Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review on voltage control methods using on-load tap changer

transformers for networks with renewable energy sources
Charles R. Sarimuthu a,b,n, Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy a,
K.R. Agileswari a, Hazlie Mokhlis c
a
Power Quality Research Group, Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN,
43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
School of Engineering, Taylor's University, Lakeside Campus, No.1, Jalan Taylor's, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Voltage control is an important method for regulating the feeder voltages in a distribution network.
Received 13 January 2015 Various voltage control methods are used by distribution network operators (DNOs) in order to maintain
Received in revised form the network voltages to be within an acceptable voltage level. Traditionally, on-load tap changer (OLTC)
8 January 2016
and automatic voltage control (AVC) relays are often employed in regulating the network voltages. How-
Accepted 3 May 2016
ever, the traditional voltage control techniques are no longer suitable when renewable energy (RE) sources
are connected to the network because of the possibility of bidirectional power flows. The presence of
Keywords: reverse power flow will affect the feeder voltage profiles and influence the voltage control scheme prac-
Power transformer ticed in the distribution system. This paper presents an overview on the various OLTC voltage control
On-load tap changer transformers
schemes which are used to control the voltage in distribution networks containing RE sources.
Distribution systems
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Automatic voltage control relay

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2. Traditional voltage control scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2.1. Voltage control with load tap changer (LTC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2.2. Voltage control with line drop compensation (LDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2.3. Grading time (GT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
3. Enhanced voltage control AVC relay scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
3.1. Source drop compensation (SDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
3.2. Pre-emptive tap changer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
4. Voltage control scheme for OLTC in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
4.1. Master-follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
4.2. True circulating current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
4.3. Negative reactance compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
4.4. Transformer automatic paralleling package (TAPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
5. Modern voltage control scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
5.1. Enhanced transformer automatic paralleling package (Enhanced TAPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
5.2. SuperTAPP nþ relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
5.3. Intelligent AVC relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
5.3.1. ANN controller based AVC relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
5.3.2. Fuzzy logic controller based AVC relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159

n
Corresponding author at: Power Quality Research Group, Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang,
Selangor, Malaysia. Tel.: þ60 129353924; fax: þ60 3 56295477.
E-mail addresses: charlzray@yahoo.com (C.R. Sarimuthu), vigna@uniten.edu.my (V.K. Ramachandaramurthy).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.016
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161 1155

