A Review of the Extent, Nature, Characteristics and Effects

of Bullying Behaviour in Schools

Oyaziwo Aluede, Fajoju Adeleke, Don Omoike, and Justina Afen- Akpaida

Bullying behaviour no doubt is becoming a common feature, and a nightmare in

schools all over the world. It is a worrisome practice in schools because it infringes
on the child's right to human dignity, privacy, freedom and security. The physical,
emotional and educational consequences of bullying behaviour can never be under-
estimated. Therefore, this endeavour attempted to further expose us to the meaning,
history, extent and nature of bullying behaviour in schools. The characteristics of
bullies and their victims and the effects of bullying on the child's mental health were
also discussed.

School has always been recognized as
an institution for the transfer of knowledge
and culture to the future generation. It is a
dynamic human system dedicated to the nur-
turing of mutual growth and understanding
between children and adults (Schultz, Glass
& Kamholtz, 1987; Rutter, 1995).
In schools, the learners are the centre of
focus. They are of utmost importance hence,
adequate information about the students is
necessary for any meaningful learning to take
place. For teachers' efforts not to be wasted
and for learners to change along with the set
goals, such factors that aifect learning and
teaching, which include child growth, age,
heredity, interest, home and social effects
and violence in school (including school
bullying and peer victimization) need to be
addressed.
From the psychological perspective,bul-
lying as a behavioural characteristics can be
conceptualized in a number of ways. It can
also be taken to be a subset of aggressive
behaviours. As with aggressive behaviours
Oyaziwo Aluede, Ph .D, Fajoju Adeleke,
MBA, Don Omoike, Ph.D and Justina Afen-
Akpaida, M. Ed. Ambrose Alii University,
Ekpoma.
Correspondence conceming this article
should be addressed to Professor Oyaziwo
Aluede at oyaziwoaleude@yahoo.com.
757
generally, bullying intentionally causes hurt
to the recipient. This hurt can be both physi-
cal and psychological. Bullying behaviour
infringes upon the child's right to human
dignity, privacy, freedom and security. It
has an influence on the victim's physical,
emotional, social and educational well being
(Wet, 2005).
Bullies frequently target people who are
different from themselves and they seek to
exploit those differences. They select victims
they think are unlikely to retaliate such as
persons who are overweight, wear glasses,
or have obvious physical differences like
big ears or severe acne. Such victims are
common subjects of ridicule in the hands of
bullies. However, these differences do not
necessarily need to be physical, as students
who learn at a different pace or are anxious
or insecure can also be targets for bullies.
Bullies resort to this abusive behaviour as
a way of dealing with difficult situations
at home such as broken homes, or partial
separation from parents. Some bullies may
see their behaviours as normal because they
grow up from families in which everyone
regularly gets angry and shouts.
Whatever the situation or causes, bullies
usually pick on others as a way of dealing
with their own problems. In some cases,
bullies pick on others because they need a
victim (someone who seems emotionally or
physically weaker), or because they try to gain
152/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 2
acceptance and feel more important.popular,
or in control. Thus, the thrust of this paper
therefore is to bring to further knowledge the
concept of bullying, the characteristics ofthe
students who are bullied, the characteristics of
the victims, the nature and extent of bullying
and the outcome of bullying.
The Concept of Bullying
Bullying is not a new phenomenon
among school children. Most adults can
remember incidents of bullying in which
they were the bullies or the intended vic-
tims. Bullying has only received research
attention since the early 197O's when Dan
Olweus, a Norwegian researcher began to
study this area. At that time, strong societal
interest in bullying/victim problem emerged
in Scandinavia, where bullying was known as
"mobbing". Olweus' 1978 book, "Aggres-
sion in the Schools - Bullies and Whipping
Boys", is considered a landmark and the
first systematic study of the phenomenon of
bullying (Noëlle, 2005)
Bullying can be described as repeated
negative events, which over time are directed
at special individuals and which are carried
out by one or several other people who are
stronger than the victim. Negative events can
be aggressive physical contact in the form of
fights and shoving, verbal threats and mock-
ery, grimacing or cruel gesturing.
Bullying occurs when a person willfully
and repeatedly exercises power over another
with hostile or malicious intent. A wide range
of physical or verbal behaviours of an aggres-
sive or anti-social nature are encompassed by
the term bullying. These include, humiliat-
ing, harassing and mobbing (Colvin, Tobin,
Beard, Hagan & Sprague, 1998). Bullying
may also assume less direct forms (some-
times referred to as "psychological bullying")
such as gossiping, spreading rumours, and
shunning or exclusion (O'Connel, Pepler &
Craig, 1999).
However, the most widely used definition
of bullying is that coined by Olweus (1978),
which states that a person is being bullied
when he or she is exposed repeatedly and over
time, to negative actions on the part of one
or more other persons. Negative actions are
considered to be when someone purposefully
inflicts, or tries to inflict injury or discomfort
on another person. Negative actions may
be both verbal (e.g. threatening, degrading,
teasing) and non-verbal (e .g .hitting, kicking,
slapping, pushing, vandalizing property, rude
gestures, and making faces) (Olweus, 1993).
Bullying may be carried out by a single per-
son (the bully) or by a group against a single
person (the victim) or by a group.
Langevin (2000) claimed that this defi-
nition requires that negative actions must be
carried out repeatedly and intentionally to
be considered bullying, which excludes oc-
casional and less serious negative action. In
order to be considered bullying, there should
also be an actual or perceived power imbal-
ance. That is, the person experiencing the
negative actions has trouble defending him/
herself and is helpless to some degree against
the harassing person or persons (Besag, 1991 ;
Rigby & Slee, 1993).
Olweus (1993) opined that another dis-
tinction that is sometimes made in defining
bullying is that of direct and indirect bullying.
Direct bullying is defined as open attacks on
the victim, while indirect bullying consists
of social isolation and exclusion from the
group. Smith and Sharp (1994) submitted
that a further criterion is that bullying must
be unprovoked on the part of the victim.
The Characteristics of Students who are
Bullies
There are many common characteristics
found in most bullies. Bosworth, Espelage
and Simon (2001) opined that most bullies
are male, popular, and often athletes. They
have excellent social skills, with the ability
to attract many followers, and easily ma-
nipulate others.
Bullies are psychologically strong and
very popular among their peers. However, the

