Modeling with Differential

1.1 Equations

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Modeling with Differential Equations
The mathematical model often takes the form of a
differential equation, that is, an equation that contains an
unknown function and some of its derivatives.

This is not surprising because in a real-world problem we

often notice that changes occur and we want to predict
future behavior on the basis of how current values change.

Let’s begin by examining several examples of how

differential equations arise when we model physical
phenomena.

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Models of Population Growth

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Models of Population Growth
One model for the growth of a population is based on the
assumption that the population grows at a rate proportional
to the size of the population.

That is a reasonable assumption for a population of

bacteria or animals under ideal conditions (unlimited
environment, adequate nutrition, absence of predators,
immunity from disease).

Let’s identify and name the variables in this model:

t = time (the independent variable)

P = the number of individuals in the population

(the dependent variable) 4
Models of Population Growth
The rate of growth of the population is the derivative dP/dt.
So our assumption that the rate of growth of the population
is proportional to the population size is written as the
equation

where k is the proportionality constant. Equation 1 is our

first model for population growth; it is a differential equation
because it contains an unknown function P and its
derivative dP/dt.

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Models of Population Growth
Having formulated a model, let’s look at its consequences.
If we rule out a population of 0, then P(t) > 0 for all t. So, if
k > 0, then Equation 1 shows that P′(t) > 0 for all t.

This means that the population is always increasing. In

fact, as P(t) increases, Equation 1 shows that dP/dt
becomes larger.

In other words, the growth rate increases as the population

increases.

Let’s try to think of a solution of Equation 1. This equation

asks us to find a function whose derivative is a constant
multiple of itself.
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Models of Population Growth
We know that exponential functions have that property. In
fact, if we let P(t) = Cekt, then

P′(t) = C(kekt) = k(Cekt) = kP(t)

Thus any exponential function of the form P(t) = Cekt is a

solution of Equation 1.

Allowing C to vary through all the

real numbers, we get the family of
solutions P(t) = Cekt whose graphs
are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1

The family of solutions of dP/dt = kP

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Models of Population Growth
But populations have only positive values and so we are
interested only in the solutions with C > 0. And we are
probably concerned only with values of t greater than the
initial time t = 0. Figure 2 shows the physically meaningful
solutions.

Figure 2

The family of solutions of P(t) = Ce kt with C > 0 and t ≥ 0

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Models of Population Growth
Putting t = 0, we get P(0) = Cek(0) = C, so the constant C
turns out to be the initial population, P(0).

Equation 1 is appropriate for modeling population growth

under ideal conditions, but we have to recognize that a
more realistic model must reflect the fact that a given
environment has limited resources.

Many populations start by increasing in an exponential

manner, but the population levels off when it approaches its
carrying capacity M (or decreases toward M if it ever
exceeds M).
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Models of Population Growth
For a model to take into account both trends, we make two
assumptions:

if P is small (Initially, the growth rate is

proportional to P.)

if P > M (P decreases if it ever exceeds M.)

A simple expression that incorporates both assumptions is

given by the equation

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Models of Population Growth
Notice that if P is small compared with M, then P/M is close
to 0 and so dP/dt ≈ kP. If P > M, then 1 – P/M is negative
and so dP/dt < 0.

Equation 2 is called the logistic differential equation and

was proposed by the Dutch mathematical biologist
Pierre-François Verhulst in the 1840s as a model for world
population growth.

We first observe that the constant functions P(t) = 0 and

P(t) = M are solutions because, in either case, one of the
factors on the right side of Equation 2 is zero. These two
constant solutions are called equilibrium solutions.
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Models of Population Growth
If the initial population P(0) lies between 0 and M, then the
right side of Equation 2 is positive, so dP/dt > 0 and the
population increases. But if the population exceeds the
carrying capacity (P > M), then 1 – P/M is negative, so
dP/dt < 0 and the population decreases.

Notice that, in either case, if the population approaches the

carrying capacity (P → M), then dP/dt → 0, which means
the population levels off.

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Models of Population Growth
So we expect that the solutions of the logistic differential
equation have graphs that look something like the ones in
Figure 3.

Notice that the graphs move away from the equilibrium

solution P = 0 and move toward the equilibrium solution
P = M.

Figure 3

Solutions of the logistic equation

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A Model for the Motion of a Spring

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A Model for the Motion of a Spring
Let’s now look at an example of a model from the physical
sciences. We consider the motion of an object with mass m
at the end of a vertical spring (as in Figure 4).

Figure 4
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A Model for the Motion of a Spring
We have discussed Hooke’s Law, which says that if the
spring is stretched (or compressed) x units from its natural
length, then it exerts a force that is proportional to x:

restoring force = –kx

where k is a positive constant (called the spring constant).

If we ignore any external resisting forces (due to air
resistance or friction) then, by Newton’s Second Law (force
equals mass times acceleration), we have

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A Model for the Motion of a Spring
This is an example of what is called a second-order
differential equation because it involves second derivatives.

Let’s see what we can guess about the form of the solution
directly from the equation. We can rewrite Equation 3 in the
form

which says that the second derivative of x is proportional to

x but has the opposite sign.

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General Differential Equations

18
General Differential Equations
In general, a differential equation is an equation that
contains an unknown function and one or more of its
derivatives.

The order of a differential equation is the order of the

highest derivative that occurs in the equation. Thus
Equations 1 and 2 are first-order equations and Equation 3
is a second-order equation.

In all three of those equations the independent variable is

called t and represents time, but in general the independent
variable doesn’t have to represent time.
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General Differential Equations
For example, when we consider the differential equation

y′ = xy

it is understood that y is an unknown function of x.

A function f is called a solution of a differential equation if

the equation is satisfied when y = f(x) and its derivatives
are substituted into the equation. Thus f is a solution of
Equation 4 if

f′(x) = xf(x)

for all values of x in some interval.

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General Differential Equations
When we are asked to solve a differential equation we are
expected to find all possible solutions of the equation. We
have already solved some particularly simple differential
equations, namely, those of the form
y ′ = f(x)
For instance, we know that the general solution of the
differential equation
y ′ = x3
is given by

where C is an arbitrary constant.

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Example 1
Show that every member of the family of functions

is a solution of the differential equation .

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Example 1 – Solution
We use the Quotient Rule to differentiate the expression
for y:

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The right side of the differential equation becomes

Therefore, for every value of c, the given function is a

solution of the differential equation. 24
General Differential Equations
When applying differential equations, we are usually not as
interested in finding a family of solutions (the general
solution) as we are in finding a solution that satisfies some
additional requirement.

In many physical problems we need to find the particular

solution that satisfies a condition of the form y(t0) = y0.

This is called an initial condition, and the problem of

finding a solution of the differential equation that satisfies
the initial condition is called an initial-value problem.

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