5.3.3. State estimation based AVC relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159

6. Concepts of OLTC control in distribution system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161

1. Introduction normally consists of initial delay and inter tap delay. The initial
delay ranges from 10 to 120 s and the inter tap delay for each step
Electrical power distribution systems are normally operated at tap changer operation is from 5 to 60 s [8].
multiple voltage level. The voltage levels differ based on the amount
of power generated by RE sources and load variations in the net-
work. These different voltage levels are kept within acceptable 2.2. Voltage control with line drop compensation (LDC)
limits by including an OLTC transformer where the substation sec-
ondary bus voltage is kept stable by adjusting the tap position [1]. In an OLTC operation, normally LTC is provided with LDC func-
Tap position adjustment is necessary to physically alter the ratios of tion to control the voltage at a remote point. Besides monitoring the
the transformer for voltage regulation. The OLTC operate by chan- transformer's terminal voltage, this function includes the mea-
ging the number of turns in one winding of the transformer to keep surement of the secondary current [9]. The measurement is used to
the transformer output voltage within predicted limits.
simulate the voltage drop along the feeder impedance that exists
The OLTCs are motorized mechanical switching arrangements
between the transformer terminal and the load point [10].
that adjust the transformer turns ratio, typically in steps of 1.25% or
In order to keep the correct voltage level at the load side, line
1.43%, whilst the transformers are in use and carrying a load [2]. The
resistance R and line reactance X is used to increase the regulated
OLTC transformer is normally applied in the distribution networks
to step down from 33 kV to 11 kV or 6.6 kV. Each OLTC transformer voltage at the transformer terminal. Voltage control at a nominal
is linked to an AVC relay in order to increase or decrease the voltage load point rather than at the transformer terminal is achieved
by changing the tap position of transformer [3]. using LDC.
However, the operation of AVC relay can be affected by the
possible existence of bidirectional power flows when RE sources are
connected to the network. Innovation is required in OLTC voltage 2.3. Grading time (GT)
control scheme in order to support the current implementation of
smart grid incorporating RE sources such as wind, solar and AVC relay with LDC function operates in between different
hydrogen [4]. Studies on the size, operating power factor mode voltage levels in power supply networks. If a downstream tap
[5,6], and location of RE sources in the network are needed in order changer is allowed to operate before an upstream tap changer,
to design an innovative OLTC voltage control scheme to cope with then the OLTCs might work against one another and become
the increasing RE sources connected into the distribution network. unstable. In order to correct this situation, the GT is introduced
(Figs. 2 and 3).
GT ensures that the initial time delay is longer for the down-
2. Traditional voltage control scheme stream controllers compared to the upstream controllers. The
different initial time delay for downstream and upstream con-
Traditionally, the voltage control in distribution networks
trollers are required to ensure that upstream operations are given
without RE sources is performed using OLTC, shunt capacitors,
preference and carried out first. This time grading strategy
shunt reactors, static var compensation etc. This paper will focus
requires the upstream transformer to finish its operation before
on voltage control strategies involving OLTCs in distribution net-
work connected with RE sources. Without RE sources connected in the down-stream transformer restores the voltage level.
a distribution system, the power flow is assumed to be unidirec-
tional and the set-values for the OLTCs are chosen according to the
voltage drop along the feeder. Based on the set-values, the voltage
at the secondary of the OLTC transformer is changed in order to
prevent the voltage along the feeder from breaching the lower
voltage limit and not exceeding the upper voltage limit. The
change in voltage at the secondary of the OLTC transformer is
achieved when the AVC relay initiates a signal to the tap changer
system to change its tap position.

