Bayero University Telecommunications Engineering Lectures

BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
Telecommunication Engineering II ?
ELE 5206
Lecture 3…
30th Sept., 2019

Assignments P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
 write a properly well referenced (cite at least 10 sources) note of

not less than 1000 and not more than 2000 words on:
1. Single and independent-sideband receivers
2. Submarine cables
3. Difference between AM and FM receivers
4. Long distance telephony
5. Wired Vs Wireless
6. RF Mixer
7. Fiber-optic links
8. Satellite communications
30th Sept., 2019

30th Sept., 2019

Broadband BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Communications
4
 In Telecommunications, Broadband communication is wide

bandwidth data transmission
- with an ability to simultaneously transport multiple signals and traffic
types
- the medium can be coaxial cable, optical fiber, radio or twisted pair.
 Our interest here is the medium

30th Sept., 2019
Transmission Media… P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
 Transmission over wireless medium can be classified as unguided

transmission
- the wave propagated throughout all space
- the EM energy associated with the wave spreads over a wide area
- EM wave propagation in unbounded media is used in radio or TV
broadcasting
 Another means of transmitting power or information is by guided
structure
- serve to guide (or direct) the propagation of EM energy from the source to
the load
 Typical examples of such structures are transmission lines and

waveguides
30th Sept., 2019

 Transmission lines are commonly used in :

- power distribution (at low frequencies)
- communications (at high frequencies)
 A transmission line basically consists of two or more parallel

conductors used to connect a source to a load
- the source may be
+ hydro electric generator , a transmitter…
- the load may be
+ a factory, an antenna etc…
 Various kinds of transmission lines such as the twisted pair and

coaxial cables are used
30th Sept., 2019

 Typical transmission lines include:

- coaxial cable
- two-wire line
- parallel-plate
- planar line
- wire above the conducting ground plane
- micro strip line
 Coaxial cables are routinely used in electrical laboratories and in

connecting TV sets to TV antennas
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(a) coaxial line (b) two-wire line (c) planar line

(d) wire above conducting plane (e) microstrip line
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Transmission line BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
parameters
9
 It is more convenient to describe a transmission line in terms of its

line parameters :
- Resistance per unit length (R)
- Inductance per unit length (L)
- Conductance per unit length (G)
- Capacitance per unit length (C)
 Each of the lines has specific formula for finding R, L, G and C.
30th Sept., 2019

parameters
10
Distributed Line Parameters at High Frequencies*

Parameters Coaxial Cable Two-Wire Planar Line
Line
𝑅𝑅 [Ω⁄m] 1 1 1 1 2
� + �
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐
(𝛿𝛿 ≪ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐 − 𝑏𝑏) (𝛿𝛿 ≪ 𝑎𝑎) (𝛿𝛿 ≪ 𝑡𝑡)
𝜇𝜇 𝑏𝑏 𝜇𝜇 𝑑𝑑 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
𝐿𝐿[H⁄m] ln cosh−1
2𝜋𝜋 𝑎𝑎 𝜋𝜋 2𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎
𝐺𝐺 [S⁄m] 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
ln 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1
𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀

𝐶𝐶 [F⁄m]
𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
ln 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1
2𝑎𝑎 (𝑤𝑤 ≫ 𝑑𝑑 )
2
1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
∗ 𝛿𝛿 = = skin depth of the conductor; cosh−1 = ln 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 � � ≫ 1.
𝜋𝜋f𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐 2𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎
30th Sept., 2019
parameters
11
 The line parameters R, L, G and C are not discrete or lumped but

distributed
 That means the parameters are uniformly distributed along the
entire length of the line
Distributed parameters of a two-conductor
30th Sept., 2019

Cable types P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 Coaxial Cable (also called coax )

 Twisted pair cable
- can be shielded (STP) or unshielded (UTP)
- each of the cable types is subdivided into more
specialized categories
- it has its own design and specifications, standards,
advantages and disadvantages
30th Sept., 2019