peer status is important in terms of boosting
their well being. Bullying behaviour is self
reinforcing. When students find that putting
others down give them approval from their
peers, they are likely to do it repeatedly.
Sometimes, they can easily butter up to adults,
making them unsuspecting bullies (Bosworth,
Espelage & Simon 2001).
Generally, a bully is someone who teases
and intimidates other students, although there
are many other ways to bully a fellow stu-
dent. Many people feel that the typical bully
comes from a broken home, but this is not
necessarily true. Still, the less supervision a
child gets at home, the more likely he is to
be a bully. Different studies have proved that
most bullies look for a victim who is smaller,
younger and weaker. As a practice, bullies
have more aggressive attitudes towards their
social surroundings and a positive attitude
about violence. Furthermore, it has been
shown by different surveys that bullies are
steered by impulses, they need to dominate
others and do not show any empathy for the
victim.
Rigby (1996) discussed two possible
conceptualizations of the bully. One is a child
who is vicious and uncaring, the product of
a dysfunctional family. This bully has an ag-
gressive temperament, and he/she is hostile
and un-empathic in relations with others.The
second conceptualization suggests that some
bullies are in fact members of a group that
builds its strength on harassing vulnerable
children who are not members of their group.
The bully may or may not be malicious in
intent, and the members reassure themselves
that no real harm is being done. Rigby ( 1996)
called this type of bully a "passive bully" or
"follower".
As for girls, they experience a different
form of bullying. Although it is a more indirect
form of bullying, social manipulation is very
prevalent within females. Social manipulation
can include many actions, including spreading.
gossip, telling lies, betraying trust, passing
notes, ignoring the victim, or excluding the
Bullying ..1153
victim (Anonymous, 2001 ; Kenny, McEachan
& Aluede, 2005).
The Characteristics of Students who are
Victims of Bully
Victims of bullying are described as
more anxious, careful and insecure compared
to other students in general. They are not
aggressive but have a negative self image.
Olweus (1993) stated that bullying victim
often lacks friends in the class and at school.
Students exposed to long-term bullying can
see the school environment as unfriendly,
frightening, and go through a major part of
school with anxiety and insecurity. The ma-
jor dependence which bullying victims feel
towards their families can also be explained
by their vulnerability and their otherwise
insecure situation. With respect to physical
attributes, victims are physically weak than
non-victims.
Bosworth, Espelage and Simon (2001)
asserted that 30% to 40% of bullies show
some level of depression,.and their bullying
is often a cry for help. Most likely the victims
will be both less confident and unpopular.
Therefore, many victims react by becoming
upset or crying as a way of dealing with their
anger or fear. Victims have a tendency to be
depressed, anxious, shy and lonely (Drake,
2003).
Rubin (2003) maintained that from pre-
vious research, victims tend to have a lower
self-esteem and a high level of depression.
Victims tend to be physically smaller, more
sensitive, unhappy, cautious, anxious, quiet
and withdrawn than other children (Bryne,
1994). Most victims of bullying can be
termed "passive" or "submissive" victims
(Olweus, 1994). They are generally insecure
and non-assertive, and react by withdrawing
and crying when attacked by other students.
In this sense, they are vulnerable to being
victimized, as bullies know these children
will not retaliate. A less common character-
istic, the "provocative victim", has also been
described. Olweus (1994) classified this type
 154/ Journal of Instructional Psyctiology, Vol. 35, No. 2

