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Vijay2007 MW
Vijay2007 MW
Waldenström macroglobulinemia
Arun Vijay1 and Morie A. Gertz2
1Austin Medical Center–Mayo Health System, Austin, MN; 2Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
In the past 36 months, new developments tion and to elevated IgM levels. The most Studies involving combination chemo-
have occurred both in the understanding common symptom is fatigue attributable therapy are ongoing, and preliminary re-
of the biology of Waldenström macro- to anemia. The prognostic factors predic- sults are encouraging. No specific agent
globulinemia (WM) and in therapeutic op- tive of survival include the patient’s age, or regimen has been shown to be supe-
tions for WM. Here, we review the classifi- 2-microglobulin level, monoclonal pro- rior to another for treatment of WM. Novel
cation, clinical features, and diagnostic tein level, hemoglobin concentration, and agents such as bortezomib, perifosine,
criteria of the disease. WM is a B-cell platelet count. Therapy is postponed for atacicept, oblimersen sodium, and tositu-
neoplasm characterized by lymphoplas- asymptomatic patients, and progressive momab show promise as rational tar-
macytic infiltration of the bone marrow anemia is the most common indication geted therapy for WM. (Blood. 2007;109:
and a monoclonal immunoglobulin M for initiation of treatment. The main thera- 5096-5103)
(IgM) protein. The symptoms of WM are peutic options include alkylating agents,
attributable to the extent of tumor infiltra- nucleoside analogues, and rituximab. © 2007 by The American Society of Hematology
Introduction
Nearly 63 years have passed since Jan Gosta Waldenström first plasmacytic lymphoma (LPL) and designated LPL/WM in the
described 2 patients with oronasal bleeding, lymphadenopathy, anemia Revised European-American Lymphoma5 and World Health Orga-
and thrombocytopenia, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, high nization (WHO)6 classifications. The consensus group at the
serum viscosity, normal bone radiographs, and bone marrow showing Second International Workshop on WM in 20027 redefined WM as
predominantly lymphoid cells.1 At a time when paper electrophoresis a distinct clinicopathologic entity characterized by bone marrow
was unheard of, he attributed hyperviscosity symptoms to an abnormal infiltration by LPL and IgM monoclonal gammopathy.
high-molecular-weight serum protein. These preliminary observations
proved to be the cornerstones of the widely recognized but relatively
uncommon diagnosis of Waldenström macroglobulinemia (WM). Incidence
The abnormal high-molecular-weight serum protein subsequently
was shown to be monoclonal immunoglobulin M (IgM). WM has an overall incidence of approximately 3 per million
persons per year, accounting for approximately 1% to 2% of
hematologic cancers.8,9 The incidence of WM is higher among
Definition and pathology whites, with blacks representing only 5% of all patients.10 In large
series of patients, the median age varies between 63 and 68 years,
WM is a malignant lymphoplasmo-proliferative disorder with with 55% to 70% men.11 WM remains incurable, and most patients
monoclonal pentameric IgM production. The most consistent die of disease progression, with a median survival of 5 years.12
feature of the bone marrow or lymph nodes of patients with WM is Because of the late age of presentation of WM, half of the patients
the presence of pleomorphic B-lineage cells at different stages of succumb to causes unrelated to WM.
maturation, such as small lymphocytes, lymphoplasmacytoid cells
(abundant basophilic cytoplasm but lymphocyte-like nuclei), and
plasma cells.2 Bone marrow is infiltrated in a predominantly Etiology and predisposing factors
intertrabecular pattern. A significant increase in the number of mast
cells has been noted in bone marrow biopsies of WM patients.3 WM is believed to be predominantly a sporadic disease. Its cause is
Bone marrow mast cells of WM patients overexpress the CD40 unknown, but various reports of multigenerational clustering and
ligand (CD154), which is a potent inducer of B-cell expansion. familial patterns indicate the possible role of a single genetic
defect.13 Treon et al14 analyzed 257 consecutive and unrelated
patients with WM: 48 (18.7%) had at least 1 first-degree relative
Classification with either WM or another B-cell disorder. Moreover, patients with
a familial history of WM or a plasma cell disorder received the
WM was initially defined in broad terms with the Kiel classifica- diagnosis at a younger age and with greater bone marrow involve-
tion4 as a lymphoma of Ig-secreting cells, often associated with a ment. Deletions in 6q21-22.1 were confirmed in most WM patients
paraproteinemia. Subsequently, WM was combined with lympho- regardless of family history. In short, a high degree of clustering of
B-cell disorders was seen among first-degree relatives of patients critical for maintenance of normal B-cell development and ho-
with WM. meostasis.33,34 It is overexpressed in various B-cell malignancies
The main risk factor for the development of WM is pre-existing and has been shown to inhibit apoptosis in malignant B cells.
