PHOTOSYNTHESIS

What exactly is Photosynthesis?

• It is a biological process that:

–Converts sunlight energy into stored
chemical energy
–Makes carbon compounds that can
be broken down for energy or used to
build tissue.
–Endergonic and anabolic
 energy
input
C6H12O6 + O2
(glucose) (oxygen)
6 CO2 + 6 H2O
(carbon (water)
dioxide)

Photosynthesis takes in energy and uses it to build

carbon compounds.
 Energy is
Oxygen is
captured
from
released. This diagram shows that
sunlight. photosynthesis is an endergonic
reaction because it takes in energy.

Carbon dioxide Sugar is

synthesized plant
is absorbed photosynthesis tissues,
from the air. and used in
plant tissues. growth

Carbon for making carbon

compounds comes from the
atmosphere.

Water is absorbed
from soil, used in Inorganic mineral nutrients
photosynthesis, and (nitrate, phosphate) are
stored in cells. absorbed from soil and
used in plant tissues.

Oxygen, hydrogen, and minerals are

needed also. Oxygen and hydrogen come
from water. Minerals comes from the soil
• ALL plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as are
some bacteria and protists
– Autotrophs generate their own organic matter through
photosynthesis
– Sunlight energy (light energy) is transformed to energy
stored in the form of chemical bonds (chemical energy)
of a carbohydrate.

(c) Euglena (d) Cyanobacteria

(b) Kelp
(a) Mosses, ferns, and
flowering plants
•Prokaryotes
•Prokaryotes have both anoxygenic and oxygenic
photosynthesis
•Cyanobacteria have oxygenic
-Photosynthesis on thylakoids (from plasma
membrane)

•Eukaryotes
•Oxygenic only
•Takes place in chloroplasts
Stromatolites – ecosystem remains of ancient
cyanobacteria, the first photosynthetic organisms
 WHY IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
SO IMPORTANT?
PHOTOSYNTHESIS is one of the most
important biological process on earth!
• Provides the oxygen we breathe
• Consumes much of the CO2
• Food-production of producers
• Energy source
• Fibers and materials
 PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
major source of energy
• Light moves in waves, in energy units
called PHOTONS

• Energy of a PHOTON is inversely

proportional to its wavelength

• Visible light (between UV and IR) occurs

in a spectrum of colors
Visible light contains just the right amount
of energy for biological reactions
Light (photon) is absorbed by
pigments
WHY ARE PLANTS GREEN?
Plant Cells
have Green
Chloroplasts

The thylakoid
membrane of the
chloroplast contains
photosynthetic
pigments (i.e.,
chlorophylls,
carotenoids).
• The primary pigment for photosynthesis is
chlorophyll a
• It absorbs blue and red light, not green
(green light is reflected back, therefore
leaves appear green)

Absorption spectrum
of chlorophyll a
• Absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a:
BLUE & RED
• Action spectrum of photosynthesis
closely matches absorption spectrum of
chlorophyll a, but not perfectly (due to
accessory pigments)
 Reflected
Light light

Absorbed
light

Transmitted Chloroplast
light
Accessory pigments are the carotenoid group (beta-
carotene, lycopene, & xanthophylls):
• absorb light at different wavelengths, (extending the
absorption range)
• help transfer some energy to chlorophyll a
• protect cell from harmful byproducts
Chlorophyll a (and b) are the
primary photosynthetic pigments
that drives photosynthesis.

Accessory pigments absorb at

different wavelengths,
extending the range of light
useful for photosynthesis.
Where does photosynthesis
occur?
Internal leaf structure

cuticle
upper
epidermis

mesophyll
cells

lower
epidermis

chloroplasts
stoma
vascular bundle bundle
(vein) sheath
Mesophyll Cells
 Chloroplast

outer membrane

inner membrane

Grana thylakoid
(stacks)
Lumen stroma
(inside
thylakoid)

channel
interconnecting
thylakoids
 Chlorophyll Molecules
• Located in the thylakoid membranes
• Chlorophyll have Mg+ in the center
• A chlorophyll molecule has a hydrophobic "tail"
that embeds the molecule into the thylakoid
membrane.
• The "head" of a chlorophyll molecule is a ring
called a porphyrin.
• The porphyrin ring of chlorophyll, which has a
magnesium atom at its center, is the part of a
chlorophyll molecule that absorbs light energy.
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 Stomata
Openings (pores) in a plant’s cuticle through which
water vapor and gases (CO2 & O2) are exchanged
between the plant and the atmosphere.

Oxygen
Stomata (O2)

Guard Cell Guard Cell

Carbon Dioxide
(CO2)

Found on the underside of leaves

Important to Remember
 Redox Reaction
The transfer of one or more
electrons from one reactant to
another.
Two types:
1. Oxidation is the loss of
hydrogen e-
2. Reduction is the gain of
hydrogen e-
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 Oxidation Reaction
The loss of hydrogen atoms
(electrons) from a substance
or the gain of oxygen.