2.1. Voltage control with load tap changer (LTC)

The basic arrangement of voltage control with LTC regulation is

shown in Fig. 1. Since the voltage on a conventional distribution
network (without RE source connection) decreases towards the
end of feeder, the LTC shall then be set to ensure that the voltage at
the feeder end is higher than the minimum allowed voltage and
the sending-end voltage is lower than the maximum allowed
voltage. The AVC relay determines whether to adjust the tap
position or not in order to maintain the voltage level which is
assumed to be equal to 1 p.u at the end of feeder [7]. An AVC relay Fig. 1. Basic LTC arrangement [7].
1156 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161
Fig. 2. AVC relay scheme with LDC [11].
Fig. 3. Typical power supply network [12].
3. Enhanced voltage control AVC relay scheme
The need for GT delay can be replaced by using a communica-
tions unit. If communications are available between the OLTC con-
trollers at the different voltage levels, then a blocking signal can be
issued to stop the operation of downstream transformer when the
up-stream transformer starts its operation. The time delays
between OLTCs at different voltage levels are minimized and any
voltage correction is completed at the highest level since the
blocking signal is removed when the up-stream transformer has
done its correction. The system allows for OLTC to operate with
optimum efficiency while maintaining voltage quality. Alternatively
the Enhanced Voltage Control AVC Relay scheme provides autono-
mous tap-changer controls without the communications unit due
to the fact that communication assisted voltage control schemes are
complex and costly. This scheme incorporates the features of Source
Drop Compensation (SDC) and Pre-emptive Tap Changer operation.
3.1. Source drop compensation (SDC)
SDC optimizes the time grading between voltage levels by
determining the voltage at the regulation point by the source
current and the feeder impedance between the upstream and
down-stream transformer. The down-stream AVC relay uses this
voltage when a voltage disturbance occurs. If the voltage of reg-
ulation point is outside its voltage dead-band, the down-stream
AVC relay will wait until the voltage correction of upstream
transformer is completed. However, when the voltage at the reg-
ulation point is within its dead-band, the upstream transformer
operation is assumed to be complete and the down-stream AVC
relay can proceed with the local voltage correction. This over-rides
the grading time delays and minimizes the action of the com-
munications based blocking scheme [13].
3.2. Pre-emptive tap changer
Pre-emptive tap changing strategy involves two types of time
settings which are the Transient Time (TT) and GT. TT setting is the
time that has to elapse before any voltage correction is permitted to
take place and GT is the time in which a local tap changer delays the
local voltage correction to enable upstream tap changers to com-
plete their voltage correction. The AVC relay issues a tap change
command to the OLTC after the transient time in the operation of
Pre-Emptive tap changing scheme. The AVC relay then resets its
delay time so that any subsequent tap changes occur after the
grading time [13]. Therefore, it allows the local AVC relay to correct
one tap but then grade with upstream OLTCs if any further tap-
changers are required.
4. Voltage control scheme for OLTC in parallel
The features of SDC and pre-emptive tap changing strategy are
used when OLTC transformers are operated in series. However,
primary-substation transformers are often operated in parallel for
higher security and reliability of supply. When transformers are
operated in parallel, any difference in the positions of their tap
changers will give rise to a circulating current, as shown in Fig. 4.
In this condition, the AVC relay should perform to keep the voltage
within allowable limits while minimizing the circulating current
between parallel transformers. The master-follower method is
used to avoid difference in tap changer position for transformers
operated in parallel whereas the true circulating current method is
used to minimize the circulating current if the tap positions for
parallel transformers are different.
Fig. 4. Occurrence of a circulating current IC due to a difference in transformer tap
positions [2].
 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161
4.1. Master-follower
In the master-follower method, all paralleled transformers are
retained on the same tap position. In this method, one master
transformer changes the tap position to a satisfactory voltage level
and then other transformers follow the same actions as the master
[14]. The master-follower scheme can be used with LDC and
operates under varying power factor, reverse power flow and with
presence of RE sources. The drawback of this method is that cir-
culating current will flow between paralleled transformers using
this method unless the transformers are equal with the same
impedance, number of taps and incoming voltage. It is impossible
to use this scheme across a network because connections between
AVC relays are required.
4.2. True circulating current