of victim of bullying as a combination of of bullying who tum into bullies themselves.

both anxious and aggressive traits, and these Of course, their having been victims of bul-
students sometimes provoke classmates into lying does not excuse their conduct; it only
victimizing them by their overactive and ir- helps to explain it.
ritable behaviour. Aside the above classifications, other
researchers (i .e. Garrity, Jens, Porter, Sager &
The Nature of Bullying Short-Camilli, 2001 ; Rigby, 1996) noted that
Bullying can take many forms and has forms of bullying can be basically categorized
been categorized in many ways by various into five as follows:-
researchers. Pearce (1991) identified three (a) Physical aggressive (e.g. pushing,
different kinds of bullies : the aggressive one, tripping, spitting)
the anxious one and the passive one. (b) Social alienation (e.g. excluding, co-
(a) the aggressive bully - is aggressive ercing, other to reject or exclude a person)
towards everybody, not just the weak. The ag- (c) Verbal aggression (e.g. name call-
gressive bulies are insensitive, domineering, ing, taunting, teasing)
lacking in self-control; but, contrary to the (d) Intimidation (e .g. threats, intimidat-
psycho-dynamic notion, they are also high in ing, coercing one to do what they would not
self-esteem. Furthermore, most bullies would ordinarily do)
fall into this category. (e) Relational bullying:- bullying that
(b). the anxious bully - is more disturbed. damages relationships (e .g. gossiping, spread-
They share more of the victim's character- ing rumours, making racial slurs)
istics, such as low self-esteem, insecurity Bullying can take the form of direct and
and loneliness, emotionally unstable and indirect, overt or very subtle, and it ranges
provocative. They are met likely to be victims in severity from mild to severe. There is
themselves. overlap in the categorizations and again
(c). the passive bully - is the one who there is no one agreed upon categorization
engages in bullying in order to protect himself (Rigby, 1996).
/herself and to achieve status. Apassive bully The more recent form of bullying is
would be easily dominated and led, would be electronic bullying, which is otherwise known
more sensitive to the sufferings of others but as digital bullying. This form of bullying is a
would do nothing about it and also would be new and insidious development. It involves
reluctant to engage in active bullying. the sending of menacing messages through
Langevin (2000) classified bully into telephone calls or by Email messages. In
four, these include: addition, youths also create hate-filled web
(a) Physical bullies - these are the easiest pages about a victim where they include
to identify. They act out their anger by hitting, personal information about the victim. This
shoving, or kicking their chosen target - or form of bullying is extra-ordinarily damag-
by damaging their victim's property. ing to the child who is being victimized by
(b) Verbal bullies - they use words to it (Aluede, 2006). Moreover, mobile phones
hurt and humiliate their target, through ei- are a popular choice for bullies. They provide
ther name - calling, insult or persistent and bullies with the perfect means of taunting their
harsh teasing. targets with little fear of being caught. Text
(c) Relationship bullies - they spread messages provide complete anonymity. Many
nasty rumours about their target. This be- "Pay -As - You - Go" mobile phones can be
haviour is predominantly adopted by female bought over the counter and do not require
bullies. proof of identity, nor is there any record kept
(d) Reactive victims - these are victims of the new owner. Calls made from these