IgM–monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance Moreover, in a study by Elsawa et al,35 lymphoplasmacytic cell
(MGUS) (46 times higher relative risk than for the general infiltrates in the bone marrow of patients with WM stained positive
population).15 Morra et al16 showed a progressive increase in the for BLyS expression, and serum BLyS levels in patients with WM
risk of transformation from asymptomatic IgM-MGUS to symptom- were significantly higher than in healthy controls. Because of the
atic WM, with increasing IgM levels. role of BLyS in WM, strategies to inhibit BLyS potentially may
A possible association between hepatitis C virus and WM had have therapeutic efficacy.
been suggested,17 but this has been negated recently by Leleu et TACI (transmembrane activator and calcium-modulator and
al.18 Reports of links between human herpesvirus-8 and WM are cyclophilin ligand interactor), a TNF-receptor family member
unconfirmed. expressed on B lymphocytes, has been shown to have a high
affinity for APRIL (a proliferation-inducing ligand) and BLyS.36
Mutations in TACI signaling are commonly seen in common
Origin variable immune deficiency. In WM, IgG and IgA hypogamma-
globulinemia are more prevalent among cases with mutations in the
The origin of the B-cell clone has been long debated. Distinct TACI signaling process.37
B-cell subsets have been demonstrated in the bone marrow, Abnormal expression of hyaluronan synthases (HASs) has
marginal zone of the spleen and lymph nodes, and circulating in the been reported as a possible pathogenetic factor in WM.38
peripheral blood.19 Analysis of 14q32 by fluorescence in situ Hyaluronan has a role in malignant cell migration and metasta-
hybridization (FISH) and Southern blot indicates the absence of Ig sis. Of the 3 HAS isoenzymes detected in humans, Adamia et
heavy chain (IgH) rearrangements in WM.20 Postswitch clonotypic al38 postulated that overexpressed HAS1 and HAS3 form a
Ig (IgG or IgA) is undetectable in WM B cells, confirming the hyaluronan matrix around WM cells, thereby preventing their
absence of isotype switch events by deletional recombination.21-23 elimination by the immune system and promoting spread of the
With the use of variable region (V) gene analysis, evidence shows disease. A later report stated that a single nucleotide polymor-
that VH genes are somatically mutated in WM. Most WM VDJ phism in the HAS1 gene resulted in an enhanced risk of WM
sequences from the VH3/JH4 gene families are hypermutated and development.39 These findings are important considering that
lack intraclonal heterogeneity.21,23 In contrast, one case has been serum hyaluronan levels have been shown to have prognostic
reported in which WM cells have shown functional class switch value in multiple myeloma.
recombination.24 This favors the hypothesis that WM cells have Serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels have been reported to reflect
normal class switch recombination machinery but defective initia- disease severity and high tumor burden in patients with WM. It has
tion of the switching process. also been shown that clonal blood B cells from patients with WM
spontaneously differentiate in vitro to plasma cells through an IL-6
pathway. These findings suggest that IL-6 may be a marker
Cytogenetic abnormalities reflecting tumor burden and response to treatment in WM.40
5098 VIJAY AND GERTZ BLOOD, 15 JUNE 2007 䡠 VOLUME 109, NUMBER 12
expresses plasma cell antigens CD38 and CD138, which are absent Table 2. Diagnostic approach to confirm a suspected case of
in WM. IgH gene translocations are more common in IgM-MM,67 Waldenström macroglobulinemia
particularly t(11;14)(q13;q32). 1. Serum protein electrophoresis.
B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) may mimic WM 2. Immunofixation—to characterize the type of light and heavy chains.
3. 24-Hour urine collection for protein electrophoresis—40%-80% have detectable
clinically. The most common physical finding in CLL is lymphad-
Bence Jones proteinuria.
enopathy. Morphology and immunophenotyping are adequate to
4. Serum 2-microglobulin—for prognostic evaluation.
diagnose CLL. Lymphocytes are typically small and mature, 5. Bone marrow biopsy—intratrabecular monoclonal lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate,
without visible nucleoli, and smudge cells are characteristic.68 The ranging from predominantly lymphocytic to lymphoplasmacytic to overt plasma
lymphocytes in CLL are positive for CD5 and CD23, whereas both cells.
are usually negative in WM. The presence of strong cytoplasmic Ig 6. Cytogenetic studies—optional.
in WM also helps in making the distinction.6 Patients with CLL 7. Computed tomography of the abdomen and pelvis—to detect organomegaly and
frequently have IgM-MGUS.69 lymphadenopathy. (Skeletal surveys and bone scans are not necessary in
The evolution of WM to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma absence of symptoms, since lytic bone lesions are unusual.)