Cable types P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
13
 Cable types differ in price, transmission speed, and recommended

transmission distance
- for example, twisted pair wiring is currently the cheapest
+ but has the most limited performance
- coaxial cable lies between twisted pair and fiber optic cables on most of the
performance and price features
30th Sept., 2019

Cable structure P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 One or more conductors to provide a medium for the signal
 Insulation of some sort around the conductors to help keep the signal in
and interference out
 An outer sheath, or jacket, to ensure the cable-elements

- an outer sheath, or jacket, to ensure the cable-elements
- may also help protect the cable components from water, pressure, vibration or
other external environmental factors
30th Sept., 2019

Conductor P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 For copper cable, the conductor is known as the signal, or carrier wire
- it may consist of either solid or stranded wire
+ solid wire is a single thick strand of conductive material, usually copper
+ stranded wire consists of many thin strands of conductive material wound
tightly together
 The signal wire is described in the following terms:
- the wire's conductive material (for example, copper)
- whether the wire is stranded or solid
- the carrier wire's diameter
+ expressed directly (for example, in inches, centimeters or millimeters)
+ or in terms of the wire's gauge, as specified in the American Wire Gauge (AWG)
 The total diameter of the strand determines some of the wire's electrical
properties
- such as resistance and impedance
- these properties, in turn, help to determine the performance of the wire
30th Sept., 2019
Insulation P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 The insulating layer keeps the transmission medium's signal from

escaping
- also helps to protect the signal from outside interference
- for copper wires, the insulation is usually made of a dielectric such as
polyethylene
- some types of coaxial cable have multiple protective layers around the signal
wire
 The size of the insulating layer determines the spacing between the
conductors in a cable
- and therefore its capacitance and inductance
30th Sept., 2019

Cable sheath… P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 The outer casing, or sheath of the cable, provides a shell that keeps
the cable's elements together
- the sheath differs for indoor and outdoor exposure
- outdoor cable sheaths tend to be black or blue
+ with appropriate resistance to UV light
+ and have enhanced water resistance
- two main indoor classes of sheath are plenum and non-plenum
 In some countries, plenum cable is required to be used in certain

environments by law
- it would be required to be used where the cable is being run 'naked' (without
being put in a conduit) inside walls
30th Sept., 2019

Cable sheath… P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
18
 Plenum sheaths are made of less-flammable fluoropolymers such as

Teflon or kynar
- they are highly fire-resistant and give out less toxic fumes when burning
- they are also considerably more expensive (by a factor of 1.5 to 3) than cables
with non-plenum sheaths
- studies have shown that copper cables with plenum sheaths have less signal loss
than non-plenum cables
 Non-plenum cable uses less expensive material for sheaths

- it is consequently less expensive than cables with plenum sheaths
- Non-plenum cable sheaths are made of polyethylene (PE) or polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)
+ which has a greater tendency to bum and give off toxic fumes than Plenum
cables
30th Sept., 2019
Cable packaging P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 Cables can be packaged in different ways, depending on its

application and the location where they are laid
- for example, the older IBM token ring cable topology specifies a flat cable for
use under carpets
 The following types of cable

packaging are available:
- simplex cable - one cable within one
sheath, which is the default
configuration
- duplex cable - two cables, or fibers,
within a single sheath
- multifiber core - multiple cables
within a single sheath
30th Sept., 2019