In true circulating current scheme, identical transformers as in the
master-follower scheme are used. If the tap positions of the trans-
former are different, then circulating current will flow between the
transformers. The circulating current is formulated as follows:
ICIRC ¼ ðIT1 –IT2 Þ=2
The biasing in opposite polarities is used to correct the OLTC to
adjust the relay setting voltage. Therefore the circulating current is
minimized [14]. This scheme is applicable with LDC and it per-
forms well under varying power factor, reverse power flow and
with integration of RE sources. The disadvantages of this scheme
are that it is difficult to parallel transformers which are not in the
same site and as the paralleled transformers must have similar
impedance, incoming voltage and connections [2].
4.3. Negative reactance compounding
The negative reactance compounding (NRC) method helps to
maintain similar tap positions for paralleled transformers by
changing the polarity of reactance of LDC setting – XLDC [15]. The
following formulas show the relationship between LDC settings
and negative reactance compounding (NRC) setting:
ZLDC ¼ RLDC þ jXLDC
ZNRC ¼ RLDC –jXLDC
The operating principle of NRC is illustrated in Fig. 5.
Based on the phasor diagram shown in Fig.5, transformer T1
has much higher tap position compared to transformer T2. Due to
the difference in tap position, a circulating current will flow
between transformer T1 and transformer T2. The circulating cur-
rent causes current IT1 to be shifted in clockwise direction and
current IT2 in anti-clockwise direction. Both current IT1 and IT2
which passes through the ZNRC setting create a voltage drop IT ∙
ZNRC. The AVC relay uses this voltage drop to determine the proper
tap position. Since the voltage at transformer T1 is higher than the
target voltage therefore the AVC relay initiates a tap down
operation. Similarly the AVC relay of transformer T2 initiates a tap
up operation. The action stops with a similar tap position of
both the parallel transformers when the circulating current is
eliminated and target voltage is achieved.
Fig. 5. Operating principle of NRC [14].
1157
The advantage of NRC scheme is that it can operate with
transformers at different positions in the networks and it does not
need to be identical anymore due to the independent action of
each transformers. However, the NRC fails to operate satisfactorily
when the power factor changes from a set point. Integration of
irregular RE sources into the network effects the NRC operation.
Apart from that, negative value of XLDC setting could cause poor
performance of LDC. An increased value of RLDC is needed in order
to maintain the performance of LDC.
4.4. Transformer automatic paralleling package (TAPP)
The transformer automatic paralleling package (TAPP) scheme
is developed from the NRC scheme. The TAPP scheme reduces the
amount of circulating current between transformer T1 and trans-
former T2. The reduction is achieved by dividing the measured
current into circulating current and load transformer current.
Circulating current in the TAPP scheme uses techniques based on
the target power factor (pftarg) as shown in Fig. 6.
Problems due to poor performance of LDC with NRC are elimi-
nated in the TAPP scheme by using two separate circuits. The circuits
are used for LDC and compounding purpose. However, the drawback
ð1Þ
of TAPP scheme is that the load power factor deviation will result in
an error in the controlled voltage due to knowledge of the load
current being considered as circulating current. The set power factor
is the necessary factor to make the voltage control to be satisfactory.
5. Modern voltage control scheme
The integration of RE sources into distribution network will
affect the flow of power and the voltage profiles in the distribution
system [16]. The integration of RE sources will result in an increased
voltage at the point of connection. The steady-state voltage rise that
occurs when connecting RE sources to distribution networks has
been studied in [17]. This rise in voltage level affects the operation
of AVC relay and causes voltage regulation problems since the AVC
relay voltage reference is no longer proper for an effective operation
of AVC relay. Due to this reason, improved voltage control scheme
are the topic of on-going research to accommodate the presence of
ð2Þ
RE sources connected to distribution networks.
ð3Þ
5.1. Enhanced transformer automatic paralleling package (Enhanced
TAPP)
Enhanced TAPP scheme is introduced to remove the drawback
related to TAPP scheme [18]. The voltage profile of dynamic dis-
tribution networks can also be improved by Enhanced TAPP
scheme. The true circulating current mode is applied to control
voltage level and paralleled transformers on the same location,
while TAPP mode is used to parallel transformers across the net-
work. Principle of Enhanced TAPP scheme is illustrated in Fig. 7.
Load current (IT1 þIT2) and the measured transformer current
(ITN) is used to calculate the amount of circulating current in the
True Circulating Current mode. The voltage detected by AVC relay
Fig. 6. Principle of TAPP scheme [14].
1158 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161
Fig. 7. Enhanced TAPP scheme in True Circulating Current mode [2].
