CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Power quality has become major concern to both electric utilities and customers.
In many countries, the effects of lack of power quality have been resulting in wastage of
several billions of dollars every year. This is due to carelessness of most industries in not
upgrading their plants which result in very high cost due to loss of products, loss of
production time, clean up and recalibration of the process. The use of complexity and
sensitivity of new technologies in electric equipments is one of the major causes of
power quality problems such as voltage disturbances on the supply network. Power
electronic equipments are more sensitive to voltage disturbances and leads to large
growth of voltage disturbances. It is difficult to detect the sources leading to power
quality problems. Factors for the causes of most power quality problems are beyond the
control of utilities and can never be totally eliminated. Some of the sources of power
quality problems in order of frequency of occurrence are:
i. User loads
ii. User electrical system and grounding
iii. Weather related such as lightening, wind and rain
iv. Utility distribution system
v. Utility transmission system
vi. Utility generation system
Power quality review is a complex subject and involves aspects such as power
system, equipment modeling, power quality event mitigation and optimization and data
analysis. The basic knowledge of the different power system disturbances is important in
order to determine the events and causes of equipment failure as well as to apply
mitigation measures more effectively. Power system disturbances are dominated by
voltage quality and harmonics.In the past, equipment used to control industrial process
was mechanical innature, being rather tolerant of voltage disturbances, such as voltage
sags, spikes,harmonics, etc.
In order to improve the efficiency and to minimize costs, modernindustrial
equipment typically uses a large number of electronic components,such as programmable
logic controllers (PLC), adjustable speed drives (ASD),power supplies in computers, and

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optical devices. Nevertheless, such pieces ofequipment are more susceptible to
malfunction in the case of a power systemdisturbance than traditional techniques based
on electromechanical parts.Minor power disruptions, which once would have been
noticed only as amomentary flickering of the lights, may now completely interrupt
wholeautomated factories because of sensitive electronic controllers or make all
thecomputer screens at an office go blank at once.
In order to restart the wholeproduction, computers, etc., a considerable time
might be necessary (in the rangeof some hours), implying on significant financial losses
to an industry.It is thus natural that electric utilities and end-users of electrical power
arebecoming increasingly concerned about the quality of electric power indistribution
systems. The term “power quality” has become one of the mostcommon expressions in
the power industry during the current decade. Theterm includes a countless number of
phenomena observed in power systems.Although such disturbances have always
occurred on the power systems, a greatattention has been dedicated to minimize their
effects to the end-users, notablylarge industrial plants.

1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

T. Strasser [1], presents Renewable energy sources are one key enabler to
decrease greenhouse gas emissions and to cope with the anthropogenic climate change.
Their intermittent behavior and limited storage capabilities present a new challenge to
power system operators to maintain power quality and reliability. Additional technical
complexity arises from the large number of small distributed generation units and their
allocation within the power system. Market liberalization and changing regulatory
framework lead to additional organizational complexity. As a result, the design and
operation of the future electric energy system have to be redefined. Sophisticated
information and communication architectures, automation concepts, and control
approaches are necessary in order to manage the higher complexity of so-called smart
grids. This paper provides an overview of the state of the art and recent developments
enabling higher intelligence in future smart grids. The integration of renewable sources
and storage systems into the power grids is analyzed. Energy management and demand
response methods and important automation paradigms and domain standards are also
reviewed.

2
 A. Rauf and V. Khadkikar [2], deals with improving the voltage quality of
sensitive loads from voltage sags using a dynamic voltage restorer (DVR). The higher
active power requirement associated with voltage phase jump compensation has caused a
substantial rise in size and cost of the dc link energy storage system of DVR. The
existing control strategies either mitigate the phase jump or improve the utilization of dc
link energy by the following: 1) reducing the amplitude of the injected voltage or 2)
optimizing the dc bus energy support. In this paper, an enhanced sag compensation
strategy is proposed, which mitigates the phase jump in the load voltage while improving
the overall sag compensation time. An analytical study shows that the proposed method
significantly increases the DVR sag support time (more than 50%) compared with the
existing phase jump compensation methods. This enhancement can also be seen as a
considerable reduction in dc link capacitor size for new installation.
S. Jothibasu and M. K. Mishra [3], describes the inverter, have dc links and two-
stage power conversions. This increases its size, cost, and associated losses. Therefore,
topologies without the dc link, mitigating sag by utilizing direct ac-ac converters, are
preferable over the conventional ones. As no storage device is employed, compensation
by these topologies is limited only by the voltages at the point of common coupling that
is feeding the converters. In this, a direct-ac-ac-converter-based topology fed with line
voltages is proposed. The arrangement provides increased range of compensation in
terms of magnitude and phase angle correction.
J. Kaniewski, P. Szczesniak, M. Jarnut, and G. Benysek [4], The parameters of
electrical energy, such as supply voltage amplitude, are very important, especially from
the viewpoint of the final consumer with respect to sensitive loads connected to the grid.
Dynamic states in the power grid-voltage sags and swells-might cause faults and defects
to develop in sensitive loads. To mitigate unwanted effects, many topologies of ac/ac
converters are implemented as voltage compensators. This article presents a review of
hybrid ac/ac converters designed to compensate voltage sags and swells with the aim of
protecting sensitive loads against sudden and severe changes in supply voltage
amplitude. In this article, only solutions without galvanic separation between source and
load are described. To assess the properties and to compare different topologies of
voltage compensators, some common parameters, such as range of voltage sag and swell
compensation, reliability, quantity of switches and transformers, and required power
ratings of power electronic units in relation to power of load, are introduced. In addition,

3
we discuss possibilities for compensation of voltage interruption, time of compensation,
the efficiency, and the effect on the supply network of the described circuits. The results
of the analysis have been collected and compared in tabular form and represented in
graphical form. Furthermore, we show potential areas of application for particular
solutions of ac voltage compensators.
J. Shang, X. Nian, T. Chen, and Z. Ma [5]. Presents High-power three-level
voltage-source converters are widely utilized in high-performance AC drive systems. In
several ultra-power instances, the harmonics on the grid side should be reduced through
multiple rectifications. A combined harmonic elimination method that includes a dual
primary-side series-connected winding transformer and selective harmonic elimination
pulse-width modulation is proposed to eliminate low-order current harmonics on the
primary and secondary sides of transformers. Through an analysis of the harmonic
influence caused by dead time and DC magnetic bias, a synthetic compensation control
strategy is presented to minimize the grid-side harmonics in the dual primary side series-
connected winding transformer application.
1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
In order to compensate for voltage sags and swells in the power distribution
system, several approaches including on-load tap changer, dynamic sag correctors
(DySCs), ride-through voltage compensator, dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), and
hybrid distribution transformer have been developed. The most common voltage
compensator for the distribution transformer is the automatic on-load tap changers,
which are integrated to most distribution transformers throughout the distribution
systems. However, poor dynamics of ac voltage compensation, stepwise variation, and a
narrow range of output regulation are major issues to overcome in order to achieve a
rapid response to voltage sags and swells. Another possible approach to mitigate voltage
disturbances which can be integrated to an existing distribution transformer is DySCs.
The DySC is based on power electronics (PEs), which guarantee good dynamic
characteristics by utilizing an ac–ac pulse width modulation (PWM) converter. DySCs
and ride-through voltage compensators can resolve power quality problems on a
customer’s distribution line by providing voltage dip mitigation at a reduced cost. In a
PWM ac– ac buck converter with autotransformer to process partial load power was
discussed to compensate for voltage sags. However, systems introduced have a
limitation; they only compensate for voltage sag.

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1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THESIS
The optimized control scheme for the proposed system is introduced in order to
achieve dynamic voltage compensation. In terms of power density, the use of a medium
frequency (MF)/HF transformer reduces volume and weight up to 50% and 70%,
respectively, compared to previous approaches which employ an additional LFT and/or
require an additional winding on the existing 50/60 Hz core. Since the PEs module is
employed without a bulky energy storage system such as electrolytic capacitors, its size
and mass can be reduced and the reliability also can be increased.
The major advantages of the proposed system are as follows.
i. The proposed system has a wide range voltage compensation that can correct
both the sags and swells of the grid voltage.
ii. The proposed system can be an easy retro-fit solution, without modifying or
replacing the existing distribution transformers.
iii. The partial power processing capability of the PEs allows for the reduced power
rating of the converter and provides the improved entire efficiency for the system.
iv. The proposed approach does not need any bulky components such as an LF
transformer and/or the huge dc-link electrolytic capacitors in the PE module,
resulting in reduced size and mass.
v. Under normal operating conditions, the PEs module operates in bypass mode,
processing no power; it processes power only during disturbance events, resulting
in higher reliability and efficiency.
vi. Under external fault conditions, a bypass switch protects the PEs module from
over current.
vii. Fast dynamic response is possible.

