Keynote Papers

International Status of Thermal Error Research (1990)

J. Bryan (1). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (retired), Pleasanton, CA/USA

Summary: This paper is the result of a cooperative effort of STC "M" and STC ' Q to review the field of
thermal error research since the previous keynote paper was delivered in Ann Arbor in 1967. In spite of
some excellent research, not much has changed in industry. Computers, laser interferometers, diamond
turning machines, and hi-speed, error corrected, CMM's have all been introduced in this period and close
tolerance capability has improved, but thermal effects are still the largest single source of dimensional errors
and apparent non-repeatability of equipment. Ignorance of the cost and nature of thermal errors continues
to be the rule, but this era may now be ending. There seems to be a new sense of awareness of the problem,
particularly among companies who are planning new facilities. There also seems to be a resurgence of
interest in academic research

Keywords: Thermal effects , Thermal deformation, Temperature conrrol.

With Contributions From:

T. Charlton, Brown & Sharpe, Providence, R.1.
D. DeBra*, Stanford Univ. Stanford, U.S.A.
D.E.A. * Detroit, (.Hicks/ StrangelCuarini / Raho)
R. Donaldson*/J. Roblee,L.L.N.L. Livermore, U.S.A.
H. Harary/J.Simpson/R.Veale/C. Evans, NIST,
Gaithersburg, U.S.A.
R. Hocken*/ J. Raja Univ. of N. Carolina, U.S.A.
Humanistic h e . * Ohio, USA (C.Schrader)
I n g e n i e u r b u r o * , La Sauge, Switzerland, (W. Knapp)
J. Janeczko, Giddings & Lewis. Fond Du Lac, Wis. USA
R. Kegg*/E.Kline, Cincinnati Milacron, U.S.A.
H. Kun+man*/E. TrapetlF. Waldele, PTB, Germany
LLNL,* Livermore, Ca. USA (P. Sideris)
E. Loewen*. Milton Roy, Rochester, U.S.A.
Moore Special Tool Co.* Bridgeport, USA (R.
McClure)
A. Mottu*, Geneva, Switzerland
J. Petavel*. Geneva, Switzerland
H. Renker*, Fritz Studer A.G. Thun, Switzerland
S. Sartori*, lnstituto di Metrologia, Torino, Italy
T. Sata*, I.P.C.R. Saitama, Japan
H. Sato*. Univ. of Tokyo, Japan
S I P * Geneva, Switzerland, (G. Fatio)
G. Spur*, I.W.F. Berlin, Germany
Y. Su, Shanghai Machine Tool Res. Inst. China
E. Thwaite*, C.S.I.R.0 Sydney, Australia
Timken*, Canton, Ohio (A.Cooper,J. Pack, D.
Cogdell,)
H. Trumphold*, T.H. Karl Marx Stadt. Germany
A. Van Der Wolf*/P. Schellekens*/J.Soons.
Eindhoven, Netherlands
M. Weck*, T.H. Aachen, Germany
A. Wirtz*, lnterkantonal Technikum, Bucks,
Switzerland
G . Zhang*. Tianjin Univ. Tianjin, China
E. Merchant, Cincinnati: "The near future will see a
concentration of effort to control room temperature. This will
be paralled by efforts to isolate or eliminate heat sources in
existing equipment. Better thermal design of new equipment
will follow".
A. Mottu. Geneva: "I think that the economic significance of
thermal effects must be relatively high, From my own
experience, about 50 to 60% of the errors in precision parts
result from thermal errors."
J. Peklenik, Birmingham: "Thermal errors affect the
accuracy of machine tools considerably. The increasingly more
general application of automatic manufacturing systems may
require a wider investigation into the solution of this kind of
problem. My own experience indicates that the percentage of
error from thermal effects may lie between 40 and 70%:'
J. Schunck, Aachen: "In many cases the working accuracy of
machine tools is decisively affected by thermally induced
changes i n shape."
C . Gladman, Sydney: " I consider that the percentage of
overall error taken by thermal effects must increase as the
demand for precision grows."
B. Breev. USSR: "Errors in machine tools caused by thermal
influences are often many times more significant than from
various other sources."