Fig. 8. Enhanced TAPP scheme in TAPP mode [19].
of the transformer with higher tap position is increased using the
voltage drop on the compounding setting (ICIRCZT).The same vol-
tage drop is used to decrease the voltage detected by AVC relay of
the transformer with lower tap position. Then the tap down action
for the OLTC transformer on higher tap position and up action for
OLTC transformer on lower tap position are operated until the
measured voltage is within the bandwidth of the target voltage.
This operation is necessary to achieve minimum circulating cur-
rent. Comparison between the group load current and full load
current is used to determine a suitable increase in LDC voltage as
described by the following formula [14]:
PT
n ¼ 1 I Tn
LDCVoltageBoost ¼ V LDC ¼ Z LDC þ
I FL
where n – number of transformers within the TAPP scheme
IFL – full load current
ITn – individual transformer current
ZLDC – load drop compensation settings
The circulating current in the TAPP mode is determined by total
load current and target power factor as illustrated in Fig. 8.
In the enhanced TAPP voltage control scheme, adjustment to
the tap position is done for minimizing the circulating current.
However, this adjustment to the tap position is unable to provide
the effective voltage setting to control the voltage profile in the
network with RE sources.
5.2. SuperTAPP n þ relay
The SuperTAPP nþ relay [20] which is based on Enhanced TAPP
scheme [19] is introduced to overcome the limitations faced by
application of Enhanced TAPP scheme. The SuperTAPP n þ relay
can estimate current output of the RE source IG by the additional
current measurement IFG on the feeder 1 with RE source and ratio
EST as illustrated in Fig. 9. The ratio EST represents the load share
between feeders with RE sources to those without RE sources.
Fig. 9. SuperTAPP n þ relay [19].
where IG is calculated as follows [19]:
loadonfeederswithgenerators I1 I FG
ETS ¼ ¼ ¼ ð5Þ
loadonfeederswithoutgenerators I 2 I TL  I FG
X
n
I TL ¼ I Tn ¼ I T1 þ I T2 ð6Þ
N¼1
I G ¼ ðETS ∙ðI TL  I FG ÞÞ  I FG ð7Þ
The increase in voltage at the point of connection can be
determined and the proper generator compensation bias, VG can
be calculated as follows [19]:
IG
V G ¼ V GMAX ∙ ð8Þ
I GMAX
The above formula is applied to the AVC relay to determine the
suitable voltage setting to control the voltage profile in the net-
work with RE sources.
ð4Þ
5.3. Intelligent AVC relay
The increasing use of renewable energy resources due to its
high efficiency and low environmental impact is the key factor for
transforming the traditional power grid to smart grid in the future.
The smart grid uses intelligent devices and a digital communica-
tion in power system to enhance the performance of distribution
grids. Therefore, the OLTC voltage control method may need to be
changed in the future as the control needs to be more flexible and
smarter [21,22]. Fuzzy logic, artificial neural network and state
estimation based AVC relay are the types of intelligent AVC relay
that is available.
5.3.1. ANN controller based AVC relay
S.K. Salman and I.M. Rida presented in [23] an attempt to
design an AVC relay based on the application of Artificial Neural
Network (ANN). In 1997, it has been reported that considerable
attention has been given for application of ANNs to electrical
power systems [24–26]. Various types of ANNs are described in
literature [27,28]. The model developed in [23] shows that ANN
based AVC relay are capable of operating similar to other types of
AVC relay [23].The ANN-based AVC relay is trained using data file
obtained from load flow studies under various operating condi-
tion. In [23], the ANN based AVC relay sends signal to change the
tap-changer of OLTC transformer to retain the voltage within the
 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161
allowable limits when the calculated AVC voltage exceeds the
limits of 72% of reference voltage. The calculated results at every
step are saved into an output file to obtain a particular trend for a
specific operating condition. The drawback of this relay is that it
performs well only after satisfactory training and testing [23].
5.3.2. Fuzzy logic controller based AVC relay
The integration of renewable energy resources has caused
voltage regulation problems due to the interference with the
performance of conventional AVC relay [6]. S.K. Salman and Z.G.
Wan in 2007 [7] introduced fuzzy logic-based AVC relay to over-
come this problem. Fuzzy logic systems are much preferred
compared to other artificial intelligent systems because the control
rules can be implemented using simple “IF-THEN” relations [29].
The other advantages of these systems are that they are simpler,
faster and able to simplify design complexity and lessen the
hardware cost [7].Fuzzy logic systems are beneficial because they
allow the usage of fuzzy rules which are more expressive than
crisp values [30]. Fig. 10 shows a fuzzy logic based AVC relay which
consists of 3-input and 1-output. The inputs are low voltage side of
OLTC transformer voltage (V), phase angle of the current through
the OLTC transformer (PAI), the change of current (ΔI) and the
output is the AVC relay voltage (VAVC) [7].
