Comparison of organelles between different cell types

This section aims to increase your understanding of how differences in the types and amounts of
organelles correlate to the function of different cell types.

1. Click on the link below to access “Cell: An Image Library”

http://cellimagelibrary.org/home

2. One at a time, find each of the cell types listed in Table 2 by searching for the Cell Image
Library Identification (CIL) numbers.
• Note: These images are also available in Appendix B; however, resolution will be better
if using the image viewer in Cell: An Image Library.

3. Examine the cells from the tissues listed in Table 2 and shown in Appendix B. Indicate which
organelles you observe by entering Yes or No for each sample. Use Figure 12 as a guide to
identifying organelles. Place a * next to the predominant organelle(s) in each sample.
Additional observations should be described either in Table 2, using the following blank
page, or on a separate sheet of paper.

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This page is intentionally left blank.

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Table 2. Analysis of Cellular Organelles

Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondria

Cytoskeleton
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Nucleus
Tissue Origin CIL Additional Observations
Epithelial Intestine (Rat) 10790

Intestine (Rat) 37161

Intestine (Mouse) 40992

Epithelial Liver (Rat) 1 10793

Liver (Rat) 2 11483

Liver (Hamster) 11483

Liver 3 37185

Epithelial Adrenal Cortical Cell 10804

Adrenal Cortical Cell 10802

Adrenal Cortical Cell 11432

(Hamster)
Muscle Cardiac Muscle (Mouse) 39727

Cardiac Muscle (Cat) 36059

Cardiac Muscle (Rat) 37201

Muscle Skeletal Muscle (Mouse) 255

Skeletal Muscle (Mouse) 2 257

Muscle Smooth Muscle 10951

Smooth Muscle (Mouse) 36065

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Table 2. Continued.

Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondria

Cytoskeleton
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Nucleus
Tissue Origin CIL Additional Observations
Nervous Axon Cross Section 10924

Nissl body of a motor 10771

neuron
Nerve cross section (Cat) 10950

4. Record the following information for each cell type. Use any source at your disposal to determine
the function(s) of each Tissue or Organ listed under ‘Origin’ in Table 2. Record that information
below.

i. Intestinal Epithelium

Function of Tissue/Organ

Primary organelle(s) present

How do these prevalent organelles contribute to the cell’s main function?

ii. Liver
Function of Tissue/Organ

Primary organelle(s) present

How do these prevalent organelles contribute to the cell’s main function?

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iii. Adrenal Gland

Function of Tissue/Organ

Primary organelle(s) present

How do these prevalent organelles contribute to the cell’s main function?

iv. Cardiac Muscle

Function of Tissue/Organ

Primary organelle(s) present

How do these prevalent organelles contribute to the cell’s main function?

v. Skeletal Muscle
Function of Tissue/Organ

Primary organelle(s) present

How do these prevalent organelles contribute to the cell’s main function?

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vi. Smooth Muscle

Function of Tissue/Organ

Primary organelle(s) present

How do these prevalent organelles contribute to the cell’s main function?

vii. Nervous Tissue

Function of Tissue/Organ

Primary organelle(s) present

How do these prevalent organelles contribute to the cell’s main function?

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D. Revisiting your idea of a cell

Use the space below or a separate piece of paper, draw another picture of a eukaryotic cell (any
cell type) incorporating information that you gained during this laboratory exercise. Label the
organelles/structures in your drawing. Save an image of this drawing to include in your lab
notebook.

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VI. POST-LAB QUESTIONS AND ANALYSIS

1. Did most of the micrographs resemble the image of an animal cell shown in the Background of this lab?
Explain your answer.

2. Are you surprised at the variation among the images of each cell type? Explain why or why not.

3. Describe how differences in the type and relative number of organelles can result in a cell specialized
for its given function.

4. Describe how your drawings of cells in steps V1A (Examining Your Idea of a Cell) and V4 (Revisiting your
idea of a cell) compare to one another.