Copper cable performance P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 Copper cables are good media for signal transfer, but they are not
perfect
- ideally, the signal at the end of a length of cable should be the same as at the
beginning
- unfortunately, this will not be true in practical cables
 All signals degrade when transmitted over a distance through any
medium
- this is due to a decrease in signal amplitude, as the medium resists the flow
of energy
- the signals become distorted, as the shape of the electrical signal changes
over distance
 Any transmission also consists of signal and noise components
 Signal quality degrades for several reasons
- including attenuation, crosstalk, and impedance mismatches
30th Sept., 2019
Crosstalk
21
 Crosstalk is interference in the form of a signal from a neighboring

cable or circuit
- signals on different pairs of twisted wire in a twisted pair cable may interfere
with each other
- a commonly used measure of this interference in twisted pair cable is near-

end crosstalk (NEXT)
+ which is represented in decibels
- the higher the decibel value, the less crosstalk and the better the cable
- the effects of crosstalk can be reduced by putting additional shielding

between the carrier wire and the outside world
30th Sept., 2019

Characteristic Impedance P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 The impedance of a cable is defined as the opposition to the flow of

electrical energy at a particular frequency
 The characteristic impedance of a cable is the value of impedance,

which is characteristic of that particular cable
- is the input impedance of the cable seen when it is terminated to a load

impedance
30th Sept., 2019

Transmission Media BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Characteristics… P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 The frequency bandwidth in which a medium operates directly

relates to the bit rate that can be obtained with that medium
- traditional twisted-pair affords the lowest bandwidth (i.e., the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies supported), a maximum of 1MHz, whereas fiber optics affords the greatest bandwidth, some 75THz.
Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical

Error Rate
Twisted-pair for analog voice applications 1MHz Poor to fair (105)
Coaxial cable 1GHz Good (107 to 109)
Microwave 100GHz Good (109)
Satellite 100GHz Good (109)
Fiber Optic 75THz Great (1011 to 1013)
 Another important characteristic is a medium's susceptibility to

noise and the subsequent error rate
30th Sept., 2019
24
 Coax and fiber have fewer impairments than twisted-pair because of

how the cable is constructed
- fiber suffers the least because it is not affected by electrical interference.
 The error rate of wireless depends on the prevailing conditions

- especially weather and the presence of obstacles, such as buildings.
 Another characteristic is the distance required between repeaters

- this is a major cost issue for those constructing and operating networks.
 When twisted-pair is deployed as an analog telephone channel, the

distance between amplifiers is roughly 1.8 km
 When twisted-pair is used in digital mode, the repeater spacing
drops to about 550 m
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25
 Coax offers about a 25% increase in the distance between repeaters

over twisted-pair
 With microwave and satellite, the distance between repeaters

depends on the operating frequency bands
 In the area of fiber, distances between repeaters or amplifiers is

usually 100 Km
30th Sept., 2019

Twisted-Pair Cable P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 The total usable frequency spectrum of telephony twisted-pair cable

is about 1MHz
- newer standards for broadband based on twisted-pair, use up to 2.2MHz of
spectrum
 Twisted-pair cable offers about 2M bits per second (bps) to 3Mbps
over 1MHz of spectrum
- bps is a measurement of the amount of data being transported, or capacity of
the channel
- twisted-pair cable offers about 2Mbps to 3Mbps over 1MHz of spectrum
 The longer the distance, the greater the impact of errors and
impairments, which diminish the data rate
- to achieve higher data rates, two techniques are commonly used:
i. by shortening the distance of the loop
ii. by applying advanced modulation schemes, which means more bits per cycle can be
encoded
30th Sept., 2019
27
 Another characteristic of twisted-pair is that it requires short

distances between repeaters
- this means that more components need to be maintained and there are more
points where trouble can arise, which leads to higher costs in terms of long-term
operation
 Twisted-pair is also highly susceptible to interference and distortion
- including Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), Radio Frequency Interference
(RFI), and the effects of moisture and corrosion. Therefore the age and health of
twisted-pair cable are important factors
30th Sept., 2019

28
 A basic impairment of wire pair is loss

- loss is synonymous with attenuation
 Loss is the dissipation of signal strength as the signal travels along a

wire pair, or any other transmission medium
- loss or attenuation is usually expressed in decibels (dB)
 Loss causes the signal power to be dissipated along a wire pair