Moore a n d Victory, Bridgeport: "In the use of precision
locating equipment, thermal expansion is capable of causing
troublesome dimensional changes in both workpiece and
machine. This potential reduction in accuracy is neither
insignificant nor inevitable"

* (members of CIRP) Evidence Of The Problem Since 1967

Introduction
At the 1989 meeting of STC "Q" in Trondheim it was decided
that the Keynote Paper for 1990 should consist of an update
on the 1967 Keynote Paper "International Status of Thermal
Error Research" (55) It was also agreed that interested
members of STC 'M' , Assosciate Members and other
knowledgeable persons would be invited to contribute.
Responses have been received from each of the parties listed
above.
Evidence Of The ProblemIn 1967
E. Engelhard, PTB, Braunsweig: "Temperature problems at
the present time are the limiting factor i n the ultimate
determination of length."
H. Opitz, Aachen: "In many cases the errors caused by
thermal deformations have the same or higher order of
magnitude as those errors due to the kinematic accuracy and
the static and dynamic compliance."
E. Loewen, Rochester (67): "History is full of stories where
thermal effects have given rise to errors 10 to 20 times the
nominal tolerance."
D. McMurtry, Gloucestershire (87): "Thermal effects have an
overriding effect, and can more than double the constant
temperature volumetric accuracy of the machine tools used at
Renishaw."
J. Janeczko. Fond du Lac (97): "As machine tool positional
accuracies, tooling and cutting performances improve, thermal
effects become more critical in their contribution to workpiece
quality"
H. Kaebernick, Sydney (81): "The distortion of machine tool
geometry due to static and dynamic thermal effects is one of
the most important factors determining the accuracy of their
performance."
G. Zhang (*), Tianjin: "I really believe that the problem
related with the thermal errors is one of the most important

Annals of the CIRP Vol. 39/2/1990 645

and troublesome problems in dimensional metrology and
precision engineering."
M. Week(*) Aachen: "I think that the reduction of the
thermal sensitivity of machine tools is of great importance and
should be the topic of further research activities."
H. Sato et al, Tokyo (94) "Machining accuracy is more often
governed by thermal deformation of the structure than by
dynamic stiffness"
Not Much Progress Since 1967
In spite of these expert testimonials to the importance of the
problem the situation in industry has changed very little since
1967. The question is 'why'. There are various theories:
Weck (*) believes it is because of the very small profit
margin in international competition and the high cost of
temperature control. Mottu (*) believes it is because of the
continuing presence of the adaptive man who makes it
possible to produce acceptable product in spite of some
impossibly bad thermal problems.
My own view is that those of us who understand the real
situation have not made a sufficiently strong effort to explain
to industry the high cost of dealing with the problem.
These costs consist of apparent- non- repeatability of
machines, unnecessary statistical quality control activities,
high scrap rate, cost of rework, late delivery, excessive costs
for the slightest tightening of product tolerances, unreliable
product in the field and high turnover of people because of
discomfort.
By contrast, in the integrated circuit manufacturing business
w r u d c w a m k t h a t it is necessary to have clean
rooms. Their high cost (much higher than for temperature
control alone) is not a debatable issue. Its just a cost of doing
business.
My own theory, that the problem is lack of education rather
than cost. is supported by the fact that the sun is allowed to
shine directly on machine tools and measuring machines in a
majority of factories (and university research laboratories)
throughout the world. Correcting this shameful practice is not
a cost issue.
Thwaite (*) agrees with both the cost and education theories:
"The lack of progress in temperature control is without
much doubt, due to the a as well as the
-pf
. . the -1 effect of bad temperature
conditions- sometimes in highly sophisticated
organisations"
Competition For People
As previously discussed, Weck (*) is justifiably concerned
with the problem of cost for shop temperature control in the
face of strong international competition. Raja (*) makes the
point, however, "that companies must also compete for oppd
d, and that rightly or wrongly good people throughout
the world are rapidly learning to enjoy and demand
comfortable working conditions".
Some Basis For Optimism About The Future
Kegs a n d Kline (*) agree that the traditional resistance to
providing temperature control in manufacturing areas has
been because of high capital cost. However:
"Resistance at Milacron seems to be easing because our new
plants dp have temperature control, and some sections of
existing plants are being converted. Innovative new
construction at one of our Ohio plant sites will have a
system that makes ice during the night for cooling
assistance during the day. We know that many progressive
machine tool users, such as Remington, Boeing, and
Caterpillar are taking temperature control seriously. This
may be due to the steady growth in dissemination and
successful application of precision engineering knowledge
and practices."
S p u r (*) reports that:
646
"The increasing importance of thermal problems is evident.