1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

The thesis has been organized into five chapters. Following the chapter on
introduction, the rest of the thesis is outlined as follows.
Chapter 2 explains detailed about power quality and its types and technical
challenges.
Chapter 3 represents explains the voltage regulation methods. In this chapter the
detail explanation is made using block diagrams and different techniques.

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Chapter 4 presents system modeling in detail and all the simulation results which are
found using MATLAB/ SIMULINK environment.
Chapter 5 provides conclusions of the work undertaken in this thesis. The
references taken for the purpose of research work are also the part of this chapter.

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 CHAPTER 2
POWER QUALITY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Our technological field had become totally depend upon the continual obtain
ability of electrical power. In most areas economical power is made accessible via
nationwide grids, number of generating stations connecting to each other to the loads.
The grid should deliver basic countrywide requirements of lighting, air conditioning,
heating, residential, refrigeration and shipping in addition to the considerable deliver to
commercial, governmental, medicinal, fiscal, engineering, and communities of
communications. Economical power authentically permits today’s modern world to
operate at its busy grid.
Many power conundrums come in the economical power grid, which with its
thousands of kilometers of transmission lines is subjected to climatic conditions such as
snowfall, ice, hurricanes, lightning storms, and flooding along with apparatus failure,
chief switching operations and traffic accident. Also, power conundrums damaged
today’s technological apparatus is often bringing about locally within a expertise from
any number of conditions such as faulty distribution apparatus, intense start-up loads,
confined construction and even typical back-ground electrical noise.
Extensive utilize of electronics in the whole thing from domicile electronics to an
organizer of immense and expensive industrialized procedures has elevated the
associates of the power quality. Power quality or further particularly a disruption of
power quality is normally elucidated as any vary in power (current, frequency or voltage)
which interrupts with the common function of electrical machinery.
The revise of power quality and customs to regulate it is an apprehension for
electric services, hefty industrialized corporations, businesses and still residence
consumers. The revise has intensified as apparatus have turn into gradually more
susceptible to even tiny changes in the power supply of current, frequency and voltage.
“Power Quality is the grade to which both the delivery and utilization of electric power
change the accomplishment of electric apparatus”.
In common there is not a distinctive description of power quality. The setback of
power quality might be observed from two diverse angles associated to every side of the

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consumer meter, specifically the Consumer and Utility. A substitute explanation of PQ is
accepted.
Power quality refers to the ability of electrical equipment to consume the energy being
supplied to it. Quality means the ability of utilities to provide electric power without
interruption. It is the concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a matter
that is suitable to the operation of that equipment.
Mainly the various types of Power Quality problems are there. They are

Various Power
Quality Problems or disturbances

Very Short Short Duration Long Duration Waveform 1. Voltage Imbalance

Duration Variations Variations Distortion or 2. Voltage Fluctuations
Variations 1. Over Voltage Power Quality 3. Power Frequency
Transients 1.Sags (Dips) 2. Under Voltage Variations
/ 2. Swell Variations
1. Impulsive 3. Sustained 1. DC offset 4. Outage
Transients 3. Interruption Interruptions 2. Harmonics
2. Oscillatory 3. Inter harmonics
Transients 4. Notching
5. Noise

Fig. 2.1 Classification of Power Quality Issues or Power Quality Problems or

Power Quality disturbances
2.1.1 Very Short Duration Variations
Power system transients are undesirable, fast- and very short-duration events that
produce distortions. Their characteristics and waveforms depend on the mechanism of
generation and the network parameters like resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
“Surge” is often considered synonym to transient.
Transients can be classified into two categories,
i. Impulsive transients
ii. oscillatory transients
Impulsive Transients
An impulsive transient is a sudden frequency change in the steady-state
condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily
either positive or negative).
The most common cause of impulsive transients is lightning

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Figure 2.1(a) illustrates a typical current impulsive transient caused by
lightning.
Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times.
For example, a 1.2 * 50µs 2000-volt (V) impulsive transient nominally rises from zero to
its peak value of 2000 V in 1.2 µs and then decays to half its peak value in 50µs.

Fig.2.2.a Impulsive transient

Oscillatory transient
An oscillatory transient is a sudden frequency change in the steady-state condition of
voltage, current, or both that includes both positive and negative polarity values.
Oscillatory transients classified as
a) Low frequency Oscillatory transients
b) Medium frequency Oscillatory transients
c) High frequency Oscillatory transients
Low frequency Oscillatory transients
A transient with a primary frequency component less than 5 kHz, and a duration from 0.3
to 50 ms, is considered a low-frequency transient. Causes for low frequency Oscillatory
transients are capacitor bank energization and Ferro resonance and transformer
energization.
Medium frequency Oscillatory transients
A transient with a primary frequency component between 5 and 500 kHz with duration
measured in the tens of microseconds is considered as Medium frequency Oscillatory
transient.

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Causes for Medium frequency Oscillatory transients are back-to-back capacitor
energization
and cable switching.
Oscillatory transients with a primary frequency component greater than 500 kHz and a
typical duration measured in microseconds are considered high-frequency transients.

Fig.2.3 Oscillatory transient

2.1.2Short-Duration Variations
Short duration variations are the deviations in rms voltage or current for durations from
few cycles to 1min
Depending on the fault location, Short-duration variations are classified as
i. Sags
ii. Swell
iii. Interruption
Sags
A sag is a decrease in rms voltage or current between 0.1 and 0.9 pu at the power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

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Fig:2.4 Voltage sag caused by an SLG fault
Sources of Sags and Interruptions
Voltage sags are usually caused by
i. energization of heavy loads (e.g., arc furnace),
ii. starting of large induction motors,
iii. single line-to-ground faults.
In most cases Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults
(short circuits) on the utility system.
Swell
A swell is defined as an increase in rms voltage or current between 1.1 and 1.8
pu at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

Fig 2.5.dvoltage swell

Causes of swells
i. Faults
ii. Switching of a large load
iii. Energizing a large capacitor bank
Interruption
An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less than 0.1
pu for a period of time less than 1 min.
Interruptions can be the result of power system faults, equipment failures, and control
malfunctions.
If there is a fault on the feeder, the loads on that feeder will experience voltage sag
during the fault and then an interruption if the breaker opens to clear the fault.

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 Fig .2.6 Interruption.
2.1.3Long Duration Variations
Long duration variations are the deviations in rms voltage or current for duration longer
than 1min.
Long duration variations can be classified as
i. Overvoltage
ii. Undervoltage
iii. Sustained Interruptions
Overvoltage
An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the power
frequency for duration longer than 1 min.
Causes of overvoltage are
i. Switching off a large load
ii. Energizing a capacitor bank
iii. Incorrect tap settings on transformers
Undervoltage
An undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the power
frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
Causes of undervoltage are
i. Switching on of large loads
ii. Switching off a large capacitor bank
Sustained interruptions
When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the long-
duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.

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Voltage interruptions longer than 1 min are often permanent and require human
intervention to repair the system for restoration.
Outage
Outage is the state of a component in a system that has failed to function as expected.
In other words, an outage is the removal of a primary component from the system,
e.g., a transformer outage or the outage of a generator station. Here a transformer is
forced to outage due to failure in cooling circuit of a transformer. This is also called
forced outage. An outage is not always due to a failure. But outages may also be likely
due to scheduled tasks. and "Forced outages" are directly due to failures, but the
"scheduled outages" are due to operator intervention. Scheduled outages are typically to
allow for preventive maintenance.

