| | Research Methods Unit 3 Process in Research Proposal DevelopmentUnit Objectives To demonstrate the various steps involved in the development of a research proposal: © Know the contents of a research proposal © How to identify a research topic and formulate a research question/hypothesis © Set the objectives/aims © Develop a research design and methods o Prepare literature review and Cite references © Prepare work plan, and Identify resources © Produce a complete research proposalLesson 1: What is the Research Proposal? Identifying a research topic: © The first step and one of the most difficult in research undertaking Criteria for selecting a research topic: © Relevance/Significance o Avoidance of duplication o Urgency of data needed (timeliness) o Feasibility of study © Applicability of results © Interest to the researcher © Ethical acceptabilityLesson 1: What is the Research Proposal? = 0 The research proposal is the detailed plan of study 0 The objective in writing a proposal is to describe what you will do, why it should be done, how you will do it and what you expect will result a A good research proposal hinges on a good idea, familiarity with the topic, longer preparatory period of reading, observation, discussion, and incubationLesson 1: What is the Research Proposal? The written proposal: helps to clarify thoughts and to think about all aspects of the study; is a necessary guide if its a team research; is essential if the study involves research on human subjects or on experimental animals, in order to get the institution’s ethical approval; is an essential component submitted for funding. Note: once a proposal for a study has been developed, approved, and in progress, it should be adhered to strictly and should not be changed. Violations of the proposal can discredit the whole study.Lesson 1: What is the Research Proposal? =” a A proposal can be judged according to three main criteria: Is it adequate to answer the research question(s), and achieve the study objective? ls it feasible in the particular set-up for the study? Does it provide enough detail that can allow another investigator to do the study and arrive at comparable results?Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal 5 Title page Summary /Abstract Introduction/Background Statement of the problem Literature review Hypotheses /Questions Conceptual framework Objective/Aim of the study Research methods, materials and procedures © Study area G Study design © Study subjects 10. 11. 12. 13. Eligibility Criteria (if any) Sample size Sampling methods Method of data collection Description of variables Data quality assurance Operational definitions oBooagoagaaada Plan of data analysis Work plan Budget References Appendices/Annexes2.1 Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal Title page: Should have the title, name of author, name of department/faculty/college, name of advisor(s) and date of delivery; no page number Title should have the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents of the study; Avoid abbreviations 2.2 Summary/Abstract: One page brief summary of the thesis proposal Show relevance of the research to what is already known about the topic and what new contribution will be made Based only on information in main text of proposal No references, figures, or tables Written lastLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2.3 Introduction/background: Establish a framework for the research and relation to other research Should be able to motivate the reader Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and significance of the question Proper acknowledgement of previous work Relevant references that show the significance of the question Should be focused on the research question(s) Show scope of the work (what will and will not be covered) Verbal “table of contents” Obvious transition between the introduction and planned contribution a Basically, it should have to convince people that the researcher knows what they are talking about and that the research is important.Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2.4 Statement of the Problem: A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the study. Are there questions about this problem to which answers have not been found up to the present? The statement should answer the question: “Why does this research need to be conducted?” Establishes the foundation for everything to follow in the proposal Should indicate at least implicitly all the categories, questions, variables or data sources in the the proposalLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal fn 2.5 Literature review: Description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic Is not in itself primary research, but rather it reports on other findings Seeks to describe, summarize, evaluate, clarify and/or integrate the content of primary reportsLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = The stages of a literature review : Define the problem: narrow the scope of what to look out Search for relevant materials: = books (monographs, text books, reference books); ™ peer reviewed journal articles; ™ newspaper articles; whistorical records; = commercial reports and statistical information; ™ government reports and statistical information; m theses and dissertations; = other information relevant to particular discipline.Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal Ls The stages of a literature review : Initial appraisal from raw bibliographical data: mAuthors’ credentials? are they experts in the field? are they affiliated with a reputable organization? = What is the date of publication, is it sufficiently current? ulf a book, is it the latest edition? als the publisher a reputable, scholarly publisher? alf it is a journal, is it a scholarly journal peer reviewed?Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = The stages of a literature review : Appraisal based on content analysis: mls the writer addressing a scholarly audience? = Do the authors review the relevant literature? = Do the authors write from an objective viewpoint? milf the author uses research, is the research design sound? u ls it primary or secondary material? = Do the authors have a particular theoretical viewpoint? mls the author's argument logically organized and clear to follow? ulf the author is writing from a practice-based perspective, what are the implications for practice?Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = How to organize a literature review: c Introduction: define the topic, together with your reason for selecting the topic 0 Body: discuss the sources in one of the following ways: Chronologically: if writers' views have changed over time. Thematically: take particular themes in the literature; Methodologically: focus on the methods of the researcher 0 Conclusion: summarize the major contributions, evaluate the current position, and point out flaws in methodology, gaps in the research, contradictions, and areas for further study.Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2.6 Questions and/or Hypotheses : Question: interrogative statement that can be answered by data poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a question most often used in qualitative inquiry c Hypotheses: tentative statements that should either be acknowledged or rejected by means of research a declarative statement of the relations between variables typically used only in quantitative inquiry may be stated in a directional (expected direction of results) or non-directional form (no difference or no relationship) There may be more than one hypothesis in a given researchLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal 2.7 Conceptual framework: a Every research activity is conceptualized and will be carried out within some contextual framework a A set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation a A tool to scaffold research and, therefore, to assist a researcher to make meaning of subsequent findingsLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2.8 Objective/aim of the study: oO Summarize what is to be achieved by the study a Should be closely related to the statement of the problem oO Simple (not complex), specific (not vague), stated in advance (not after the research is done), and stated using “action verbs” that are specific enough to be measured c Objectives are useful to: Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials); Avoid collection of data irrelevant to solving the problem Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases. O Anticipated results of the study will be compared to the objectivesLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = General objective co What exactly will be studied? Oo General statements specifying the desired outcomes of the proposed project O Closely related to the statement of the problem Specific objectives O Specific statements summarizing the proposed activities and outcomes and their assessment in measurable terms a Identifies in detail the specific aims of the research project a Should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2.9 Methods, material and procedures 0 the heart of the research proposal O decide exactly how you are going to achieve your stated objectives a Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question, to test every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section or address the objectives you setLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal The "methods" section should contain Qo Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your approach. Information needed by another researcher fo replicate your experiment. Description of your materials, procedure, theory. Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots. Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity. Description of your analytical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical software.ogooaoacqaqgag ano a oo Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal The proposal should describe in detail the general research plan: Study area Study design Study participants Eligibility criteria ( if any) Determination of sample size (if any) Description of selection process (sampling method) Methods of data collection Description of the expected outcome and explanatory variable (if any) How data quality is ensured Operational definition Presentation of the data analysis methodsLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = Components of the materials and methods section : 1. Study design: two main categories O Observational studies: Exploratory study: small-scale studies carried out when little is known about a situation or a problem Descriptive study: describes the distribution of a characteristic Analytical study (correlation): study that describes associations and analyses them for possible cause and effect An observational study may be cross-sectional or longitudinal Cross-sectional study: measurements made on a single occasion Longitudinal study: measurements made over a period of time.Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal =a Oo Experimental or intervention studies: the investigators test the effect of an intervention on the events taking place in the study may be controlled or non-controlled Controlled studies can be randomized or non-randomized = Randomized: Use a random method to assign subjects into an experimental group and a control through = Non- Randomized: allocation to experimental or control groups not based on randomization, possible biases in studyLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2. Sampling Sampling for quantitative studies a the process of selecting a number of study units from a defined study population a Things to consider: Go What is the study population? “Define clearly” c How many subjects do you need in your sample? Oo How will these subjects be selected? o External validity—the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized from the sample to the population a Probability sampling: probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priori. (Random sampling)Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal Ea o Internal validity - the extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or selected rather than from other variables not systematically treated. a Representative sample: has all the important characteristics of the population from which it is drawn Examples of probability sampling a Simple random sampling: Each element must have an equal & nonzero chance of selection Use of random numbers or drawing from a container Random selection does not always produce a sample that is representative of the population (See example of altitude in