Our contacts with machine tool manufactures indicate an
increasing will- to collaborate on research to
minimize the influence of thermal effects"
D.E.A. (*) (Hicks/Strange/Raho/Guarini) report that:
"The practical and economic implementation of tight
temperature control in the shop is far from common-place
and will be for quite some time in the future. However,
there seems to be quite a movement under way in the
industry to require CMM manufacturers to supply "turn
key" systems. In our case, this has happened many times
for both the machine foundation and also for the 'room'
around the CMM."
Thermal effects diagram
Fig. 1 Thermal Effects Diagram
Classification o f Thermal Problems
Fig. 1 Provides a means of organizing the subject of thermal
effects. The diagram divides the overall thermal problem into
two major categories: (1) the effects of uniform temperatures
other than 20 deg. C., and (2) the effects of non-uniform
temperatures. The diagram also illustrates the concept that
every measuring and machining operation unavoidably
consists of a three-element system made up of the part, the
machine frame, and the master (or scale).
Six sources of thermal influence are shown in the diagram: (1)
heat generated from the cutting process, ( 2 ) heat generated by
the machine, (3) heating or cooling influence provided by the
various cooling systems, (4) heating or cooling influence
provided by the room, ( 5 ) the effect of people, and (6) thermal
memory from any previous environment. Room environment
and coolant systems are the only influences that can create
uniform temperatures other than 20 deg. C. This fact is
illustrated by the arrow in the diagram. The remaining heat
sources will cause either steady-state temperature gradients
or temperature variation, or both.
All sources affect the three-element system through the three
possible modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and
radiation. The errors can be either geometrical, or size. By
geometrical errors we mean squareness, straightness, flatness,
and angular motion errors developed as a result of
temperature gradients or non-uniform coefficients of
expansion.
Measuring machines are a special case of machine tools where
there is no cutting process heat, and a minimum of internally
generated heat. This difference is becoming more and more
important. Solutions for one may not be applicable to the
other.
S p u r (*) agrees:
 "the problems for machine tools are different from those of
measuring machines, so the thermal problems concerning
coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) should be dealt
with separately, although the relations between cause and
effect are the same as for machine tools"
Uniform Temperatures Other Than 20 deg. C.
Background
A meter is the distance between two fixed points in space. A
meter does not vary with temperature and never has. This
fact is obscured because the lengths of the more common
representation of the meter such as gage blocks, lead screws,
and scales do vary with temperature. The lengths of most of
materials we deal with also change with temperature. On
Wednesday, April 15. 1931. The International Committee of
Weights and Measures meeting in Paris (0.4) agreed that
henceforth when we describe the length of an object we
automatically mean its length when it is at a temperature of
20 deg. C.
This agreement was preceeded by years of debate, study and
negotiation. The previous standard in Great Britain was 62
deg. F (16 2/3 deg. C. which was the average working
temperature in shops through the year (0.2)
According to Rolt (3.1) 1952:
"A 300 mm gage had to be shortened by 11 microns to
bring it to true size at 20 deg. C. British industry
weathered this change without too much trouble in 1931,
but with the general all around improvement in accuracy in
latter years, to effect a change of that magnitude today
would bring a number of difficulties in its train"
If dimensions are only correct at 20 deg. C how has the world
been getting by all these years by measuring at warmer
temperatures? The answer is that if the work is steel and the
scale is steel. the two expand together and the resultant errors
tend to cancel. If. however, the work is another material, such
as aluminum, the errors are different and they do not cancel.
We refer to this error as 'differential expansion'.
Knowledgeable machinists have sometimes made differential
expansion corrections. The thing that is often overlooked,
however, is that these corrections are not exact. Our
knowledge about average coefficients of expansion is meagre
and we can never know the exact coefficient of each part.
This inexactness is called "Uncenainity of Nominal Differential
Expansion (UNDE)
This uncertainity is zero when the temperature is 20 deg. C..
and increases according to the thermal distance from 20 deg.C.
Its magnitude varies for different materials. It is at least 5
per cent for gage block steel and on up to 25 per cent for
other materials. Differences between the actual thermal
expansion and the 'nominal' expansion occur because of
experimental errors, anisotropy, and because of
dissimilarities between the test material and the material of
the workpiece.