types of mobile phones are difficult to trace
(Anonymous, 2005).
The Extent of Bullying
Bullying among school children occurs
worldwide. It takes place in small schools,
large schools, single sex, co-educational
schools, traditional and progressive schools. It
occurs in both primary and secondary schools.
The most common form of bullying for both
sexes is verbal and includes teasing, harass-
mentand name-calling.Itis the mostpainful
form and has the longest - lasting impact.
However, extortion, physical violence, nasty
rumours, exclusion from the group, damage
to property and threats are also regarded as
bullying. The playground is the most common
place for bullying to occur and most children
believe that bullying cannot be stopped.
Bullying in schools across the world is
beginning to assume a serious dimension.
For example, in Australia, Prof. Ken Rigby
reported that one student out of six between
the ages of 9 and 17, is affected by bullying at
least once a week. In American schools, there
are approximately 2.1 million bullies and 2.7
million victims (Lumsdem, 2002).
For instance, in U.S., in a national study,
Nansel, Overpeck, Pilla, Rúan, Simons-Mor-
ton and Scheidt (2001 ) found that about 30%
of 6"" through 10"' grade students had been
involved in bullying incidents with moderate
or frequent regularity. Similar prevalence
rates were found in the State of Florida. For
example, in a study by Bully Police, USA(n.
d.) found that of the 2,701,022 school age
children in Florida, approximately 442,157
students representing 16.37% were involved
in bullying.
Nansel, Overpeck, Pilla, Rúan, Simons-
Morton and Scheidt (2001) added that
limited available data show that bullying is
much more common among younger teens
than older teens. As teens grow older, they
are less likely to bully others and to be the
targets of bullies.
Rigby and Slee (1991) remarked that
Bullying../155
bullying occurs more frequently among boys
than girls. Teenage boys are much more likely
to bully others and also to be the targets of
bullies. While both girls and boys say others
bully them by making fun of the way they
look or talk, boys are more likely to report
being hit, slapped or pushed. Teenage girls
are more often the targets of rumours and
sexual comments.
Also, in a study of fourth - through eight
- graders, above 15% of the respondents re-
ported being severely distressed by bullying
and 22% reported academic difficulties stem-
ming from maltreatment by peers (Hoover &
Oliver, 1996). Gallagher's study (as cited in
Nansel et al, 2001) reported that one out of
four children is bullied, and one out of five
defined himself/ herself as a bully. In all, ap-
proximately 282,000 students are physically
attacked in secondary schools every month. In
the same view. Vail (2002) claimed that many
students avoid public areas of the school such
as the cafeteria and restrooms in an attempt
to elude bullies. For some students, the fear
is so great that they avoid school altogether,
hence everyday approximately 160,000 stu-
dents stay home from school because they
are afraid of being bullied.
Olweus(1993) opined that teenage boys
target boys and girls, teenage girls most
often bully other girls, using more subtle
and indirect forms of aggression than boys.
For example, teenage girls, instead of physi-
cally harming others, they are more likely to
spread gossip or encourage others to reject
or exclude another girl. In addition, a survey
published in "Pediatrics in Review" reveals
that in Norway, 14% of children are either
bullies or victims. In Japan, 15% of primary
school pupils say that they are bullied, while
in Australia and Spain, the problem prevails
among 17% of the students. In Britain, one
expert figures that 1.3 million children are
involved in bullying.
In Israel, Professor Amos Rolider of
Emek Yizre'el College surveyed 2,972 pupils
in 21 schools. According to the Jerusalem
 756/ Journal of Instructional Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 2
post, the professor found that "65% com-
plained of being smacked, kicked, pushed
or molested by fellow pupils" (Anonymous,
2003). Wet (2005) reported that in 1985,
investigation on bullying conducted by the
University of California, Los Angeles, it was
found that 7% of the youths who took part
in the investigation victimized their fellow
learners; 9% indicated that they were victims
of bullies. Furthermore, 6% indicated that
they were victims and bullies. Similarly, in a
Norwegian study, in which 568,000 learners
participated during 1983-1984, it was found
that 9% of the participants were "now and
then" "relatively regularly" or "regularly"
victims of bullying; 7% were found guilty
ofbullying (Olweus, 1994).
According to Limber, Flerx, Nation and
Melton, 1996 (cited in McEachem, Kenny,
Blake & Aluede, 2005), one out of 12 sec-
ondary school children in the Netherlands
is "very regularly" or "regularly" bullied.
Nansel et al (2001) found that 60.9% of
the 207 participants in a research project
in Gauteng indicated that they were bullied
during the 2002 school year. Northmore's
study (as cited in Wet, 2005) of Johannesburg
Centre for School Quality and Improvement
(CSQI) points out that 90% ofthe learners at
a Johannesburg school told CSQI that they
were bullied in the previous year.
In Nigeria, however, there are little or no
adequate statistical facts (as at now) to show
the number of students affected by bullying.
Nevertheless, Umoh (2000) noted that cases
of bullying have been reported in many
schools in Nigeria but that the deviant act is not
usually given the desirable attention. Bullying
has most of the time been ignored by many
teachers, counsellors and school administra-
tors because of its silent but adverse effect.
Some school personnel even see it as not a
serious problem and consequently pay little or
no attention to the behaviour. This lukewarm
attitude promotes the deviant behaviour and
discourages researchers into bullying. This
may be responsible for the paucity of literature
on bullying among secondary school students
in Nigeria ( Asonibare, 1998, as cited in Idowu
&Yahaya,2006).
The Effects of Bullying
Bullying can have devastating effects on
victims. Forthe victims of bullying,they goto
school everyday fearing harassment, taunting
and humiliation. For all potential educators,
it is very important to realize that bullying is
a problem, so that we can work to prevent it
now or in the future (Anonymous, 2005).
There are many repercussions of bul-
lying that are quite shocking. According to
Keriikowske (2003) these include:
(1) Children who are bullied are more
likely to be depressed; 26% of girls who
were frequently bullied reported depression
as opposed to 8% of girls who were not.
Similarly the boys who were bullied and
reported depression were 16% as against 3%
who were not.
(2) Victims are more likely to be sui-
cidal, with 8% for girls and 4% for boys,
compared to 1% overall for non-victims of
bullying.
(3) Bullies are more likely to carry
weapons, with 43% carrying weapons to
school at least once a week, compared to 8%
who were not carrying weapons.
(4) 46% ofbullies are more likely to be
injured while 16% ofbullies are not likely to
be injured.
(5) As one middle-school student ex-
pressed it "there is another kind of violence,
and that is violence by talking. It can leave
you hurting more than a cut with knife. It can
leave you bruised inside" (National Associa-
tion of Attorneys General, 2000).
(6) Students who are targeted by bullies
often have difficulty concentrating on their
school work,and their academicperformance
tends to move from "marginal to poor" (Bal-
lard, Tucky & Remley, 1999). Typically,
bullied students feel anxious, and this anxiety
may in turn produce a variety of physical or
emotional ailments