- power is expressed in watts
LdB = 10 log(P1 / P2 )
where P1 is the power of the signal where it enters the wire pair, and P2 is the
power level of the signal at the distant end of the wire pair
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29
Example
1. Suppose a 10-mW, 1000-Hz signal is launched into a wire pair. At the
distant end of the wire pair the signal is measured at 0.2 mW. What is
the loss in decibels on the line for this signal?
LdB = 10 log(10/0.2), = 10 log(50), ≈ 17 dB
30th Sept., 2019

30
Applications of Twisted-Pair
 The primary applications of twisted-pair are in premises distribution

systems, telephony, private branch exchanges (PBXs) between
telephone sets and switching cabinets, LANs, and local loops,
including both analog telephone lines and broadband DSL
30th Sept., 2019

31
Advantages of Twisted-Pair
 High availability More than 1 billion telephone subscriber lines based on twisted-pair
have been deployed, and because it's already in the ground, the telecoms companies will
use it
 Low cost of installation on premises The cost of installing twisted-pair on premises is
very low
 Low cost for local moves, adds, and changes in places
30th Sept., 2019

32
Disadvantages of Twisted-Pair
 Limited frequency spectrum: The total usable frequency spectrum of twisted-pair

copper cable is about 1MHz
 Limited data rates: The longer a signal has to travel over twisted-pair, the lower the data
rate. At 100 m, twisted-pair can carry 100Mbps, but at 5.5 km), the data rate drops to
2 Mbps or less
 Short distances required between repeaters: More components need to be maintained,

and those components are places where trouble can arise, which leads to higher long-term
operational costs
 High error rate: Twisted-pair is highly susceptibility to signal interference such as EMI
and RFI
30th Sept., 2019

Coaxial Cable P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
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 Coaxial cable, often called coax, is used for radio applications and
data transmission
 The cable is remarkably stable in terms of its electrical properties at

frequencies below 4 GHz
- this makes the cable popular for radio and microwave
systems
- cable television (CATV) distribution, as well as for
creating LANs
- the telephone companies also make use of coaxial cable
to route long distance calls
 A coaxial cable consists of different layers (moving outward from the

center)
30th Sept., 2019
Coaxial Cable P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
34
30th Sept., 2019

Coaxial Cable components
35
 Carrier wire: A conductor wire or signal wire is in the center

- this wire is usually made of copper and may be solid or stranded
- there are restrictions regarding the material composition for certain applications
- the diameter of the signal wire and the number of strands in a multistrand
conductor affect the signal attenuation
 Insulation: An insulation layer consists of a dielectric around the carrier
wire
- this dielectric is usually made of some form of polyethylene or Teflon
 Foil shield: A thin foil forms a shield around the dielectric

- this foil shield usually consists of aluminum bonded to both sides of a tape
- not all coaxial cables have foil shielding
- some have two foil shield layers, interspersed with braid shield layers
30th Sept., 2019

Coaxial Cable components BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
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cont…
 Braid shield : A braid, or mesh, conductor, made of copper or
aluminum, that surrounds the insulation and foil shield
- this conductor can serve as the ground for the carrier wire
- together with the insulation and any foil shield, the braid shield protects the
carrier wire from;
+ electromagnetic interference (EMI)
+ radio frequency interference (RFI)
- note that the braid and foil shields provide good protection against electrostatic
interference, but little protection against magnetic interference
 Sheath : The outer protection cover , can either be plenum or non-

plenum
- the layers surrounding the carrier wire
- also help prevent signal loss due to radiation from the carrier wire
30th Sept., 2019

Advantages of Coaxial cable P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
37
1. Broadband coaxial can be used to transmit voice, data, radio, TV, and
video
2. The cable is relatively easy to install
3. Coaxial cable is reasonably priced compared to other cable types
4. High frequency application (up to 4 GHz for distances up to several
meters)
5. Wide bandwidth of operation
6. Stable characteristics over wide operating range of frequencies
7. Relatively low attenuation
30th Sept., 2019
Dis-advantages of Coaxial BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
38
cable
1. It is easily damaged and sometimes difficult to work with, especially in

the case of thicker coaxial cable
2. Coaxial cable is more difficult to work with than twisted pair cable
3. Some thicker coaxial cable can be expensive to install, especially if it
needs to be pulled through existing cable conduits
4. Connectors can be expensive and difficult to install
5. Coaxial cable provides limited bandwidth compared to fiber
30th Sept., 2019