5. Describe how this activity did or did not affect your understanding of the structure and functions of
cells.

6. There are actually additional specialized organelles found in different cells, such as parasites. Find one
organelle not described in this activity, describe what it does, and paste a micrograph of it here or in
your lab notebook.

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VII. REFERENCES

1. General Lab Idea: Saunders, C. and Taylor, A. (2014) Close the Textbook & Open “The Cell: An Image
Library”. The American Biology Teacher. 76(3):201-207.
2. Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems: Khan Academy. Body structure and homeostasis: Tissues, organs,
and organ systems. Retrieved from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-
human-body-systems/hs-body-structure-and-homeostasis/a/tissues-organs-organ-systems
3. Levels of Structural Organization of the human body: Betts, JG, Young KA, Wise, JA, Johnson E,
Brandon P, Kruse, DH, Korol O, Johnson JE, Womble M, DeSaix P. Open Stax. Anatomy and Physiology.
Published Apr 25 203. Retrieved from https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-2-
structural-organization-of-the-human-body. Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-
and-physiology/pages/1-introduction.
4. Image credit: Organ Systems: modified from Levels of structural organization of the human body by
OpenStax College, Anatomy & Physiology, CC BY 4.0
5. Plant Cell: Image Credit: By LadyofHats - Self-made using Adobe Illustrator. (The original edited was
also made by LadyofHats), Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=844682.
6. Animal Cell: Image Credit: By LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz) - Own work using Adobe Illustrator. Image
renamed from Image:Animal cell structure.svg, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4266142)
7. Introduction to Cells: Basic Biology: Introduction to Cells. Retrieved from
https://basicbiology.net/biology-101/introduction-to-cells#:~:text=Introduction%20to%20cells-
,Introduction%20to%20cells,an%20organism%20alive%20and%20functioning.&text=Many%20differen
t%20organisms%20on%20the,single%2Dcelled%20or%20unicellular%20organisms .
8. Microscopy: Khan Academy: Microscopy. This article is a modified derivative of “Studying cells,” by
OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 3.0). Download the original article for free at
http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@9.85:16/Biology. The modified
article is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license. Retrieved from
(https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/introduction-to-
cells/a/microscopy).
9. Four Types of Animal Tissue: Image Credit: Dugdale III, DC, Zieve D, Conaway B. Medline Plus: Tissue
Types. 5-6-2019. Four types of animal tissue. Retrieved from
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/8682.htm
10. Types of Connective Tissue: Image Credit: Representative Types of Connective Tissue. Wikimedia
Commons: Connective Tissues 2. Retrieved from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1394212. Public Domain
11. Simple Columnar Epithelium: Image Credit: “Simple columnar epithelium: small intestine, H&E, 40X”
(029-1). Histology and Virtual Microscopy Learning Resource. University of Michigan Medical School.
Retrieved from https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/full-slide-list 27 July 27, 2020. Creative Commons
Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License ©copyright 2020 Regents of the University of
Michigan.
12. Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Image Credit: “Stratified Squamous Epithelium: esophagus, H&E,
20X” (153). Histology and Virtual Microscopy Learning Resource. University of Michigan Medical

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School. Retrieved from https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/full-slide-list 27 July 27, 2020. Creative

Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License ©copyright 2020 Regents of the
University of Michigan.
13. Skeletal Muscle: Image Credit: “skeletal muscle, longitudinal section, H&E, 20X and 40X (banding
pattern A I Z H)”(058L). Histology and Virtual Microscopy Learning Resource. University of Michigan
Medical School. Retrieved from https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/full-slide-list 27 July 27, 2020.
Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License ©copyright 2020 Regents of the
University of Michigan.
14. Cardiac Muscle: Image Credit: “cardiac muscle, intercalated discs” (098-1). Histology and Virtual
Microscopy Learning Resource. University of Michigan Medical School. Retrieved from
https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/full-slide-list 27 July 27, 2020. Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License ©copyright 2020 Regents of the University of Michigan.
15. Smooth Muscle: Image Credit: “StoWebScopeh, H&E, 20X (smooth muscle)” (155). Histology and
Virtual Microscopy Learning Resource. University of Michigan Medical School. Retrieved from
https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/full-slide-list 27 July 27, 2020. Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License ©copyright 2020 Regents of the University of Michigan.
16. Neural Tissue: Image Credit: Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014".
WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436. Accessed from
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28761829.
17. Neurons: Image Credit: “spinal chord, H&E, 40X” (065-1N). Histology and Virtual Microscopy Learning
Resource. University of Michigan Medical School. Retrieved from
https://histology.medicine.umich.edu/full-slide-list 27 July 27, 2020. Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 License ©copyright 2020 Regents of the University of Michigan.
18. Major Organ Systems "Major organ systems of the human body" by Douglas Wilkin and Niamh Gray-
Wilson, CK-12 Foundation, CC BY-NC 3.0. Retrieved from https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-
advanced-concepts/section/17.3/
19. Stomach Layers: Image Credit: Stomach Layers: SEER Training Modules: Anatomy and Physiology. US
National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute. Retrieved from
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/digestive/regions/stomach.html
20. Types of Light Microscopy: “Instruments of Microscopy,” by Commons Attribution License (by 4.0)
Authors: OpenStax Microbiology Copyright Holders: OpenStax Microbiology Publishers: OpenStax
Microbiology Latest Version: 4.4 First Publication Date: Oct 17, 2016. Retrieved from
https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/2-3-instruments-of-microscopy.
21. The Cell: A molecular approach. 2nd edition. Copyright © 2000, Geoffrey M Cooper).
22. Cell, an image library Orloff DN, Iwasa JH, Martone ME, Ellisman MH, Kane CM. The cell: an image
library-CCDB: a curated repository of microscopy data. Nucleic Acids Res. 2013;41(Database issue):
D1241-D1250. doi:10.1093/nar/gks1257
23. Image Credit: Cell Image Library data file: Don W. Fawcett, Michael Barrett, Paul Heidger (2011)
CIL:11491, Rattus, renal principal cell. CIL. Dataset. https://doi.org/doi:10.7295/W9CIL11491
Attribution Non-Commercial; No Derivatives:This image is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution, Non-Commercial, No Derivatives License.

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VIII. APPENDIX A: LIGHT MICROGRAPHS

Epithelial Cells

Esophagus Trachea

Small Intestine

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Muscle

Cardiac Muscle Skeletal Muscle

Smooth Muscle

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Connective Tissue

Fibrous Cartilage Blood Cells

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Neurons and Neuroglial Cells

Neurons and Neuroglia (Sample 1) Neurons and Glial Cells (Sample 2)

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IX. APPENDIX B: ELECTRON MICROGRAPHS

Intestine

Rat Brush Border Epithelial Cell CIL:10790 Rat Intestinal Epithelium CIL:37161

Mouse Intestinal Epithelium CIL:40992

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Liver Cells

Rat Hepatocyte (Liver Cell) CIL:10793 Rat (Top) and Hamster (Bottom) Liver Cells CIL:11483

Rat Hepatocytes CIL:37185

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Adrenal Gland

Adrenal Gland adrenal cortical cell CIL:10804 Cavia porcellus: Adrenal Gland adrenal cortical cell CIL:10802

Hamster adrenal cortex CIL:11432

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Heart Muscle

Mouse Heart Muscle CIL:39727 Cat Cardiac Muscle CIL:36059

Rat Cardiac Muscle – Cross-Section CIL:37201

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Skeletal Muscle

Mouse diaphragm muscle CIL:255 Mouse diaphragm muscle CIL:257

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Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle CIL:10951 Mouse Smooth muscle CIL:36065

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Neurons and Neuroglial Cells

Axon Cross Section CIL:10924 Nissl Body of a motor neuron CIL: 10771

Cat peripheral nerve cross section – CIL:10950

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