2.1.4 Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of
power frequency.
There are five primary types of waveform distortion:
i. DC offset
ii. Harmonics
iii. Interharmonics
iv. Notching
v. Noise
Dc offset
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset
Main causes of DC offset in power systems are
Employment of rectifiers and other electronic switching devices These electronic devices
inject dc into AC called DC offset.
The main detrimental effects of DC offset in alternating networks are
i. Generates harmonics in ac networks
ii. Causes additional heating and loss of transformer life
iii. electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes

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 Fig.2.1.fDC Offset
Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (termed the
fundamental frequency; usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz).
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a measure of the effective value of the harmonic
components of a distorted waveform, which is defined as the r.m.s of the harmonics
expressed in percentage of the fundamental (e.g., current) component:

Fig.2.1.gTypical Harmonic Waveform Distortion

Inter harmonics
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called
inter harmonics.
The main sources of inter harmonic waveform distortion are

14
 i. static frequency converters,
ii. cycloconverters,
iii. induction furnaces, and
iv. arcing devices.

Fig.2.1.hInter Harmonic Waveform Distortion

Notching
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power
electronic devices when current is commutated from one phase to another.

Fig.2.1.iNotching

Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower
than 200 kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in phase
conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal lines.
Noise in power systems can be caused by
i. power electronic devices,
ii. control circuits,
iii. arcing equipment,
iv. loads with solid-state rectifiers, and
v. switching power supplies.

15
The problem can be mitigated by using filters, isolation transformers, and line
conditioners

Fig.2.1.jNoise
2.1.5 Voltage Imbalance: -Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance) is
sometimes defined as the maximum deviation from the average of the three-phase
voltages or currents, divided by the average of the three-phase voltages or currents,
expressed in percent.
Causes of voltage unbalances are
i. single-phase loads connected to three-phase circuit
ii. blown fuses in one phase of a three-phase capacitor bank
2.1.6 Voltage fluctuations or Voltage flicker
Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage in the range 0.9 to 1.1 pu.
specified by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

Fig.2.1.kVoltage Fluctuations

2.1.7 Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency variations are defined as the deviation of the power system
fundamental frequency from its specified nominal value (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz).
Causes of Power frequency variations are
i. faults on the bulk power transmission system,
ii. a large block of load being disconnected,

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 iii. a large source of generation going off-line.

Fig.2.1.lVariations of Frequency

2.1.8 HARMONICS MITIGATION TECHNIQUE

The generation of harmonics, whenever an adjustable speed drive is used, is
inevitable. The order and magnitude of these harmonics will greatly depend on the drive
configuration and system impedance. The various harmonic mitigation techniques
available are as follows:
Phase Multiplication: Whether the drive is AC or DC, the common means of reducing
harmonics generation while in the design process is by phase multiplication or harmonic
cancellation. It is effective in reducing low order harmonics as long as the load is
balanced.
Passive filters: Improved power factor reduces high frequency harmonics. Large tuning
reactors are not used as instability may occur due to parallel resonance with the source
impedance. Performance depends upon source impedance; it cannot be measured
accurately and can vary with system changes. Hence, passive filters are not appropriate
for cyclo-converters.
Active filters: With improved power factor, the output current can be controlled. Active
filters provide stable operation against AC source impedance variation, and fast
responsive irrespective of the order and magnitude of harmonics. These filters are
appropriate for cyclo-converters. The initial and running costs are usually higher than
passive filters. The injection may flow into other components.
Harmonic injection: Harmonic injection takes care of uncharacteristic harmonics.
System impedance is not a part of the design criteria as it may give rise to low order
harmonics.

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Harmonic mitigation techniques with PWM: harmonics can be reduced to less than
one per cent of the fundamental with the help of PWM; it is programmable to eliminate
specific harmonics. In addition to the above techniques, harmonics can be reduced by a
number of circuit techniques.

2.2 SOLUTIONS FOR PROBLEMS OF POWER QUALITY

There are two methodologies to the improvement of power quality conundrums.
The elucidation to the power quality can be made from utility side or from customer side.
Primary method is called load conditioning, which make certain that the appliance is less
sensitive to power instability, permitting the operation still under important voltage
alteration.
The further solution is to set up line conditioning systems that counteracts or
suppress the power system interruptions. A versatile and flexible solution to voltage
quality conundrums is accessible by active power filters. Presently they are built on
PWM converters and attach to medium and low voltage distribution system in series or
in shunt. Series active power filters should operate in concurrence with shunt passive
filters in order to balance load current harmonics.
Shunt active power filters manage as a series active power filters and controllable
current source functions as a controllable voltage source. Both methods are executed
preferable through voltage source PWM inverters, by a dc bus having a reactive
component such as a capacitor. Active power filters can carry out one or more of the
roles necessitated for improving power quality and compensate power systems. Their
accomplishments also depend on the power rating with the speed of response.
Solutions will play a main function in the progressing of the natural supply
quality; some of the economic and effective measures can be recognized as following:

2.2.1 LIGHTENING AND SURGE ARRESTERS

The Arresters are measured for lightening protection of transformers; however,
are not adequately voltage preventing for protecting sensitive electronic control circuits
as surges of voltage.
2.2.2 STATIC SWITCHES BASED ON THYRISTOR
The static switch is an adaptable appliance for switching a new component into
the circuit while the voltage maintain is desirable. It has a dynamic response time of

18
regarding one cycle. To correct rapidly for interruptions, sags or voltage spikes, the
stagnant switch can used to control single or extra of appliances such as energy storage
systems, filter, alternate power line, capacitor, etc. This static switch could be used in the
different power line purposes. This method needs two independent power networks as of
the service or might be from localized and utility power making similar to those in case
of circulated generating schemes. Such a system could protect up to about 85 % of
voltage sags and interruptions.
2.2.3 SYSTEMS OF ENERGY STORAGE
Storage methods might be used for protecting perceptive construction application
from shutdowns caused by momentary interruptions.
Those are usually DC storage systems such as superconducting magnet energy
storage (SMES), batteries, UPS, even fly wheels or driving DC generators storage
capacitors. The output of these appliances can be supplied to the system during an
inverter on a quick basis by a fast-acting electronic switch. Adequate energy is fed to the
system for compensating the energy that could be vanished by the disruption or voltage
sag. In case of supply utility supported by a local generation that could be still enhanced
achieved.
2.2.4 ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMER WITH TAP CHANGING
A transformer of voltage-regulating through an electronic load tap changer could
be used with a single contour from the service. It can control the voltage drops up to 50%
and need a stiff system (short circuit power to load ratio of 10:1 or better). This could
have the terms of smooth steps or coarse intended for intermittent voltage changes.
2.2.5 HARMONIC FILTERS
Filters are used in a few cases to efficiently eliminate or reduce particular
harmonics. If perhaps, it is forever preferable to use a 12-pluse or higher transformer
connection, significantly than a filter. Tuned harmonic filters must be used through
concerned and prevented when perhaps. Usually, multiple filters are desired, each tuned
to a detach harmonic. Each filter basis a series resonance as well as a parallel resonance,
and each filter a little modifies the resonances of supplementary filters.
2.2.6 CONSTANT-VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
For several studies of power quality, it is perhaps to greatly develop the
momentary interruption tolerance and sag of a capability by shielding controlling
circuits. The very best power protection comes from a special type of transformer known

19
 as a Constant Voltage Transformer (CVT).The relatively large changes in
input voltage result in small changes in output voltage this being the fundamental
purpose of an automatic voltage regulator.

2.2.7 INTELLIGENT CONTROLLERS AND DIGITAL-ELECTRONIC FOR

CONTROLLING LOAD-FREQUENCY
The supply power Frequency is entity of the chief determinants of power quality,
which disturbs the machine functioning very significantly. Even the chief system
apparatus such as interconnected-grid control and Turbine life are exactly exaggerated by
power frequency. Load frequency controller used specially for directing power frequency
under changeable loads must be fast adequate to make modifications opposed to any
variation. In countries like India and other countries of emerging world, still use of the
controllers those are based either electrical devices or mechanical devices with expected
delays and dead time and at times also tolerates from ageing and associated effects. In
coming view, such controllers can be restored by their Digital –electronic equivalent.
2.3 USING CONVENTIONAL POWER DEVICES FOR THE IMPROVING OF
POWER QUALITY
In classify to conquer the conundrums such as the ones stated above, the theory
of custom power appliances is established freshly; custom power is approach, which is
modeled mainly to meet the necessities of commercial and industrial customer.
The idea of custom power is to use static controllers or power electronic in the
medium voltage distribution system planning to supply high quality and reliable power
to sensitive users. Power electronic valves are the origin of these custom power
applications such as the active filters, converter-based devices and static transfer switch.
Converter based power electronics applications could be classified in to two
categories: series-connected and shunt-connected appliances. The shunt associated
appliance is recognized as the DSTATCOM and the series appliance is recognized as the
Static Series Compensator (SSC), commercially recognized as DVR. This had also been
accounted in writing that both the DSTATCOM and SSC had been used to alleviate the
popularly the power system conflicts such as voltage sags, dips, harmonics and flicker
unbalance.