39
30th Sept., 2019

Long distance Broadband BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
communications P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
40
 There are three means for carrying thousand of channels over

long distances
1. Microwave links
2. Coaxial cables
3. Fiber optic
 Microwave links are EM waves whose frequencies range from
approximately 300MHz to 1000GHz
 The higher frequency edge of microwaves borders on the optical
spectrum
- makes microwaves behave more like rays of light than ordinary waves
- some of the microwave appliances are:
+ microwave oven, which operates at 2.4 GHz
+ satellite television, which operates at about 4 GHz
+ police radar, which works at about 22GHz
30th Sept., 2019
Long distance Broadband BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
communications cont… P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
41
 The following features make microwave attractive for

communications:
- wide available bandwidths (capacities to carry information)
+ since the amount of information that can be transmitted is limited by
the available bandwidth
+ the microwave spectrum provides more communication channels than
radio and TV bands
- directive properties of short wavelengths
 Like any other communication system, a microwave system
consists of :
- a transmitter (including a microwave oscillator, waveguides, and a
transmitting antenna)
- a receiver subsystem (including a receiving antenna, transmission line or
waveguide, microwave amplifier, and a receiver)
30th Sept., 2019

Microwaves…
42
 Microwaves have wide range of applications, example includes:

- telecommunications, radio astronomy, land surveying, radar,
meteorology, UHF television, terrestrial microwave links, solid-state
devices, heating, medicine, and identification systems
 Basically microwave communication systems can be categorized
in to four types:
1. Microwave (LOS) link
2. Tropospheric scatter microwave link
3. Satellite communication
4. Optical communication
30th Sept., 2019

Microwaves…
43
 Microwaves: are used for unicast

communication
- e.g. Satellite networks and Cellular
telephones
- higher frequency ranges, cannot
penetrate walls
- use direct antennas – point-to-point line of
sight communications
A telecommunications tower with a variety of dish antennas for microwave relay links on Frazier
Peak, Ventura County, California
30th Sept., 2019
Microwaves…
44
Usually not spaced more than 30 miles
30th Sept., 2019

Introduction to Satellite BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Communications
45
 Satellite transmission: communication satellites are

microwave relay stations use to link two or more ground-
based transmitters and receivers
- they can be passive or active
30th Sept., 2019

Communications…
46
 In communication, Microwaves propagate along a straight line

like a light ray
- are not bent by the ionosphere as are lower frequency signals
+ this makes communication satellites possible
 A communication satellite is a microwave relay station that is used

to link two or more ground- based transmitters and receivers
- is a radio station placed in orbit around the earth
- it is made up of receiving and transmitting equipment
+ the receiving equipment receives a signal transmitted to the receiving
station located on the surface of the earth
 The satellite receives signals at one frequency, repeats or amplifies

it, and transmits it at another frequency
30th Sept., 2019
Communications …
47
Point-to-point satellite
Point-to-multipoint satellite
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Communications cont…
48
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Communications cont…
49
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Communications …
50
 Communication satellite can be divided in to two types:

1. Passive satellites
+ do not have any type of equipment
+ they do not use any kind of electrical energy
+ they act only as reflectors in space for reflecting the signal transmitted from
ground stations
+ these reflected signals are received at various satellites ground stations
- the first passive satellite was ECHO-1 launched in the year 1960
- the biggest drawback of passive satellites was requirement of very high

transmitting power of ground station
- passive satellite could not found useful and after ECHO-2, they were
never sent in space
30th Sept., 2019

Communications …
51
 Communication satellite can be divided in to two types:

2. Active satellites
+ are equipped with various microwave receiving and transmitting equipment
+ they need power operating these equipment which is derived from the sun
(solar energy)
+ the solar cells convert the solar energy in to electrical energy
- now a days only active satellite are used
 STATIONARY SATELLITE: is a satellite at a height of 35,800
KM above the earth in a circular equidistance orbit, appearing
stationary relative to the earth
 After expensive experimental studies, an active geostationary
satellite was finally established and transmission of commercial
traffic through communication satellites commenced in 1965
30th Sept., 2019
Frequency Bands P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
52
 The most desirable frequency bands for commercial satellite

communication are in the spectrum 1000–10,000 MHz:
- 3700–4200 MHz (satellite-to-earth or downlink)
- 5925–6425 MHz (earth-to-satellite or uplink)
- 7250–7750 MHz (downlink) – Military application
- 7900–8400 MHz (uplink) – Military application
 These band are preferred by design engineers for the following
primary reasons:
 less atmospheric absorption than higher frequencies
 rainfall loss not a concern
 less noise
 less free-space loss compared with the higher frequencies
30th Sept., 2019

Frequency Bands cont… P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
53
 There are two factors contraindicating application of these

bands and pushing for the use of higher frequencies:
1. the bands are shared with terrestrial services
2. there is orbital crowding
 Higher-frequency bands for commercial satellite service are:

10.95–11.2 GHz (downlink)
14.0–14.5 GHz (uplink)
27.5–30.0 GHz (uplink)
30th Sept., 2019

Terminology of Satellite BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Communication
54
 The paths along which satellites move in the space around the earth
- the orbit of satellite also determines the area which the satellite can serve
- also the time period for which the visibility of the satellite over the area is
maintained
- a satellite can move in three types of orbits

+ synchronous orbits (further classified in to Geostationary orbit and
Geosynchronous orbits)
+ polar orbits
+ inclined orbits
30th Sept., 2019

Terminology of Satellite BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Communication
55
- Geostationary orbit: an orbit in which a satellite appears stationary

relative to any point on earth
+ this is achieved by synchronizing the revolution of the satellite around the
earth with the speed of earth’s rotation about its own axis
+ by placing the satellite into an equatorial orbit about 3600 km above earth
- Geosynchronous orbit: A satellite whose period of revolution equals to

period of rotation of earth about its own axis
+ in this a satellite has 24-hours of non equatorial orbit
30th Sept., 2019

Space Radio BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
Communication
56
 Any group consisting of space and/or earth stations for space

radio communication is called a space system
- here the term space station refers to a station located on an object which
is generally beyond the major portion of the earth’s atmosphere
- and earth station refers to a station located either on the earth’s surface
or within the earth’s atmosphere (e.g on a ship or on airplane)
 The type of space radio communication can be basically

categorized in to:
a. communication between space station and earth station
b. communication between space stations themselves
c. communication between earth stations via a space station.
30th Sept., 2019

Communication…
57
 If geostationary satellite is involved in a satellite communication

is called Geostationary satellite communication
- is not frequently applied to public communications
 Television transmission via a communication satellite is
commonly referred to as relaying or satellite relaying
 Normally satellite communications consist of a one hop link
- but sometimes signals are carried over a multi hop link

 The transmission path between space station and earth station is
referred to as up-link or down link according to the direction of
signal transmission
30th Sept., 2019

Communication …
58
 Communication satellite control facilities including tracking,

telemetry, command and monitoring (TTC&M) functions are
generally called space segment
- other communications facilities of the earth station are called earth
segment
 Space radio communication services are classified into the
following various types of service according the objective of the
utilization
 Fixed-satellite service: this includes for instance INTELSAT and
INTERSPUTNIC which are intended for international satellite
communications
- while the CSII of Japan, Anik of Canada and satcom are for domestic use
with Europe’s ECS
- and ARABSAT for regional use
30th Sept., 2019
Communication cont…
59
 Mobile satellite service: With these services, the transmission

path connecting a space station with earth stations on land is
sometimes called a feeder link
- and can be dealt with as a fixed-satellite service
- is further classified into the following three different categories:
1) Aeronautical mobile satellite service
2) Maritime mobile satellite service
3) Land mobile satellite service
 Broadcasting-satellite service: is a space radio communication

service in which signals transmitted or retransmitted by space
station
- are intended for direct reception by the general public
30th Sept., 2019