According to Peters and Boyd. (0.1),1920:
"Another property which must be recognized when
considering true accurate length of gages is the thermal
expansion of the material. A one inch long (25.4 mm) steel
gage block increases in length about 13 ppm per deg. C rise
in temperature. The temperature at which the actual
length of the gage equals the nominal length must
therefore be specified and is usually taken as 20 deg. C. At
25 deg C. the length of a gage which is one inch (25.4mm)
at 20 deg. is about 1.00065 inches (25.4016 mm). If a gage
be measured at a higher temperature its length at 20 deg.
C. may be computed if the expansion coefficient is known.
If high precision is desired, it is not rood DOlicv to use
w s i o n coefficients eiven in t a b l a because our
measurements show that the expansion coefficient of steel
may vary from 10.5 to 13.5 ppm depending on the
hardness and composition".
It should be clear from the above discussion that some error
will exist when measuring or machining operations are carried
out at temperatures other than 20 deg. C. The problem
resolves itself into balancing the cost of temperature control
versus the magnitude of possible error. The difficulty is that
errors resulting from uncertainity of nominal differential
expansion (UNDE) and from -or -0 f
nominal differential expansion (NDE) corrections are hard to
prove.
In addition to making the proper choice of shop temperatures,
management faces a second problem of how to make NDE
corrections if they become necessary. According to McClure's
survey of American industry (51) , most organizations leave
the problem of differential expansion correction up to the
individual inspector or machinist. My own experience
indicates that this is inadequate. The problem is particularly
severe if a shop normally works with ferrous materials and
steel scales and corrections are not usually necessary. The
habit of reading measuring instruments directly to establish
dimensions is so ingrained that even the most skilled
workman will often forget that corrections are necessary
when dealing with non-ferrous materials. The responsibility
involved in changing important drawing dimensions to a
different value, by hand, is another factor leading to the
possibility that corrections will not be made.
Some of the new CMM's have the necessary temperature
sensors and computer capability of making NDE corrections
automatically. This is a welcome development that is long
overdue. We must keep in mind, however, that these
corrections are not exact because of the existence of UNDE
errors, and the effects of Non-Uniform Temperatures
discussed in the next section.
The Thermal Error Index
The choice of average shop temperatures can be put on a
rational basis by using the Thermal Error Index. This index
presents the estimated overall thermal error as a percentage
of the working tolerance. Overall thermal error is the sum of
the error caused by Average Temperatures Other Than 20
deg. and Temperature Variation Error (TVE) Temperature
variation errors are discussed in the next section.
That portion of the Thermal Error Index which results from
average temperatures other than 20 deg. C is determined by
taking the sum of the estimated uncertainty of expansion of
the part and scale, and the value of nominal differential
expansion, if corrections are not made, and taking this sum as
a percentage of the working tolerance of the part. For
example, a 254 mm. long aluminum part having a tolerance of
25 microns is being inspected at 22 deg. C. A steel height
gage is being used. No corrections are made because the
inspector has never been told that they are necessary.
Assuming the uncertainty of coefficient of aluminum to be
20% and the steel 10%. the index comes out to be 31%. To
determine the suitability of the 22 deg. C. environment for
this case, management asks itself if it can afford to give up a
possible 31% of the working tolerance to this one source of
error. The index also lends itself to the adoption of a general
institutional policy of maintaining a thermal error at some
fixed percentage of the working tolerance.
The index has the desirable feature of responding to each of
the variables that affect the need for 20 deg C. These are: (1)
amount of tolerance, (2) size of work. (3) coefficient of work
and master, (4) how well the coefficients are known, and (5)
whether or not nominal differential expansion corrections are
made.
The Thermal Error Index concept, first proposed in (42), has
been incorporated in ANSI 8-89.6.2 Temperature and
Humidity Environment for Dimensional Measurement (62)
1973. This standard, like many standards, has unfortunately
not yet "trickled down" to working engineers in industry.
By contrast, ANSI 8-89.1.12. Methods for Performance
Evaluation of Coordinate Measuring Machines (76) 1985, has
become a working document for the buying and selling of
CMMs. All provisions of B-89.6.2 are automatically
incorporated in this standard. In addition, B-89.1.12 calls for
647
mandatory corrections of nominal differential expansion
between the scale of the machine and whatever standards of
length are used for testing, (laser interferometer, gage blocks,
step gages etc.) The manufacturer is also required to provide
a statement indicating the effective coefficient expansion of
the machine scales for the purpose of making the NDE
correction.
Another special feature mandates the value of UNDE to be two
parts per million per deg. C. of thermal offset from 20 deg.