Oxidation

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

glucose
Carbon Oxygen
Water
dioxide

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 Reduction Reaction
The gain of hydrogen atoms
(electrons) to a substance or
the loss of oxygen.

Reduction

6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

glucose

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 Structure of ATP
• ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate
• It is composed of the nitrogen base
ADENINE, the pentose (5C) sugar
RIBOSE, and three PHOSPHATE
groups
• The LAST phosphate group is bonded
with a HIGH ENERGY chemical bond
• This bond can be BROKEN to release
ENERGY for CELLS to use
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 Removing a Phosphate from
ATP
Breaking the LAST PHOSPHATE
bond from ATP, will ---
– Release ENERGY for cells to use
– Form ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
– Produce a FREE PHOSPHATE
GROUP

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High Energy Phosphate Bond

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FREE PHOSPHATE can be re-attached to ADP
reforming ATP
Process called Phosphorylation

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Phosphorylation

32
 What is NADP?
• Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Phosphate Hydrogen
• A coenzyme, used to donate electrons
and hydrogen ions to reactions catalyzed
by some enzymes.
• enzymes involved in anabolic pathways
that create large molecules use NADPH
• enzymes involved in the catabolic
pathways use the NADH.
 PHOTOSYSTEMS
-Photosynthetic unit where solar energy
is absorbed and high-energy electrons
are generated
-Contains pigment complex
(chlorophyll a & b & carotenoids) and
an electron acceptor
-Occurs as PSI (photosystem I) and
PSII (photosystem II)
 Electron Transport
Chain
- Passage of electrons along a series of
electron carriers from a higher to lower
energy level, to release energy
-The energy released is used for the
synthesis of ATP
Photosynthesis
Process
Light Dependent Reaction
Light Independent Reaction
(Calvin Cycle)
Overview of photosynthesis:
Note: The Light and Carbon reactions
happen at different sites in the
chloroplast
H2O CO2

LIGHT ATP CARBON

light REACTIONS REACTIONS
(Thylakoids) NADPH (Stroma)

(ENERGY)

O2 C6H12O6
(OXYGEN GAS) (GLUCOSE)
 Two Parts of Photosynthesis
Light Reaction or Light Dependent Reaction
• Produces energy from solar power
(photons)
• The light reactions convert solar energy to
chemical energy
– Produce ATP & NADPH
2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 3 ADP + 3 Pi

O2 + 2 NADPH + 3 ATP + 4 e- + 2 H+ gas

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 1.) Light energy is “captured”
and “absorbed” in PSII.
energy from - photon is passed from one
sunlight pigment to another until it is
concentrated in a particular pair
O2 CO2 of chlorophyll a molecules,
called the reaction center.

ATP 2.) PSII splits water (hydrolysis)

- Electrons in the reaction center
NADPH of PSII become so energized
Light-dependent that they escape and move to a
reactions are nearby electron-acceptor
associated with Light-
thylakoids. independent molecule.
reactions - Replacement electrons are
(C3 cycle) occur
ADP in stroma. removed from water, splitting
NADP+
and releasing oxygen and two
H2 O hydrogen ions (H+).
- electron acceptor sends
chloroplast energized electrons in an
electron transport chain
G3P
 3.) Electron Transport Chain
- A series of carriers pass
energy from
sunlight
electrons from one to another,
releasing energy that is stored
O2 in the form of hydrogen ion (H+)
CO2
gradient.

ATP 4.) PSI produces NADPH

- PSI pigment complex absorbs
NADPH solar energy, energized
Light-dependent electrons leave its reaction
reactions are center (later replaced by
associated with Light-
thylakoids. independent electrons from the ETC of PSII)
reactions - Energized electrons are
(C3 cycle) occur
ADP in stroma. captured by a different electron
NADP+
acceptor
H2 O - Electron acceptor in PSI
passes its electrons to NADP
chloroplast molecule to form NADPH

G3P
 ATP Production
• Thylakoid space acts as a reservoir of
hydrogen ions
• *every hydrolysis – 2 H+ molecule remain in
the thylakoid space
• As electrons move from carrier to carrier
(ETC), the electrons give up energy
• This energy is used to pump H+ from the
stroma INTO the thylakoid
• A hydrogen gradient exists containing large
amount of potential energy
 ATP Production
• The H+ ions now FLOW DOWN their
concentration gradient, across the thylakoid
membrane at the ATP synthase complex and
energy is RELEASED.
• This release of energy powers the change in
shape of the ATP Synthase enzyme to
produce ATP from ADP + P
(Phosphorylation).
ATP Production
 Chemical energy compounds
made in the light reactions

ADP + Pi + Energy  ATP

adenosine inorganic adenosine
diphosphate phosphate triphosphate

NADP+ + 2e- + H+  NADPH

Nicotinamide adenin dinucleotide phosphate
 Sequence of events in the Light Reactions