(7) Rates of absenteeism are higher
among victimized students than rates among
non-bullied peers, as are drop-out rates. Nan-
sel et al (2001) observed that "youths who
are bullied generally show higher levels of
insecurity, anxiety, depression, loneliness,
unhappiness, physical and mental symptoms,
and low-self esteem.
(8) Long - term effects on victims
- persistent bullying during the school years
may have long - term negative effects on the
victims many years beyond school (Olweus,
1993). Chronic bullies seem to maintain their
behaviours into adulthood thus influencing
their ability to develop and maintain posi-
tive relationships (Oliver, Hoover & Hazier,
1994).
(9) Drake (2003) found that victims
of bullies tend to be less popular in school
than other students not involved in bullying.
As a result of being bullied, 16% boys and
31 % girls reported being absent from school
in attempt to avoid being victimized (Rigby,
1997).
(10) Bullying does not just affect the
victim, but it also has consequences for the
bully.First.forthe victim,bullying can cause
physical, academic, social and psychological
problems. Some of the physical symptoms
include headaches and migraines, skin
problems such as eczema, psoriasis, athletes
foot, ulcers, sweating, trembling, shaking,
palpitations and panic attacks, irritable bowel
syndrome, aches and pains in the joints and
muscles; and frequent illness such as viral
infections and second, for the bully, they are
seldom able to conclude friendship, they are
often anti-social adults and the bullying is
sometimes thefirststepping stone to juvenile
crime and criminal activities (Aluede, 2006;
Wet, 2005).
(11) The psychological scars left by bul-
lying often endure for years. For instance,
the feelings of isolation and the loss of self-
esteem that victims experience seem to last
into adulthood (Clarke & Kiselica, 1997).
Bullying ../157
Conclusion
Bully ing is not just isolated behaviour on
the part of its perpetrators; instead it is part of
a more generally anti-social and rule-break-
ing (conduct-disordered) behaviour pattern.
Therefore, students (particularly boys) who
bully others are especially likely to engage
in other anti-social/delinquent behaviours
such as vandalism, shop lifting, truancy and
frequent drug use; and these may continue
into young adulthood.
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