Features & Problems P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
60
 Salient features of geostationary satellite communications include:

- capability of multiple access
- wide satellite coverage
- high-quality and wide-band communication
- availability for mobile communications
- economic efficiency
 Some of the problems includes that of echo due to a mismatching at
a terminal point
- where circuits are converted from the two wire to a four wire system in a
long distance telephone circuit
 The influence on the space station of an eclipse due to the earth
and the sun interference on the earth station
30th Sept., 2019
Multiple Access P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria
61
 Is the ability of a number of earth stations to interconnect their

respective communication links through a common satellite
 Geostationary satellite communications possess an outstanding
feature in permitting multiple access with ease
 Multiple access can be classified in terms of modulation system

as follows:
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Spread spectrum Multiple access
30th Sept., 2019

62
Thank you 
04-Oct-19

Bayero University Telecommunications Engineering Lectures

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BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO

P.M.B. 3011, Kano. Nigeria

30th Sept., 2019

 write a properly well referenced (cite at least 10 sources) note of

30th Sept., 2019

30th Sept., 2019

 In Telecommunications, Broadband communication is wide

 Our interest here is the medium

 Transmission over wireless medium can be classified as unguided

 Typical examples of such structures are transmission lines and

30th Sept., 2019

 Transmission lines are commonly used in :

 A transmission line basically consists of two or more parallel

 Various kinds of transmission lines such as the twisted pair and

30th Sept., 2019

 Typical transmission lines include:

 Coaxial cables are routinely used in electrical laboratories and in

30th Sept., 2019

(a) coaxial line (b) two-wire line (c) planar line

30th Sept., 2019

 It is more convenient to describe a transmission line in terms of its

 Each of the lines has specific formula for finding R, L, G and C.

30th Sept., 2019

Distributed Line Parameters at High Frequencies*

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀

 The line parameters R, L, G and C are not discrete or lumped but

Distributed parameters of a two-conductor

30th Sept., 2019

 Coaxial Cable (also called coax )

30th Sept., 2019

 Cable types differ in price, transmission speed, and recommended

30th Sept., 2019

 One or more conductors to provide a medium for the signal

 An outer sheath, or jacket, to ensure the cable-elements

30th Sept., 2019

 The insulating layer keeps the transmission medium's signal from

30th Sept., 2019

 In some countries, plenum cable is required to be used in certain

30th Sept., 2019

 Plenum sheaths are made of less-flammable fluoropolymers such as

 Non-plenum cable uses less expensive material for sheaths

 Cables can be packaged in different ways, depending on its

 The following types of cable

30th Sept., 2019

 Crosstalk is interference in the form of a signal from a neighboring

- a commonly used measure of this interference in twisted pair cable is near-

- the effects of crosstalk can be reduced by putting additional shielding

30th Sept., 2019

 The impedance of a cable is defined as the opposition to the flow of

 The characteristic impedance of a cable is the value of impedance,

- is the input impedance of the cable seen when it is terminated to a load

30th Sept., 2019

 The frequency bandwidth in which a medium operates directly

Media Type Bandwidth Performance: Typical

 Another important characteristic is a medium's susceptibility to

 Coax and fiber have fewer impairments than twisted-pair because of

 The error rate of wireless depends on the prevailing conditions

 Another characteristic is the distance required between repeaters

 When twisted-pair is deployed as an analog telephone channel, the

30th Sept., 2019

 Coax offers about a 25% increase in the distance between repeaters

 With microwave and satellite, the distance between repeaters