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For the magnitude of load voltage, sags of lower voltage could be rectified by inserting
only reactive power into the system. Although, for higher injection of active power,
voltage sags, in addition to reactive power, is essential to support the voltage magnitude.
Both DSTATCOM and DVR are competent of absorbing or generating reactive power
however the active power insertion of the appliance should beaffording by an energy
storage system or external energy source.

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 CHAPTER 3
VOLTAGE REGULATION METHODS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A number of methods can improve voltage regulation. Some use voltage
regulation equipment to raise or lower voltage at the substation or on the distribution
circuit to reduce the voltage difference between LL and heavy-load conditions. Others
reduce the impedance of the circuit to reduce the voltage difference or spread, and still
others reduce the load current (i.e., improve the power factor) to reduce the voltage drop
and, thus, the voltage spread.
Methods that can be applied at the substation include:
i. Use DG voltage regulators (VRs).
ii. Apply capacitors at the distribution substation.
iii. Apply voltage-regulating equipment, such as LTC transformersor circuit
voltage-regulating equipment, at the substation.
iv. Balance the loads on the circuits.
v. Transfer loads to other substations.
vi. Install new substations and circuits.
vii. Install substation transformers with reduced reactance.

Methods that can be used on the distribution circuit include:

i. Increase the primary system voltage of the circuit.
ii. Increase the conductor size of the circuit or reduce conductor spacing and
consequently, reduce reactance.
iii. Change circuit sections from single-phase to three-phase.
iv. Transfer loads to other circuits.
v. Apply voltage-regulating equipment on the circuit.
vi. Install DG on the circuit.
vii. Apply shunt (or series) capacitors on the circuit.
viii. Balance loads.
ix. Increase the distribution transformer size.
x. Increase the conductor size of secondaries and services.

22
3.2 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION INSTALLED AT SUBSTATION
The generator bus voltage can be regulated to maintain a fixed voltage for
changes in load and reactive requirements. The generator field current can be varied to
match the changes in load current. The voltage can be increased or decreased as the load
increases or decreases.

3.3 SUBSTATION VOLTAGE-REGULATING EQUIPMENT

One of the most common types of substation voltage-regulating equipment is the
load tap changing (LTC) transformer. Step- or induction-type VRs may be installed
between the secondary of the transformer and the secondary bus or on the secondary bus.
Also, step- or induction-type regulators may be installed on individual circuits. Because
circuit voltage is a function of voltage spread at the secondary of the substation bus,
voltage-regulating equipment allows for a greater voltage drop in the circuit.

3.4 BALANCING LOADS

If a circuit has poor voltage regulation, it could be due to a significant difference
in phase loading. A 20% or more load imbalance on the primary of a circuit, especially
during HL conditions, is not uncommon. In addition, a high load imbalance can cause
substation transformers and VRs to overload, based on the highest phase load. Balanced
loading should be achieved throughout the circuit, not just at the substation.

3.5 INCREASED PRIMARY SYSTEM VOLTAGE

Increasing the system voltage reduces the load by the inverse ratio of the voltage
change, but the voltage regulation changes as the square of the voltage change. Changing
from a three-wire ungrounded delta to a four-wire grounded wye increases the voltage by
the √3 but reduces the voltage drop to 1/3 of the drop in the three-wire delta. However, it
is common to increase the allowable load when this conversion is made to a higher
system voltage; therefore, the voltage drop improvement is less than 2/3. This method is
more expensive than using supplemental voltage regulation because it involves re-
insulating the line and changing out electric transformation (i.e., transformers) and other
equipment.
3.6 INCREASED CONDUCTOR SIZE OR REDUCED CONDUCTOR SPACING

23
 Increasing conductor size is another expensive method to achieve improved
voltage regulation. Increasing the size of the conductor reduces the resistance and, thus,
the voltage drop and real losses. However, it may necessitate a rebuilding of the line
because of the larger and heavier conductor. An alternative is to reduce the spacing
between the phase conductors, which reduces the reactance and lowers the voltage drop.

3.7 CONVERSION OF SINGLE-PHASE SECTIONS TO THREE-PHASE

Most general-purpose circuits are single-phase. For single-phase circuits, voltage
drop occurs in both the phase conductor and the neutral for the wye systems and in both
the phase conductors for the delta systems. Adding two conductors to a single-phase wye
system, and assuming the existing load is evenly distributed among the three phases,
results in 1/6 of the voltage drop that occurs on the single-phase wye lateral.

3.8 VOLTAGE-REGULATING EQUIPMENT

VRs may be installed at the substation secondary voltage bus, at the circuit
position of the substation, or out on the circuit. Their primary purpose is to reduce
voltage spread so voltage is maintained within American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) C84.1 Range A for normal conditions and Range B for infrequent operating
conditions. Regulators may be used to “boost” the voltage for heavily loaded circuits or
“buck” the voltage for lightly loaded circuits or circuits that have fixed shunt capacitors.
For this reason, it may be necessary to use switched shunt capacitors to prevent (LV,
switched on) during heavily loaded conditions and HV (switched off) during lightly
loaded conditions.
VRs may be applied in series, as shown in Figure 3.1. Where two or more are
needed, fixed boost regulators may solve the LV problem if HV is not experienced
during LL conditions. Fixed boost can be achieved by adding taps on the distribution
transformers. In the upper portion of Figure 3.1, the voltage profile is given with the
LTC VR installed at the substation. The voltage profile drops below the minimum
voltage at the second and third loads. When the first bus VR is added, the voltage at load
is within limits, but the voltage at load is still below the minimum level. Adding the
second line regulator puts the voltage spread within limits for all three loads.

24
 Fig:3.1. VRs in series

3.9 SHUNT CAPACITORS

Installing shunt capacitors causes a voltage rise or a reduced voltage drop. The
capacitor current is leading and, when multiplied by the series circuit (inductive)
reactance, causes a voltage rise. This rise is not dependent on load current and is highest
at the capacitor location.

3.10 LOAD TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

LTC transformers are often referred to as tap-changing under load. Load tap
changers are applied to power transformers at the substation. They are used to control the
voltage on the LV or secondary side to a fixed value with a variable primary voltage
input, as shown in Figure 3.1. Also, LTCs may be used to control reactive power flow by
shifting the phase angle of the transformer secondary voltages. The regulation range is
typically 8, 16, and 32 steps with ±10% of rated voltage. The 32-step LTC is the most

25
common for LTC transformers in substations. The 32 steps are divided into 16 steps raise
and 16 steps lower, or a 5/8% change per step based on ±10% voltage range. The change
in steps is made without interrupting the circuit by using a mid-tapped autotransformer,
called a preventive autotransformer. The step-type VR theory of operation is similar to
the LTC transformer.
3.10.1Principles of Regulating the Voltage

Fig:3.2 phasor diagram

V1=V2+IZ

V1=V2+IR+jIX

V2=V1-IR-jIX

V2=V1-IZ

The root cause of most voltage regulation problems is that there is too much impedance
in the power system to properly supply the load.
V2=V1-IZ
As Z increases, then IZ increases, then V2 decreases
Hence Z must be decreased or I must be decreased to decrease IZ drop to improve V2
approximately equals to V1
Some common options for improving power system voltage regulation are
i. Add shunt capacitors to reduce the current I and shift it to be more in phase
with the voltage.