(one ppm for the scale and one ppm for the gage)
Furthermore, the Thermal Error Index. which now consists of
the value of UNDE plus the value of Temperature Variation
Error (TVE) divided by the working tolerance, is required to
be less than 50% at the time of acceptance testing. If this
condition cannot be met. the working tolerance is
automatically relaxed to give a TEI value of 50%.
Full Scale Dilatometers
The benefits of more exact coefficients of expansion should be
clear from the above discussion. Actual coefficients are
affected by slight changes in alloy, heat treatment, and
amount of cold work. The only way to establish more accurate
coefficients is to measure them on each part or family of puts.
The 1967 keynote paper suggested that research should be
conducted on the design of full scale dilatometers for this
purpose. Unfortunately, nothing has happened in 23 years. It
now seems that it will be cheaper and simpler to manage the
UNDE error by simply controlling the excursion from 20 deg.
C., as necessary. in order to keep the Thermal Error Index
within a reasonable value.
Knapp (*) agrees: "Instead of building full scale
dilatometers, it could be at least as useful to think of methods
of temperature control and of construction principles that
make the offset from 20 deg. negligible"
Should a Change to the International Standard
of 20 deg. C. be Considered?
According to comfort charts published by the American
Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, (62) (pg.13). 20
deg. is mareinallv comfortable in the summer (30% of the
population will think it is comfortable) at an air velocity of 25
ft./min (7.6 mctcrslmin.) and a humidity of 70%. In the
winter, 90% of the population will think it is comfortable.
These charts also show, however, that if the air velocity is
increased to 400 ft./min (122 meterslmin) the apparent
temperature will be 7 deg. F. cooler (4.4 deg. C.) ANSI B-
89.6.2 recommends that air velocities be maintained at a
maximum velocity of 20 ftlmin (6.1 meterslmin) for human
comfort.
H. Trumphold (*) raises the question:
"Should we consider changing the standard temperature
from 20 deg. to 22, or 23 deg.? A higher temperature than
20 deg. is first of all more comfortable for the human being
and secondly, it is much cheaper to heat a room than to cool
it".
Prof. Trumphold's question is an excellect one and we are
indebted to him for raising it at this time.
It now seems clear that the International Committee made a
mistake in selecting 20 deg. C as the standard. Prof.
Trumphold is correct: It is too cold (62) pg.13, (particularly
when we consider the developing countries), and it &cost
more to cool than it does to heat. In defense of the Commitre,
we must remember that they were trying to minimize the
change in Grear Britain where the previous standard was 16
213 deg. C . Ref (0.2).
My own arguments a change are as follows:
It would create a terrible state of confusion. The world
1)
has barely reached the point of properly understanding
the significance of the present standard.
648
2) It is too late to make a change. Almost every gage block,
leadscrew, micrometer, height gage, measuring machine
and machine tool in the world would become out of
tolerance.
3) "Factories of the future" (see below) will be arranged so
that there is a mimimal exposure of people to the 20
deg. environment through the use of boxes equipped
with air or liquid showers. (Fig. 2)
I have conducted a small survey of opinion in the U.S. on the
question and have found no one who feels strongly enough
about the benefits to lead a campaign for change. The subject
should, however, be raised and debated in the STC 'Q" as well
as other forums around t h e world.
Factories o f the Future
It is my own belief that factories of the future will be
designed to the same standards as offices, airports and
shopping malls (approx. 23 deg. plus or minus 2 deg.)
Machine tools and measuring machines that require better
temperature control will be enclosed in special boxes
equipped with air or liquid showers that will be provided by
the machine manufacturer.
The feasability of special boxes has been demonstrated on
liquid showered diamond turning machines (60) 1972. the
liquid showered production machines at Renishaw (87)1987,
and for air showered diamond turning machines (73)1985.
Loewen, (67) 1978 has used air showered boxes to hold
temperitures constant within 0.001 deg, C. on his ruling
engines for weeks at a time. Integrated circuit steppers (Leitz.
Nikon. GCA, for example). are now equipped with air showered
boxes that are capable of holding 20 deg. C. within a few
hundredths of a deg. C.
Some of the above examples have used temperature
controlled boxes within temperature controlled rooms. The
question then arises; how well would these boxes perform in
an airport? My own feeling is that most of the dcterioration
can be corrected by the use of additional insulation on the
outside of the box. In critical cases, it may be necessary to use
the traditional approach of installing the box within a room.