textbook}Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal 0 Systematic sampling: begins with selecting one element at random in the sampling frame as the starting point; and selecting the rest of the sample by applying a predetermined interval (k). K = ratio of population to sample size Not recommended if there is a cyclic repetition in sampling frame Stratified sampling: Two steps: Dividing the population based on a confounder variable Applying simple random or systematic sampling to each strata Samples from each strata should be taken proportionatelyLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = c Cluster sampling: Used when simple random sampling is difficult due to logistical problems or a complete sampling frame does not exist Clustered study units are randomly selected Study units in all selected clusters are combined and used co Multistage sampling: used when an appropriate sampling frame does not exist or cannot be obtained First a sample of clusters are selected at random from the list of all known clusters a random sample from each cluster Reduced sampling precision due to multiple sampling (bias)Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal 5 Purposeful sampling strategies for qualitative studies: Focusing on a limited number of informants selected strategically so that their in-depth information will give optimal insight into an issue little is known aboutLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal L_20 | 3. Sample Size: Sample size in quantitative studies: a An unnecessarily large sample size may adversely affect the quality of the measurement or data collection 0 It is better to make extra effort to get a representative sample rather than to get a very large sample 0 The actual sample size of a study is a compromise between the level of precision to be achieved, the research budget and any other operational constraints, such as timeLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = To achieve a certain level of precision, the sample size will depend on the following factors: 0 The variability of the characteristics being observed 0 The population size: To some extent, the bigger the population, the bigger the sample needed After a certain level, an increase in population no longer affects the sample size 0 Efficiency of the sampling and estimation methods (You will need a bigger sample if your method is not the most efficient)Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 0 Statistical power of the study: Probability that a difference or an association that exists in the population was missed, but was not found in the sample. Depends also on the size of the sample For calculating sample size before the study begins, most studies set a power of 80%. 0 The effect size: The actual size of the difference observed between groups or the strength of relationships between variables. In designing a study, the researcher chooses the size of effect that is considered important Large sample sizes are needed to detect small differencesLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal Sample size in qualitative studies: no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research sample size depends on what you try to find out, and from what different informants/perspectives you try to find that out. start with two or four Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) If the different data sets reconfirm each other you may stop; otherwise conduct one or two FGDs more till you reach the point of redundancy Richness of the data and analytical capability of the researcher determine the validity and meaningfulness of qualitative data more than sample sizeLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal 4. Analysis Plan: © Specify the analysis procedures you will use, and label them accurately = Coding procedures m The type of statistical tests (if necessary) mu ldentify and describe the variables in the analyses (dependent & independent) = Decision making criteria (Example: Critical alpha level) = Computer software used (if any)Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2.10 Work plan: 0 The timeline that shows when specific tasks will have been accomplished State different components/phases/stages of the study Describe activities in each phase Indicate time required to accomplish the various aspects of the study co The GANTT Chart: a graphical planning tool that indicates: the tasks to be performed; who is responsible for each task; and the time each task is expected to take.Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal =a 2.11 Budget and funding: a shows how much it will cost to answer the question a Do not be too frugal or too expensive a Direct costs: Personnel, Consumable supplies, Equipments, Travel, Communications, Publication, and others a Indirect costs: Support and management costs such as overhead costs for institutions, operational and maintenance, depreciation and use allowanceLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal Budget Justification: a an explanatory note justifying briefly, why the various items in the budget are required a discuss how complicated expenses have been calculated Obtaining funding for research projects: (Read the different strategies in the text book)Lesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal = 2.12 References: a references must be given to all the information that obtain from books, papers in journals, and other sources a In the main text: two options Index numbers in brackets (Vancouver style Authors name (Harvard style List of references, numbered as in the main text (or alphabetically ordered), should be placed at the end of the research proposal oO a Formats vary from one discipline to another (Different for journal papers, books, and internet references) a Websites must be reputable and reliableLesson 2: Components of a Research Proposal 2.13 Appendices/Annexes: a Additional information that might be helpful to a proposal reviewer. For example: Questionnaire & other collection forms Dummy tables Biographical data on the principal investigator The consent form (if any) for research subjects, etc a Also include signature page (Name, signature & date for Researcher, Advisor (s), department graduate committee, Faculty /Institute’s graduate committee) a Note: In our case, proposals are submitted in three copies!!!