26
 ii. Add voltage regulators, which boost the input voltage V1.
iii. Reconductor lines to a larger size to reduce the impedance Z.
iv. Change substation or service transformers to larger sizes to reduce impedance
Z.
v. Add some kind of dynamic reactive power (var) compensation, which serves
the same purpose as capacitors for rapidly changing loads.
vi. Add series capacitors to cancel the inductive impedance drop IX.
Devices for Voltage Regulation (or) Mitigations of voltage regulation can be done by
i Tap-changing transformers
ii Ferro resonant transformers
iii Magnetic synthesizers
iv On-line UPS systems
v Motor-generator sets
vi Static var compensators
vii Electronic Tap Changers
Here explain about Ferro resonant transformers, Magnetic synthesizers, On-line UPS
systems, Motor generator sets already explained in the question devices used to reduce
voltage sags & interruptions.
Electronic Tap Changers
i. Electronic tap changers use fast static switches to change the transformation ratio
of a transformer. This can either be a distribution transformer or a dedicated
transformer for a sensitive load.
ii. The principle of its operation is shown in Fig.(i), in this case with three static
switches.
iii. The number of turns of the four parts of the secondary winding are (top to
bottom):
iv. 100%, 40%, 20%, and 10% of the nominal turn’s ratio.
v. By opening or closing these three switches transformation ratios between 100%
and 170% can be achieved.
vi. If all three switches are closed, the turns ratio is 100%; with switch 1 closed and
2 and 3 open it is 130%, etc.
vii. By using this electronic tap changer, the output voltage is between 95% and
105% of nominal even for input voltages down to56% of nominal.

27
 100%

140%

160%

170%
Fig:3.3Electronic tap changer
Magnetic synthesizers
i. Magnetic synthesizers use a similar operating principle to CVTs except
they are three- phase devices and take advantage of the three-phase
magnetics to reduce voltage sag severity and to improve regulation for
three-phase loads.
ii. Main components of magnetic synthesizers are in fig.3.4
iii. Nonlinear chokes eliminate problems such as line noise.
iv. Magnetic synthesizers use resonant circuits made of nonlinear inductors
and capacitors to store energy, saturation transformers to modify the
voltage waveform, and filters to filter out harmonic distortion
v. Magnetic synthesizers supply power to load through a zigzag
transformer. The zigzag name comes from the way the transformer
changes the phase angle between voltage and current. The zigzag
transformer traps triplen harmonic currents and prevents them from
reaching the power source.
vi. Applications of magnetic synthesizers include protection of large
computer installations, computerized medical imaging equipment, and
industrial processes, like plastic extruders, especially from voltage sags.

28
 They protect sensitive loads not only from voltage sags but also from
transients, overvoltage, undervoltage, and voltage surges.

Nonlinear Chokes to Nonlinear inductors and

eliminate Noise in lines capacitors to store
energy

Output
Saturation zigzag transformers to modify
the voltage waveform & to trap
harmonic currents and prevents them
from reaching the power source.

Fig.3.4Block diagram of Magnetic Synthesizer

Active series compensators
i. A device that can boost the voltage by injecting a voltage in series with
the system voltage during a voltage sag condition is referred to as active
series compensation devices. They are available in size ranges from
small single-phase devices (1 to 5 kVA) to very large devices that can be
applied on the medium-voltage systems (2 MVA and larger).
ii. A one-line diagram illustrating the power electronics that are used to
achieve the compensation.

Fig:3.5Series Compensator
i. Series Compensator consists of
a. Voltage Source Converter (VSC) – main component
b. Transformer – couples the Series Compensator to the transmission line or
load c.Capacitor – to store energy

29
 ii. Whenever voltage sag occurs and if input voltage decreases, voltage is injected in
series with supply voltage by series compensator to maintain load voltage
constant. This circuit adds or subtracts a voltage signal to the input voltage so that
the output voltage remains within a specified tolerance during the disturbance.
iii. The circuit can provide voltage boosting of about 50 percent, which is sufficient
for almost all voltage sag conditions.
On-line UPS: -

Fig:3.6Online UPS

i. In this design, the load is always fed through the UPS.

ii. The incoming ac power is rectified into dc power, which charges a bank
of batteries. This dc power is then inverted into ac power, to feed the
load.
iii. If the incoming ac power fails, the inverter is fed from the batteries and
continues to supply the load. However, the on-line operation increases
the losses and may be unnecessary for protection of many loads.
Standby UPS or Off-line UPS: -

Fig:3.7Standby UPS or Off-line UPS

30
 i. In Standby UPS or Off-line UPS, load initially supplied by Normal
Power line.
ii. During Voltage sag, load is connected to Battery Bank by automatic
transfer switch, to maintain load voltage almost constant
Motor-generator sets: -
i. Motor-Generator sets are available in various sizes and configurations. This is
one of the established technologies for preventing sensitive loads from sags and
interruptions.
ii. Fig.(i) shows the arrangement of M-G set in which the motor is powered by a
driver circuit from line. The motor drives a generator that energize the load.
Flywheels on the same shaft provide greater inertia to increase ride-through time.
iii. When the line suffers a disturbance ie., if supply voltage to motor decreases, the
inertia of the machines and the flywheels drive the generator and maintains the
almost constant power supply to load for several seconds. This arrangement may
also be used to separate sensitive loads from other classes of disturbances such as
harmonic distortion and switching transients.
iv. Disadvantages:
a. LossesofNoise and maintenanceofFrequency and voltage drops with the
speed. This may not desirable for some loads.

Fig:3.8Typical M-G set with flywheel.

3.11 VOLTAGE REGULATOR THEORY OF OPERATION

In general, the VR is a transformer. If two windings are wound on a common
magnetic core and the numbers of turns is different, then the voltages across these
windings will be different. The alternating voltage applied to the first coil will induce a

31
voltage in the second coil, and the magnitude of voltage induced will be dependent on
the turn ratio between these two windings. In the case of a regulator, the first coil is
referred to as the primary, or exciting, winding and the second as the regulating, or
series, winding.

Fig:3.9. Step-up transformer

The step regulator is an autotransformer, the windings of which are connected in

series and wound on the same magnetic core. There are two types of autotransformers:
step-up and step-down. Figure 3.2 shows a step-up transformer with a turn ratio of 10.
For example, if N1 = 100 and N2 = 10, then a = N1/N2 = 10. If the series winding is
connected in series with the exciting or shunt winding that has the polarity, as shown in
Figure 3.2, then 120 V applied to the exciting winding will result in 12 V on the series
winding, which, when added to the primary voltage, results in a 132-V output. When the
polarity of the series winding is reversed, as shown in Figure 3.3, then the 12 V on the
series winding is subtracted from the 120 V primary voltage, and the output is 108 V.
This is called a step-down transformer. To obtain a smaller change in voltage, the series
winding is divided into eight equal parts, called taps, as shown in Figure 3.4.

Fig.3.10. Step-down transformer

32
 Fig.3.11. Step regulator

The output voltage can be varied from 120 V if tapped at the neutral position, N,
up to 132 V, with steps of 12 V divided by 8 or 1.5 V per step, or 1 1/4% changes in
voltage per tap setting. The problem with this arrangement is the interruption of the
circuit each time the tap changes. To avoid this, the moving tap can be broken into two
fingers such that, as the moving tap changes from one tap position to the next, one finger
is always in contact with a tap. This is shown in Figure 3.5. To prevent shorting out the
turns of the series winding, as shown in Figure 3.5b, when one finger is on one tap and
the other finger is on the next tap, a preventive autotransformer is mid tapped and
connected to each finger. The center tap of this autotransformer is connected to the load
bushing (L). In Figure 3.5a, when both fingers are on the neutral tap “0,” they are at the
same voltage, and the center tap of the preventive auto is at the same voltage.

33
 Fig:3.12. Step VR sequence of operation

When 120 V is applied to the primary, the voltage from the preventive auto,
sometimes referred to as a bridging reactor, is at 120 V. When the moving fingers move
toward Tap 1, the top finger is on Tap 1, while the bottom finger is on Tap 0. As shown
in Figure 3.5b, there is a 1 1/4% voltage difference between Tap 0 and Tap 1 and the two

34
fingers. But when the bridging reactor is connected between these two fingers and its
center tap is connected to the load, the load will see one half of the 1 1/4%, or 5/8%, as
shown in Figure 3.5b. This is called the bridging position 5/8%. When the top finger
moves farther up and is resting on Tap 1, and the bottom finger is resting on Tap 1, then
the center tap is at the same voltage as the two fingers and Tap 1. Now the voltage at the
load is up 1 1/4% voltage (see Figure 3.5c). For higher-voltage outputs, this process
repeats where the fingers are in non-bridging and bridging positions until the top tap is
reached and a full 10% voltage increase is attained.