STROMA

NADP+ + H+
NADPH ADP + Pi
ATP

PS II e PS I ATPS
-

H+

2 H2 O
O2 + 4 H+

(gas) (protons)

LUMEN (inside thylakoid)

 Summary of the Light reactions

2 H2O + 2 NADP+ + 3 ADP + 3 Pi

O2 + 2 NADPH + 3 ATP + 4 e- + 2 H+
(gas)

Light reactions: Chemical energy compounds

are made from light energy, water is split into
O2 and protons
LIGHT INDEPENDENT
REACTION
 Calvin- Benson-Bassham
Cycle
• Carbon Fixation (light independent
reaction)
• C3 plants (80% of plants on earth)
• Occurs in the stroma of chloroplast
• Uses ATP and NADPH from light
reaction as energy
• Uses CO2
• To produce glucose: it takes 6
turns and uses 18 ATP and 12
NADPH.
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 RuBP & RuBisCO
What is RuBP?
• Ribulose biphosphate
• 5-carbon compound involved in Calvin Cycle
What is RuBisCO? (RuBP carboxylase)
• An enzyme present in the chloroplast
involved in fixing atmospheric CO2 during
photosynthesis and in oxygenation of the
resulting compound during photorespiration.
 Calvin- Benson-Bassham
Cycle
• Discovered by MELVIN CALVIN and
colleagues.
• He used the radioactive isotope 14C
as a tracer to discover the reactions
that make up this cycle
• Consists of three steps: Carbon
dioxide fixation , Carbon dioxide
reduction, & regeneration of the first
substrate RuBP
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 Key Molecules of the Clavin
Cycle
• RuBP – ribulose 1,5-
biphosphate
• 3PG – 3-
phosphoglycerate
• G3P – glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate

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 Carbon Reactions
• 1. Light independent Occur in the stroma
of chloroplasts
2. Use the chemical energy produced in Light
Reactions (ATP; NADPH) to reduce CO2 to
carbohydrate (sugar).

4. CO2 is converted to sugar by entering the

Calvin Cycle
1.) Carbon dioxide Fixation
- CO2 in the atmosphere enters
the leaves thru the stomata
- It attaches to RuBP molecule
catalyzed by RuBisCo resulting
to 6-carbon molecule that splits
into 3-carbon molecules (3PG).
2.) Carbon dioxide Reduction
- Electrons are added and
carbon dioxide is reduced to a
carbohydrate
2 3PG 3-carbon molecule is reduced into
another 3-C molecule called G3P
(carbohydrate)
Each G3P gains a phosphate from a
molecule of ATP
This compound receives a proton (H+)
from NADPH, then releases the
phosphate group.
The resulting NADP+, ADP and
phosphate go back to the thylakoid (for
light reaction)
3.) Regeneration of RuBP
Most of the G3P is converted
back to RuBP by using up a
phosphate from ATP, making
ADP
So RuBP actually begins and
ends the Calvin Cycle.
 How Many?
• G3P is a 3-C molecule, and one
turn of the Calvin cycle fixes one
carbon, so it takes 3 turns of the
cycle to make 1 G3P.
• For 3 turns, 9 molecules of ATP
and 6 molecules of NADPH are
used.
 Where’d that other Carbon go
• Some G3P and other molecules
made in the Calvin cycle are used
to make amino acids, lipids, and
carbohydrates.
• Carbohydrates include glucose,
fructose, sucrose, glycogen,
starch, and cellulose.
 Rate of Photosynthesis
• Rate is affected by the environment
• As light intensity increases, the rate
increases then levels off.
• As temperature increases, the rate
increases, hits a peak, then declines.
• As CO2 levels increase, the rate
increases then levels off
 Conclusion of Calvin Cycle
• Location – Stroma, fluid in the chloroplast
surrounding the Thylakoid membranes
• Function – produce carbohydrates,
(glucose)
• Reactants – Carbon Dioxide, RuBP, ATP
and NADPH+
• Products – Glucose, ADP and NADP-
 Photorespiration
• Occurs on hot, dry, bright days
• Stomates close
• Fixation of O2 instead of CO2
• Produces 2-C molecules instead of
3-C sugar molecules
• Produces no sugar molecules or no
ATP

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 Photorespiration
Because of photorespiration, plants
have special adaptations to limit
the effect of photorespiration:
1. C4 plants
2. CAM plants

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 C4 Plants
• Hot, moist
environments
• 15% of plants
(grasses, corn,
sugarcane)
• Photosynthesis
occurs in 2 places
• Light reaction -
mesophyll cells
• Calvin cycle - bundle
sheath cells
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 CAM Plants
• Hot, dry environments
• 5% of plants (cactus and ice
plants)
• Stomates closed during day
• Stomates open during the night
• Light reaction - occurs during
the day
• Calvin Cycle - occurs when CO2 is
present
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