Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Constant term is there to provide for flexibility of the shape (position) of the
regression line. Suppose the correct regression model is:
lnW i = 0 + 1 S i + i
lnW i = 1 S i + i
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
S
Suppressing the constant is that the slope coefficient estimates are biased. Also,
Var ( ˆ1 ) = 2
2
*
S i
Var ( ˆ1 ) = 2
2
s i
n n n n
Include the constant term if data are not in the neighborhood of the origin.
Unless you have strong reason, do not suppress the constant term. Although the
constant term is important from the specification view point, it should NOT be
relied on for purposes of interpretation and analysis.
Y i = X i 1 e i
which we can express as a linear (in logs) regression model by taking natural
logarithms of both sides:
lnY i = 0 + 1 lnX i + i
where 'ln' denotes the natural log, ‘e’ is the natural number (i.e., e = 2.71828)
and
0 = ln
The model is linear in the logarithms, even though it was originally nonlinear in
terms of both the variables and parameters. Also referred to as a Double-Log or
Log-Log model.
If the classical assumptions are fulfilled, then we can estimate the parameters
using OLS by letting:
Y i = 0 + 1 X i + i
* *
where:
* *
Y i = lnY i X i = lnX i
The estimates are BLUE. This is useful specification for a regression model,
because the slope coefficient can be interpreted as an ‘elasticity’. Using
calculus:
dY / Y dY X % Y
= = = 1
dX / X dX Y % X
(.0152) (.0494)
The price elasticity is -0.253, implying that for a 1% increase in the price of
coffee, the quantity of coffee demanded (as measured by cups consumed each
day) decreases by 0.253%.
i
W i = Y 0 e 1S i e
Numerical example:
(.339) (.009)
This model can produce slopes that changes as the independent variable
changes.
dEarningsi
= 1 2 2 Agei
dAgei
W t = 0 + 1/Ut + t
This model can produce slopes that changes as the independent variable
changes.
dWt 2
= 1 /U t
dU t
Suppose we estimate:
lnW i = 0 + 1 S i + i
The rate of return is just the partial derivative of the regression function:
lnW i
= 1 2 2 S i
Si
Thus, we'd get a biased estimate of the overall rate of return to education, if we
ignored the fact that it's a linear function of the level of education. The SRF is a
biased estimate of the PRF, because the wrong functional form was adopted
from the outset.
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
S
Dummy variables are 'discrete' and 'qualitative' (e.g., male or female, in the
labour force or not, working under a collective or individual employment
contract, renting or owning your home). Units of measurement are
‘meaningless’. Normally 1 is assigned to the presence of some characteristic or
attribute; 0 for the absence of that characteristic or attribute.
No special estimation issues as long as the regression meets the all the classical
assumptions. Only the nature of the independent variables has changed.
E ( Y i | S i , Gi = 1 ) = 0 + 1 S i + 2
= ( 0 + 2 ) + 1 Si
Since E( i | Si, Gi)=0. Testing for discrimination (i.e., H0: β2=0) is a test for a
difference in the intercept terms.
Watch for the Dummy Variable Trap: Suppose we estimate the following:
Y i = 0 + 1 Si + 2 Fi + 3 M i + i
The problem is that the two dummies are a linear function of the constant (i.e.,
Fi+Mi = 1). Perfect multicollinearity. Violates Assumption (6). We’ll see in
Ch8 that the estimated coefficients and their standard errors can’t be computed.
Rule of Thumb: If you have 'm' categories, then use 'm-1' dummies.
Y i = 0 + 1 S i + 2 Gi + 3 Gi S i + i
E ( Y i | S i , Gi = 0 ) = 0 + 1 S i
E ( Y i | S i , Gi = 1 ) = ( 0 + 2 ) + ( 1 + 3 ) S i
We now have both a 'composite' intercept term and slope coefficient for male.
Plot the residuals and look for 'distinct pattern'. If there is a systematic pattern
between ei and Xi, a different function form is called for. If there is a systematic
pattern between ei and a dummy variable, a dummy variable is needed.