Fig.3.13. Step VR with reversing switch

For decreases in voltage, the process is reversed until both fingers are resting on
Tap 0. This process has addressed only increases in voltage above the primary voltage.
To lower the voltage below the primary voltage, it is necessary to reverse the polarity,
which is similar to the step-down transformer of Figure 3.6. This is accomplished by
adding the reversing switch of which changes the polarity of the series winding. Now,
the regulator can raise or lower the voltage by ±10%.

3.12 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLTAGE SAGS

The voltage sag is defined in the literature as a decrease between 0.1 and 0.9 p.u.
in the rms voltage at the network fundamental frequency with duration from 0.5 cycles to

35
one minute. This definition assumes thus that the sag can be defined by a magnitude and
duration. The duration is usually associated with the time taken by the protection system
to clear the fault. For single-phase systems, the definition above can be applied and the
classification of a voltage sag is relatively simple, except for the case when induction
motors represent a considerable part of the load and they are located close to the
analyzed point. In this case, the motors can contribute to the fault current, which makes
the voltage sag less severe during the initial cycles of the fault. However, the motor
draws considerable reactive power at its reacceleration after the fault clearing, leading to
the phenomenon known as “post fault sag”. The post-fault sag may last some seconds
and, as a consequence, under voltage relays may operate, tripping the motor. However,
the classification is not straightforward for three-phase distribution systems, as the
following aspects have to be considered:
i. Most of the faults are single-phase, i.e. unbalanced. The impact of the fault on the
voltages in different points of the power system depends mainly on the
impedance between the fault and the analyzed point as also the connection of
transformer(s) between these two points.
ii. The voltage in each phase usually returns to the pre-fault level at different time
instants.
iii. It is not guaranteed that the phase voltage with lowest amplitude during the sag
will have the longest duration below the 0.9 p.u. limit.
iv. If the medium voltage system is not directly grounded, which is the case for most
European systems, the measurement of phase-to-ground and phase-to phase
voltages can show different magnitudes and phase shifts between the phases
during a voltage sag.
The worst case is usually taken for characterizing the voltage sag, i.e. the lowest
voltage and the longest duration are employed for analysis. Since most of the voltage sag
surveys have been performed in the USA, where the medium-voltage network is usually
directly grounded, there are no significant differences between the information obtained
from the measurement of phase-to-ground or phase-to phase voltages. A method of
classifying three-phase unbalanced sags has been presented in the literature, considering
all types of faults and transformer connections between the fault and the measurement
point. The method is also based on the calculation of symmetrical components of the
measured voltages, which means that phasors are used. The analysis assumes initially

36
that positive- and negative source impedances are equal. Depending on the phase-shift of
the symmetrical component voltage vectors during the fault, it is possible to theoretically
determine the type of sag, i.e. if caused by a single-phase or phase-to-phase fault. A
characteristic complex voltage can thus be calculated and its absolute value can be used
for characterizing the voltage sag in most of the practical cases. The phase-jump, which
may be of interest for some loads, is given by the argument of the characteristic complex
voltage. In systems where induction motors are a considerable part of the total load, the
positive- and negative impedances are not equal during the sag period. In this case,
another variable can characterize the voltage sag, namely the positive negative sequence
factor (“PN-factor”). This factor is close to one for normal loads, but it is decreased as
the motor loading is increased. The zero-sequence voltage is seldom important in the
analysis because the great majority of the faults occur in the high- and medium-voltage
systems and transformers with delta-connected windings in one side are used between
these systems and the equipment terminals in low-voltage networks.

3.12.1 Field Measurements

In order to illustrate the method described above, an example is shown in the
following, where the measurements of the three-phase voltages in an 11-kV system. The
measurements have been performed by ABB Corporate Research at the internal 11 kV
bus of a steel industry, where voltage sags and interruptions have been of concern. The
origin of the voltage sag is a fault caused by lightning on one of the incoming 130 kV
overhead lines. The plot of the phase-to-ground voltages, where it is observed that the
unbalanced voltage sag starts around 0.12 s and the fault is cleared around 0.37 s. The
RMS calculated values (at each sampling) of these voltages is shown in the bottom plot.
It can be seen that the voltage magnitude in phase B is the one mostly affected, while the
magnitude of phase A is almost not affected. Using the definition employing the lowest
RMS value and the longest duration as main parameters, the voltage sag would be
characterized by 67% (remaining voltage) with 0.27 s duration. It is also interesting to
observe that the voltages in phases B and C take a considerable time for returning from
0.95 p.u. to the pre-fault level. Based on the pre-fault measurement points, voltage
phasors are created and used for the calculation of symmetrical components. The plot of
the magnitude of these components is presented. As observed in the curves, the positive-
sequence amplitude is reduced to 0.82 p.u. during the sag, while the negative-sequence is

37
equal to 0.12 p.u. They are basically constant during the fault period. The transformer on
the 11-kV side is grounded through an impedance and a zero-sequence component with a
magnitude of 5.5% appears in the phase-to-ground voltages during the fault. However, as
previously explained, this component is not transferred to the low voltage network due to
the usual connection of MV/LV transformers. Using the method briefly described in
Section 3.3 for classifying unbalanced sags and taking into account the connection of the
130/11 kV transformer (YNy), it is obtained that the sag is due to a single-phase fault on
phase B in the 130-kV system. Minor voltage variations in the other two phases,
including phase-shifts, also take place. The PN-factor, representing the difference
between the positive- and negative sequence impedances during the fault, is equal to 0.95
p.u. In this case, the PN factor is very close to the sum of the positive- and negative-
sequence magnitudes. One important feature of the phasors analysis is the possibility of
identifying phase-shifts on the phase voltages during the sag. These phase-shifts may
also affect the operation of motors directly connected to the 11-kV bus without any
speed and torque control. In the present case, a phase-shift equal to 10º occurred in phase
A during the sag, which should not be of concern.

3.13 CRITICAL EQUIPMENT

As it has been emphasized in this thesis, modern equipment in an industrial
process can be sensitive to voltage sags and interruptions. These devices are usually
installed in the low voltage system (< 1 kV) and three types are mentioned in the
following.
3.13.1 Electromechanical Relays and Motor Contactors
Electromechanical relays and motor contactors in low voltage systems are
reported to drop out, i.e. open their contacts, when the voltage sag is in the range 0.5 –
0.7 p.u. lasting some cycles. Naturally, the sensitivity of each device depends on the
manufacturer. The sensitivity to variations of the network voltage is eliminated by
employing a DC maneuvered contactor, provided that this voltage is independent of the
grid, for instance using a battery.

3.13.2 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)

Programmable Logic Controllers are solid-state control systems that monitor the
status of the devices connected as inputs of a process, e.g. relays, switches, sensors, etc.

38
According to the acquired information, the implemented software in the PLC memory
calculates the status of the devices connected as outputs, e.g. alarms, lights, fans, etc. The
power supplies of PLCs and computers may be sensitive to short voltage sags that can
stop the entire process being controlled.