This fuzzy logic control system applies Mamdani's Fuzzy
Inference System (FIS) [31] since it is more user friendly compared
to the conventional Takagi-Sugeno method. The advantage of the
fuzzy logic controller based-AVC relay is that its setting does not
require re-adjustment as RE sources are connected into the net-
work. However the relay setting might need to change if the relay
is applied to different network.
5.3.3. State estimation based AVC relay
Leite et.al., [32] developed a statistical distribution state esti-
mator for application in the 11 kV voltage controller. The dis-
tribution state estimator is constructed using techniques which
are drawn from transmission network state estimation and dis-
tribution state estimation research [33]. In an 11 kV network, state
estimation method uses measurements at primary substations to
estimate the voltage at each node of the network. In order to
safeguard customer voltages within permitted levels, the voltage
controller needs accurate data on the voltage at each network
node [34]. The functional diagram showing the state estimation
and control block which is the content of the voltage controller is
illustrated in Fig. 11. The black arrows represent real-time signals
whereas the white arrows represent offline data. The advantage of
state estimation method is that it does not require electrical
measuring equipment at every node of the network [35].
The inputs required for a distribution network state estimator
are network topology and impedance data, information about
customer loads and a few real-time measurements [36]. The
drawback of state estimation based AVC relay is that all the above
inputs are required for it to operate as desired.
Tables 1 and 2 give a summary of the voltage control methods
using on-load tap changer transformers. Both the tables provide
description of the voltage control method involve in networks with
Fig. 10. Fuzzy logic based AVC relay [7].
1159
Fig. 11. Voltage controller functional diagram [32].
and without RE sources. The tables also cover the relevant advantage
and disadvantages of each voltage control method described.
6. Concepts of OLTC control in distribution system
Network control systems have been developed by the dis-
tribution system operators in order to maintain the voltage level at
consumer's supply point to be within acceptable levels [37]. The
network control systems are managed in real time [38]. These
control systems consist of communication and control devices
[39]. Network parameters such as OLTC tap settings are optimized
by these control systems during network operation.
OLTCs or management of reactive power flow is used in con-
ventional distribution systems to control the voltage profile. The
source of power in a distribution network is usually a substation,
which may have OLTCs to supply the distribution network. Voltage
profile in the network can be controlled by varying the tap setting
on the OLTC.
The placement and sizing of RE sources varies for different
distribution network configurations [40]. In [41], a multi-objective
problem is proposed for the placement and sizing of multiple RE
sources in a distribution network to improve the transient stability
index in addition to the losses and voltage profile. Maroosi et. al.,
[42], presented the potential of modern distribution systems to
maximally utilize RE sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from the power system. Voltage control in distribution systems
with RE source involves the use of coordinated voltage control
through dispatch of RE source output, OLTCs and reactive power
support [5]. The coordinated voltage management in distribution
system is categorized as centralized or decentralized. Centralized
distribution management system controls several distribution
substations and it requires extensive communication networks in
order to operate.
In [14,32,43–45], it is seen that transformers, reactive power
devices and RE sources are used to control the voltage in dis-
tribution systems. Transformers are used to vary the voltage
directly. OLTCs at substations can raise or lower the voltage level in
the distribution network. In networks where RE sources are used
to regulate the voltage, large RE source greater than 30 percent of
the feeder capacity could cause problem to the OLTC operation
when the RE source is suddenly disconnected. This is due to the
voltage which becomes too low to support the load and takes a
minute or more to recover. The solution is using a control scheme
that locks the OLTC at a preselected tap when the generator is
operating and interconnected. One common strategy for line reg-
ulators is to take the regulator to the neutral tap when the reverse
power is sensed by its control.
In [46], it is seen that RE sources are considered as intermittent
power generation sources. Independent System Operators (ISOs)
execute security-constrained daily RE source generation schedul-
ing which takes into account the intermittency of power genera-
tion by RE sources [47]. Izadbakhsh et.al., [48] presented short-
term resource scheduling of RE based micro grid which minimizes
total operation cost and greenhouse gas emissions due to power
1160 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161