(DLBCL) as a result of histologic transformation has been de- 8. Blood or serum viscosity—if signs and symptoms of hyperviscosity syndrome are
present or IgM ⬎ 5000.
scribed.70 Onset of DLBCL is usually characterized by an aggres-
sive clinical course and usually manifests as worsening constitu-
tional symptoms, profound cytopenias, extramedullary disease, and
organomegaly. It is also associated with a poor outcome. The
clinicopathologic features at diagnosis of WM do not predict the
risk of DLBCL.70 Ig light chain expression is usually identical in characteristic except age; high risk, as the presence of more than 2
WM and DLBCL. adverse characteristics; the remaining patients with 2 adverse
characteristics or older than 65 years had intermediate risk.
Diagnosis
Treatment
In practice, a surface IgM-positive CD5⫺CD10⫺CD19⫹CD20⫹
CD23⫺ immunophenotype in association with a nonparatrabecular The aim of treatment is to improve the quality and duration of life
pattern of infiltration is diagnostic of WM.41,71 The diagnostic with minimal adverse effects in the most cost-effective manner.
criteria as stated by Owen71 are summarized in Table 1. The various Whether achievement of complete remission confers clinical
diagnostic studies required in daily practice for suspected cases of benefit is still debatable.
WM are summarized in Table 2.
Whom to treat
5100 VIJAY AND GERTZ BLOOD, 15 JUNE 2007 䡠 VOLUME 109, NUMBER 12
common complication of therapy with alkylating agents is develop- syndrome and found to be more potent and also to lack the
ment of myelodysplasia and acute nonlymphocytic leukemia from neurotoxic and prothrombotic adverse effects of thalidomide.115
therapy-induced chromosomal breakage.95 Cladribine (0.1 mg/kg) High-dose chemoradiotherapy with autologous stem cell transplan-
has shown response rates in the range of 44% to 90%.79,96-98 tation is occasionally used, but the number of patients treated to
Response rates to fludarabine (30 mg/m2) as initial therapy range date is inadequate to assess its overall role in management.
from 38% to 100%.80,99-102 Fludarabine and cladribine are cross- Pentostatin is useful for patients who may benefit from high-dose
resistant.96 The principal dose-limiting toxicity of both these agents chemotherapy with autologous stem cell transplantation.93,116 Non-
is bone marrow suppression and immunosuppression, predisposing myeloablative allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation
patients to infections. Response rates to rituximab (375 mg/m2) may be a promising alternative in patients with refractory dis-
vary between 20% and 50%.81,103-107 Rituximab may be regarded as ease.117 Splenectomy is rarely indicated, but limited case reports
a reasonable choice for treating patients with IgM autoantibody- suggest that it may be helpful for managing symptomatic painful
related neuropathies.108 Patients with polyneuropathy associated splenomegaly and hypersplenism.108
with anti-MAG antibodies treated with high-dose rituximab have The Third International Workshop on WM76 consensus panel
shown clinical improvement as well as improvement of nerve concluded that it was not possible to delineate a particular
conduction velocities and decreased anti-MAG antibody titers.109 first-line therapeutic agent and that the choice must be made
Polymorphisms in the Fc␥RIIIA (CD16) receptor gene may affect based on individual patient considerations. Alkylating agents
response to rituximab.110 Transient increases in IgM titers have deplete stem cells and hence should not be used among
been reported in 54% of patients after initiation of rituximab patients who may be eligible for autologous transplantation. The
therapy. These levels may persist for up to 4 months and do not results of ongoing studies will help determine the role of
indicate treatment failure, but they may necessitate plasmapheresis allogeneic or nonmyeloablative allogeneic transplantation in the
to reduce hyperviscosity, which may result in the loss of the treatment of WM.
therapeutic antibody.111,112 Patients who had initial IgM flares had
poorer response rates than those who did not (28% vs 80%).111
Because several cell cycle regulators and modulators of apopto- Novel advances
sis are degraded through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, protea-
some inhibitors such as bortezomib have become the focus of Other therapeutic options currently being evaluated for WM
clinical research in WM. Chen et al113 described 27 patients in include oblimersen sodium (BCL-2 antisense oligonucleotide),118
whom bortezomib was found to be active in WM; 21 patients had 131I-tositumomab,119 imatinib mesylate (targets signaling through
more than a 25% decrease in IgM. the stem cell factor and platelet-derived growth factor receptors on
Experience with the use of thalidomide in WM, as a single agent WM and mast cells), and dolastatin (microtubule inhibitor).