3.13.3 Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD)

Adjustable Speed Drives are reported to be the most critical equipment regarding
voltage sags and momentary interruptions. Its consisting of a line-commutated rectifier
(usually based on diodes) and a forced-commutated voltage-source converter (also
denoted VSI – voltage source inverter in the drive system context). The rectifier bridge is
only responsible for keeping the DC link capacitor charged with a sufficient voltage to
assure the proper operation of the inverter. In order to reduce the harmonic currents on
the DC side, a smoothing reactor is connected on the rectifier DC terminal (Ls). With the
same purpose, a small reactor can also be connected between the network and the
rectifier (LN), but this reactor causes even further voltage drops on the DC voltage. It can
be mentioned that larger AC drives and DC motor drives use commonly thyristor-
controlled rectifiers and their firing control system may be affected by phase-angle shifts
during unbalanced sags, especially if the synchronization system is based on the zero-
crossing of the voltages. In order to avoid damage of the thyristors, the drives are
stopped if an abnormal network voltage is detected. The inverter is responsible for the
main task of the ASD, which is the speed control of motor loads, e.g. pumps, fans and
compressors. High switching frequency using pulse-width modulation (PWM) is
employed for a fast control of speed/torque. The voltage and current the inverter can
supply to the motor is dependent on the DC link voltage, which in its turn depends on the
AC network voltage. Faults in the AC system cause the reduction of the DC link voltage
and as a consequence, the inverter may not be able to produce the required voltage on its
terminal for certain speeds, i.e. speed/torque full control of the motor is lost. The drive
controller detects a lower voltage on the DC link and it may trip the drive as a safety -
but in most of cases unnecessary - measure. A voltage sag in the AC network may stop
the rectifier diodes conduction since the AC voltage is lower than the DC voltage. In
order to supply the motor load, energy is drawn from the DC capacitor, making the DC
voltage decrease. This drop depends thus on the load and the size of the capacitor. It is
concluded that the use of larger capacitors would in theory avoid the reduction of the DC

39
voltage to levels that could trip the drive or cause a mis operation of the inverter control.
Nevertheless, the size of the capacitors required for achieving a ride through capability to
a three-phase balanced sag with typical duration of 100 ms would be too expensive and
unfeasible. As most of the faults are unbalanced, the drop of the DC link voltage is not so
severe as in the case of a three-phase balanced sag because there is at least one phase
voltage that is higher than the others, helping in minimizing the discharge of the DC
capacitor. The negative-sequence component of the fundamental frequency network
voltage, due to the unbalance, is transferred as a second harmonic ripple over the DC
voltage and the amplitude of this ripple is inversely proportional to the DC capacitor
size. This ripple might be of importance as the instantaneous voltage on the DC link can
be lower than the average DC voltage and it is the instantaneous voltage that is employed
on the PWM switching scheme. The use of larger, but feasible in this case, capacitance
on the DC link is enough for avoiding a significant voltage drop of the DC link, assuring
thus ride through capability for unbalanced voltage sags of normal duration in the AC
network. In order to provide ASD ride-through capability to harder and longer sags and
even momentary interruptions, actions must either be taken in the AC network or in the
drive system configuration. The application of power electronics-based equipment -
described later in this thesis - in the medium-voltage network is an alternative to supply
the ASD diode rectifier with an almost undisturbed AC voltage. Improvements on the
drive configuration include two alternatives:
i. Replacement of the passive diode-rectifier by an active rectifier also based on a
voltage-source converter (shown in Figure 3-6), like the ASD inverter.
ii. In this case, the smoothing reactor LS is removed from the DC side but the
reactor LN must be connected between the active rectifier and the AC network.
The harmonic currents generated by the rectifier are shifted to higher frequencies,
which are easier to be filtered. The rectifier provides fast control of the DC link
voltage to a reference value even in the event of a voltage sag.
iii. Additional circuit connected to the DC link, e.g. a boost converter, which is only
switched at the occurrence of sags and regulates the DC link voltage to the
minimum required by the inverter.
If ride-through capability to momentary interruptions is required, it is possible to add an
energy storage system to the DC link, e.g. battery, flywheel or super capacitor, which of
course imply on increased installation and maintenance costs. It should not be forgotten

40
that the power supply of the firing and control systems of the inverter must be able to
withstand the same voltage variation as the drive is designed for, otherwise any
improvement in the drive configuration design may be fruitless. This short analysis has
so far assumed that ASDs are connected to the low voltage network. The emergence of
new high-power components, like the Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT),
has made it possible to connect drive systems to the medium-voltage network. This gives
the possibility of providing torque and speed control to induction motors that nowadays
are directly connected to the grid. Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that these new
drives would, in principle, be even more sensitive to voltage sags and momentary
interruptions, as they will be placed close to majority of the fault locations (high and
medium voltage networks). In this case, employing an active rectifier plus adding some
energy storage capability on the DC link (a larger DC capacitor might be enough) are
necessary measures for assuring ride-through capability.

41
 CHAPTER 4
SYSTEM MODELING & SIMULATION RESULTS
4.1 System modeling
A fundamental component in providing reliable electricity to the end-user is the
step-down distribution transformer, as shown in Fig. 4.1. This distribution transformer
operates at line frequency (LF) (50/60 Hz) to step down from medium voltage (MV) to
low voltage (LV). Even if the conventional distribution transformer is relatively
inexpensive, highly efficient, and reliable, it is not guaranteed to protect loads from
undesirable events such as voltage sags and swells.

Fig. 4.1. Conventional step-down distribution transformer in the distribution grid

network.

Voltage sags and swells have become one of the most critical power quality
issues faced by many industrial consumers in power distribution systems. As the
complexity of the electronics equipment used in the industrial applications grows, the
customer loads are becoming more vulnerable to voltage disturbances such as sags and
swells. Voltage sags/swells cost hundreds of millions of dollars every year in the United
States. The voltage sags and swells result in significant economic losses in a wide range
of industries, including financial services, health care, and process manufacturing.
Consequently, it is suggested to include voltage compensation functionality in the
conventional MV/LV step-down distribution transformer in Fig. 4.1. Voltage sags and
swells can be described by two essential characteristics: magnitude and duration. The
survey of power quality presents that voltage sags with 40–50% of the nominal value and
with duration from 2 to 30 cycles occurred in about 92% of all power system events. The

42
power acceptability curves are introduced in the bus voltage and duration time plane, as
shown in Fig. 4.2. The Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) curve presents
acceptable voltage range between the upper locus (labeled over-voltage condition) and
the lower locus (labeled under-voltage condition), which is the “acceptable power
quality” region. Hence, it is recommended to consider a deep voltage compensator for a
wider range of voltage compensation over a long steady-state period.

Fig. 4.2. The ITIC power acceptability curve.

The most common voltage compensator for the distribution transformer is the
automatic on-load tap changers, which are integrated to most distribution transformers
throughout the distribution systems. However, poor dynamics of ac voltage
compensation, stepwise variation, and a narrow range of output regulation are major
issues to overcome in order to achieve a rapid response to voltage sags and swells.
Another possible approach to mitigate voltage disturbances which can be integrated to an
existing distribution transformer is DySCs. The DySC is based on power electronics
(PEs), which guarantee good dynamic characteristics by utilizing an ac–ac pulse width
modulation (PWM) converter. DySCs and ride-through voltage compensators can
resolve power quality problems on a customer’s distribution line by providing voltage
dip mitigation at a reduced cost. In a PWM ac– ac buck converter with autotransformer
to process partial load power was discussed to compensate for voltage sags. However,

43
systems introduced have a limitation; they only compensate for voltage sag.
Additionally, an often-encountered approach for sag/swell mitigation is the DVR which
injects a voltage component in series with the load voltage. Also, a voltage compensator
using direct power conversion without dc-link capacitors was proposed. However, these
voltage compensators require an extra bulky LF transformer (LFT) and/or huge energy
storage capacitors causing challenges in integrating them with the existing distribution
transformer.

Fig. 4.3. Configuration of the hybrid distribution transformer.

A similar concept called the hybrid distribution transformer, shown in Fig. 4.3,
has been previously introduced to regulate output voltage by utilizing fractional rated
PEs. Also, a hybrid transformer utilizing matrix converter was proposed. The concept
was proposed more than a decade ago. However, this system requires a dc-link energy
storage system such as the electrolytic capacitor. Furthermore, this system requires an
additional winding to be wound on the core of the existing bulky LF distribution
transformer. Consequently, this approach adds economical and mechanical constraints
for distribution network application because it is required to modify or replace the entire
bulky size existing distribution transformer in order to provide voltage compensation
functionality in the distribution grid network.
This project introduces a voltage sag and swell compensator that can be easily integrated
to the standard dry-type existing distribution transformer without replacing or modifying
it. A conceptual schematic of the proposed distribution transformer is shown in Fig. 4.4.
The proposed system is composed of the existing LFT connected to a PEs module that is
auto connected on the secondary side in order to compensate for voltage sags and swells.