Table 1
Summarized voltage control strategies of on-load tap changer transformers for networks without RE source connection.

Without DG

Voltage control method Description Advantage(s)/disadvantage(s)

Load tap changer (LTC) [7]
Line Drop Compensation (LDC)
[11]
Grading Time (GT) [11]
Source Drop Compensation (SDC)
[13]
Pre-emptive tap changer [13]
Master –follower [14]
True circulating current [14]
Negative Reactance Compound-
ing (NRC) [14]
Transformer automatic parallel-
ing package (TAPP) [14]
 Detects voltage at the end of the feeder and compares it with the  Difficult to detect voltage at a remote point along the feeder.
set value. If the voltage detected is not within allowable level
then the tap position is adjusted to ensure the voltage at the
feeder end is higher than the minimum allowed voltage and the
sending-end voltage is lower than the maximum allowed
voltage.
 Includes secondary current measurement to simulate the voltage
drop along the feeder impedance that exists between transfor-
mer terminal and load.
 Coordinates the operation of upstream and downstream tap
changer by applying time delay. The upstream tap changer is
allowed to perform first before the downstream tap changer
start to operate.
 Downstream tap changer is allowed to over-ride the grading
time delay if the voltage at the regulation point is within its
dead-band.
 Involves two types of time settings to allow local AVC relay to
correct one tap but then grade it with upstream OLTC if any
further tap-changers are required.
 Tap changer position for transformer operated in parallel are
retained on the same tap position.
 Circulating current is minimized when biasing in opposite 
polarities is used to correct the OLTC for adjusting the relay
setting voltage.
 Maintains similar tap position for paralleled transformers by
changing the polarity of reactance of LDC setting.
 Reduces the circulating current between paralleled transformers 
by using numerical techniques based on the target power factor.
 Can be used to control voltage at a nominal load point.
 Could potentially prolong the voltage discrepancy for the
duration of the time delay because downstream tap changer
has to wait until upstream tap changer has completed its
operation.
 Optimizes the time grading strategy.
 Downstream tap changer is allowed operate irrespective of
any upstream tap changer operations required.
 Circulating current will flow between parallel transformers
unless the transformers have the same impedance, number of
taps and incoming voltage.
Difficult to parallel transformers which are not in the same site
and the paralleled transformers must have similar impedance,
incoming voltage and connections.
 Can operate with transformers in different positions in the
networks and it does not need to be identical anymore.
 Unable to operate satisfactorily when the power factor chan-
ges from a set point due to integration of irregular RE sources
into the network.
Error occurs in the controlled voltage due to load current being
considered as part of circulating current when the load power
factor deviates from the set power factor.

Table 2
Summarized voltage control strategies of on-load tap changer transformers for networks with RE source connection.

With DG

Voltage control method Description Advantage(s)/disadvantage(s)

Enhanced transformer automatic
paralleling package (Enhanced
TAPP) [19]
SuperTAPP n þ relay [20]
ANN controller based AVC relay [23]
Fuzzy logic controller based AVC
relay [7]
State estimation based AVC relay
[32]
 This scheme is the combination of TAPP and circulating current  Adjustment to the tap position is done for minimizing the
method. circulating current but unable to provide effective voltage
setting to control the voltage profile in the network with DG.
 Additional current measurement on the feeder with DG and a  Able to eliminate the error from the LDC performance
ratio which represents the load share between feeders with DG caused by DG.
to those without DG is used to estimate the DG output at
remote point on the feeder.
 Data obtained from load flow studies under various operating  Performs well only after satisfactory training and testing.
condition is used to train the AVC relay.
 Fuzzy logic controller is used in calculating the voltage of  Fuzzy logic AVC relay setting does not require re-adjustment
AVC relay. when DG is connected into the network.
 Relay setting might need to be changed if it is used in dif-
ferent network.
 Network data, load data and a few real time measurements are  Does not require electrical measuring equipment at each
used to estimate the voltage at each node of the network. node of the network.
 Data accuracy affects the relay performance.

generation by RE sources. The decision to connect or disconnect
the RE sources to solve the multi-objective problem as above is
done using artificial intelligent method [49]. Relationship between
active / reactive power loss and generated power from RE sources
are discussed in [50].Sudden connection or disconnection of
smaller RE sources producing reactive power at a constant power
factor can result in a relatively large voltage change that will
persist until recognized by the utility voltage regulating system
[51]. The solution for this includes faster tap-changing voltage
regulators and requiring the load to be disconnected whenever the
RE source is forced off due to a disturbance. Intelligent AVC relays
which enables faster tap changes has certain drawbacks that
restrict their implementation in real-time applications. In future,
extensive research into improving these intelligence techniques is
still required to ensure effective implementation of intelligent AVC
relays in real-time applications.
7. Conclusion
This paper has reviewed the existing OLTC voltage control
scheme as well as the new voltage control techniques. The voltage
 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161
control scheme for OLTC transformers connected both in series
and parallel has been discussed in this paper. The Enhanced
Automatic Paralleling Package and SuperTAPP nþ relay schemes
are capable of improving voltage control for networks containing
various levels of RE source. The main advantages of intelligent AVC
relays are that their control performance is similar or even better
than the conventional AVC relays. The intelligent AVC relays are
much preferred since they reduce the hardware costs. Continuous
innovation in OLTC voltage control schemes is necessary to cater
for high penetration of RE sources in distribution network which
causes considerable impact on voltage regulation of the existing
OLTC voltage control system.
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