or in combination with dexamethasone or clarithromycin, is Dimopoulos et al120 showed that a combination of dexametha-
limited. Thalidomide is nonmyelosuppressive, immunomodula- sone, rituximab, and cyclophosphamide is an active and well-
tory, and antiangiogenic and may be a reasonable choice for (1) tolerated treatment for symptomatic patients requiring therapy.
patients for whom first-line therapies have failed, (2) those who Disease control was achieved in the majority of patients without the
have had disease relapse and are not candidates for alkylating or risks of myelosuppression and immunosuppression, which may
nucleoside analog therapy, or (3) patients with pancytopenia.114 occur when nucleoside analogues are used. The interim results of a
Lenalidomide has been studied in MM and myelodysplastic study by Treon et al121 suggest that a combination regimen of
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bortezomib, dexamethasone, and rituximab is highly active and sion was suppressed in more than half the patients. After 3 months
well tolerated in the primary treatment of WM. of therapy, 63% showed a significant decrease in IgM levels and
One pathway that conveys survival signals in mammalian 17% showed a minor response. These results encourage additional
cells is based on phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt. Akt is a clinical trials.
principal signaling protein in the cellular pathways that leads to
muscle hypertrophy and tissue growth. This pathway also has an
important role in the migration, adhesion, and homing of WM in Conclusion
vitro and in vivo.122 Akt inhibitors such as perifosine lower the
resistance of tumor cells to various therapeutic modalities and WM is a B-cell neoplasm characterized by lymphoplasmacytic
induce apoptosis in WM. Perifosine also activates mitogen- infiltration of the bone marrow and elevated serum monoclonal
activated protein kinase pathways and protein kinase C proteins, IgM levels. The symptoms of WM are attributable to the extent
thereby promoting cell proliferation. Specific Akt inhibitors of tumor infiltration and/or elevated IgM levels. The prognostic
such as triciribine induce cytotoxicity without enhancing MEK/ factors of significance include the patient’s age, 2-microglobu-
ERK (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular sig- lin level, monoclonal protein level, hemoglobin concentration,
nal-regulated kinase) activity. Combining perifosine with MEK and platelet count. Therapy is reserved exclusively for symptom-
inhibitors or protein kinase C inhibitors such as AZD6244 and atic patients; the main therapeutic options include alkylating
enzastaurin may provide therapeutic advantages in WM. Perifos- agents, nucleoside analogues, and rituximab. Preliminary results
ine in combination with bortezomib, rituximab, and other agents of ongoing studies involving combination chemotherapy are
has been shown to have enhanced cytotoxicity on WM cell encouraging. At present, no specific agent or regimen is superior
lines.123 Additional clinical trials are required to establish the to another in the treatment of WM. Other novel agents are being
efficacy and safety of such combinations. investigated; their unique mechanisms of action and toxicity
Rossi et al124 reported a phase 1/2 study of atacicept profiles hold promise in the development of rational targeted
(TACI-Ig) in refractory WM. Atacicept acts as a decoy receptor therapy in WM.
by binding to and neutralizing soluble BLyS and APRIL, and
preventing these TNF family members from binding to their
cognate receptors (TACI, BCMA, and BAFF-R) on B-cell Acknowledgments
tumors, thereby enhancing cytotoxicity. Mast cells may have a
role in tumor cell expansion through constitutive CD154-CD40 Editing, proofreading, and reference verification were provided by
signaling; therefore, CD154 blocking agents may prove to be a the Section of Scientific Publications, Mayo Clinic.
therapeutic option in WM.3 Ho et al125 described the role of
sCD27 in the pathogenesis of WM and demonstrated the
feasibility of targeting CD70 and sCD27-CD70 interactions Authorship
with the SGN-70 monoclonal antibody.
WM cells in the bone marrow and mast cells express CD52. In a Contribution: A.V. and M.A.G. contributed to concept and design,
phase 2 study by Hunter et al,126 alemtuzumab (humanized acquisition of data, and analysis and interpretation of data.
monoclonal antibody against CD52) has been reported to be highly Conflict-of-interest disclosure: The authors declare no compet-
active in WM. Sildenafil citrate has been shown to induce apoptosis ing financial interests.
in WM cell lines.127 In a prospective study,128 30 patients with Correspondence: Morie A. Gertz, Division of Hematology,
slowly progressing WM who did not meet consensus eligibility for Mayo Clinic, 200 First St SW, Rochester, MN 55905; e-mail:
active therapy were treated with sildenafil citrate; disease progres- gertz.morie@mayo.edu.
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Waldenström macroglobulinemia
Arun Vijay and Morie A. Gertz
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