44
This auto connection enables a shunt input and series-output compensator without any
capacitive energy storage. Hence the proposed system is structurally and functionally
different from the conventional series compensator such as DVR. The proposed system
utilizes the input voltage Vin in order to generate the compensating voltage vc. This is
rather considered as a tap changer transformer which regulates the load voltage by
varying the turns ratio of the transformer utilizing source voltage instead of using energy
storage system in the DVR.

Fig. 4.4. Conceptual scheme of the proposed distribution transformer with power
electronics module.

Due to its structure, the partial power processing capability in the PEs module
allows for a reduced rating in the proposed system. Also, the efficiency can be
maximized during the bypass mode in the whole system. The PEs module generates a
compensating voltage, which is vector-added to the grid voltage in order to regulate the
output voltage supplied to the load.

4.2. CONCEPT OF THE PROPOSED DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

The proposed system is composed of two parts: an LF transformer and a PE
module as seen in Fig. 4.4. The LF transformer represents a dry-type existing distribution
transformer that steps down from MV to LV and this provides galvanic isolation between
the source voltage and load voltage. The existing LF distribution transformer can be
retrofitted with the PE module, as shown in Fig. 4.4. One secondary side terminal of the
LFT is connected to an output terminal of the PE module so that the load voltage is the
sum of the compensating voltage of the PE module (Vc)and the secondary side voltage of
the standard distribution transformer (Vin). The efficiency of the proposed system varies

45
based on the amount of bypass power. Thus, the efficiency can be maximized during
normal conditions, or bypass mode. Due to fractional power processing of the module,
only partial losses of the module are reflected in the entire efficiency calculation of the
proposed system. During normal conditions, or bypass mode. Due to fractional power
processing of the module, only partial losses of the module are reflected in the entire
efficiency calculation of the proposed system.

4.3. OPERATING PRINCIPAL OF THE POWER ELECTRONICS MODULE

The detailed schematic diagram of the PE module for the proposed distribution
transformer is shown in Fig. 4.5. The PE module consists of four single-phase H-bridge
converters, MF/HF transformer, output filter, static bypass switches, and DSP controller
as seen in Fig. 4.5. Two H-bridge converters (M2, M3) connected directly to the MF/HF
transformer operate at a high switching frequency while the other two converters (M1,
M4) operate at LF. An MF transformer can be employed for relatively higher power
applications, while an HF transformer may be preferred for lower power residential-type
applications.

Fig. 4.5. Detailed power electronics module in the proposed distribution transformer.

The PE module operates in voltage compensation mode or by pass mode. During

bypass mode, the grid-side voltage (Vin) is directly connected to the load-side by closing
a bypass switchQ2 and opening a bypass switch Q1. When voltage sags and swells occur
on the grid-side, the bypass switch Q2 is opened and Q1 is closed so that the PWM
switches are activated to supply the required compensating voltage (Vc). Since the
bypass switch is activated by a voltage magnitude detection algorithm, the operating
bypass mode and compensation mode are determined by voltage magnitude changes in

46
the grid. Moreover, turning ON switches S3 M4 and S4 M4 in the LF unfolding inverter
(M4) can be utilized in place of having bypass switches Q1 and Q2 during normal
condition. This reduces switching losses in the entire system by avoiding operating static
bypass switches Q1 and Q2. The secondary side of the MF/HF transformer also has a
similar HF folding converter M3 followed by the LF unfolding inverter as shown in Fig.
4.5.

4.4 SIMULATION RESULTS

The detailed schematic diagram of the PE module for the proposed distribution
transformer is shown in figure. The PE module consists of four single-phase H-bridge
converters, MF/HF transformer, output filter, static bypass switches, and DSP controller
as seen in Figure. Two H-bridge converters (M2, M3) connected directly to the MF/HF
transformer operate at a high switching frequency while the other two converters (M1,
M4) operate at LF. An MF transformer can be employed for relatively higher power
applications, while an HF transformer may be preferred for lower power residential-type
applications.

Fig:4.6. simulation diagram of proposed distribution transformer.

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Fig:4.7(a)Source voltage vin with 50% sag, normal and 50% swell,

Fig:4.7(b)compensating reference signal vc,ref,

48
 Fig:4.7(c)duty Dff

Fig:4.7(d)phase shift angle Φ

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 Fig:4.7(e)primary voltage of the MF/HF transformer vpri

Fig:4.7(f)unfolded voltage Vunfold

50
 Fig:4.7(g)compensating voltage Vc

Fig:4.7(h)normalized source voltage Vβin ,90° phase delay normalized source voltage
Vαin , and normalized input voltage magnitude Vm

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 Fig:4.7(i)voltage detection signal Sref

Ideal operation for phase shift modulation in the proposed control scheme at 1:1 turns
ratio: (a) Source voltage vin with 50% sag, normal and 50% swell, (b) compensating
reference signal vc,ref , (c) duty Dff , (d) phase shift angle Φ, (e) primary voltage of the
MF/HF transformer vpri , (f) unfolded voltage Vunfold , (g) compensating voltage Vc ,
(h) normalized source voltage Vβin , 90° phase delay normalized source voltage Vαin ,
and normalized input voltage magnitude Vm , and (i) voltage detection signal Sref .

The control scheme for the proposed system is introduced in this section. Fig. 5.2
shows operation waveform of the proposed control scheme based on the control block
diagram. The control block diagram includes a load voltage control block and a
compensating voltage reference generation block. When the voltage sag/swell occurs, the
compensating voltage reference generation block generates duty ratio Dff, based on the
amount of voltage sag/swell. Also, the load voltage control block generates duty ratio
Dfb, to regulate the desired load voltage. The compensating voltage reference Vc, ref
shown in Fig. 5.2(b) for voltage sag or swell is obtained by subtracting the normalized
grid voltage signal Vin, normfrom the normalized ac reference signal Vo, ac ref the unity
magnitude sinusoidal signal generated by the fundamental frequency detection methods.
The angle of phase delay (φ) in the control scheme is obtained by a conversion of the
duty ratio radian after adding Dff and Dfb as seen in Fig. 5.2(d). Then, this phase angle
delay φ is adjusted in order to generate compensating voltage Vc as shown in Fig. 5.2(e)–
(g). In the compensating voltage sags and swells detection block, a voltage magnitude of

52
the input voltage Vm is obtained as shown in Fig. 5.2(h) A voltage detection signal Sref
for voltage sag or swell is determined by subtracting Vm signal from normalized dc
reference voltage signal Vo, dc ref as shown in Fig. 5.2(i). As shown in Fig. 5.2(e), the
primary voltage Vpri is generated HF based on the obtained phase shift angle φ from the
control scheme. Assuming that a 1:1 MF/HF transformer is selected, the compensating
voltage for 50% sag condition can be generated by superimposing the maximum phase
angle φ which is π in rad on the 50% sagged LF pulsating voltage as shown in Fig.
5.2(e)–(g). For the 50% swell condition, the primary voltage has 2π/3 in rad phase delay
superimposed on an LF swelled pulsating voltage as shown in Fig. 5.2(e). The 180° out-
of-phase compensating voltage Vc is provided by filtering out HF components from
unfolded voltage as shown in Fig. 5.2(f) and (g).

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 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
5.1 CONCLUSION
In this project, a series voltage regulator for the distribution transformer to
compensate voltage sags/swells along with its control scheme was introduced. The
proposed approach was easily integrated into existing conventional distribution
transformers in order to provide sag or swell compensation capability for a distribution
grid system. Experimental results demonstrated voltage sag and swell compensation
without a dc-link and associated electrolytic capacitors. Due to partial power processing,
the PE module had a lower voltage rating and, for the same reason, The MF/HF
transformer had a lower VA rating than the load. Therefore, the proposed system is a
possible retro-fit solution for existing distribution transformers to improve power quality
in the future grid, especially in the face of the proliferation of renewable and distributed
generation.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

Possible extensions that can be done to our work are;
Realization of intelligent DSTATCOM and DVR in hardware. As FACTS devices fail to
take care of voltage surges, study can be extended in this area also .Modeling of newly
developed FACTS controller like unified power flow converters in combination with
various soft computing techniques can be done.

54
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