Fig. 2 Prof. Wirtz's Temperature Controlled Box
A.Wirtz (*) reports on his recent experience with an
administrative cutoff of close tolerance air conditioning for his
metrology lab in order to save energy. He was able to solve
the problem by building a box (Fig. 2) around his Leitz CMM
and installing an air shower which is able to hold the machine
to 20 deg. C. plus or minus 0.1 deg. C. (see Fig. 2). He was able
to ( I ) save energy, (2) provide better temperature control
than before for the machine that needs it the most, (3) isolate
the machine from operator body heat, and (4) provide more
comfortable temperature control for the students and faculty
that use the rest of the laboratory for thermally less critical
measurements such as surface finish.
The concept of having measuring machine and machine tool
boxes controlled to 20 deg. and factories controlled to the
same standards as airports and shopping malls (somewhere
between 21 and 25 deg.) creates a Temperature Variation
problem because of "Thermal Memory from a Previous
Environment" (Soak Out). This problem is already of concern
for JIT and FMS concepts of manufacturing and will be
discussed later. It is sufficient to say here that the problem of
Soak Out can be solved in most cases by pre-washing the part
with a liquid shower or high velocity air shower immediately
before it is moved to the gage or machine tool box.
C h a r l t o n (*) supports the idea of the Factory of The Future
but is pessimistic about when it might be implemented. He
thinks we may see some examples within five years, but
widespread adoption may take twenty years.
The Measurement of Temperature and How It
Affects the Measurement of Length
A quotation from H. Kunzman, (105) 1989, provides some
excellent perspective on the interaction between temperature
and length:
"Among all the material properties which are important for
the accuracy of length measurements, the temperature-
proportional expansion in length is the most important one.
According to the international standard of 1931, the
reference temperature is 20 deg. C."
"For discussion of accuracy limits it is important to know
that a temperature of 20 deg. c. can be realized only with
an uncertainty of 0.2 mK.
"It is of interest to know that a change to the International
Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS-68) was recently agreed
upon (1989) which establishes a new standard called the
International Temperature Scale-1990 (ITS-90) which will
result in the reference temperature of 20 deg. C. being
changed by -0.005 deg. C. (colder) effective Jan. 1, 1990.
This change of definition will (has) lead to an overnight
increase in the length of all objects made of steel (11
ppm/deg.C.) by about 5.5 x 10-8 or 0.55 microns in 10
meters.
"In addition to the uncertainty of temperature scales
discussed above, the uncertainty of temperature
measurement% and their effect on the accuracy of length
measurement must be considered. Under very good
conditions, an optimistic assessment allows a measurement
uncertainty of 0.001 deg. C. to be attained in the
measurement of instrument and workpiece temperatures.
"From this it follows that for materials having a coefficient
on the order of 1 x 10-5 /deg. C (some steels) the present
limit of uncertainty of length measurements must be
assumed to be on the order of 1 x 10-8 which corresponds
to 0.01 microns/meter.
"In most cases, the uncertainty of temperature
measurement is greater than 0.01 deg. C. and the actual
values of the coefficients of thermal expansion of the
workpiece andlor the instrument are not known. For
materials having a coefficient on the order of
1 x IO-S/deg. C. , a realistic uncertainty of length
measurement is about 1 x 10-7 or 0.1 micronslmeter."
ITS-90 defines temperatures in the range of zero deg. C to 30
deg. C. as a specially defined, curvilinear interpolation
between the triple point of water (0.0100 deg. C) and the
melting point of gallium (29.7646 deg. C.)
Non-Uniform Temperatures
Background
The thermal effects diagram Fig. 1 shows that the three
element system, consisting of the part, the scale, and the
machine frame is affected by steady-state and dynamic
temperature differences originating from the six principal
sources of thermal disturbance. Recognition of the three
element system is crucially important in evaluating the
effectiveness of different proposed solutions. It is helpful to
visualize each of the three elements made of Zerodur, one at a
time, or in pairs, or all together. If, for example, the frame,
scale, and part were all Zerodur we would have a 100%
solution and temperature would no longer matter at all.
If, however, the part is made of a high coefficient or
anisotropic material, and the frame and scale are unaffected
by temperature, we may have a small or negative
improvement to show for our investment. We must still
provide high quality temperature control for the part and
must wait for the part to soak out at 20 deg. C. The three-
element system must be considered at all times. This
situation has not been recognized in some recent CMM
advertising.
Before begining discussion of the problem of Non-Uniform
Temperatures it may be useful to mention a generalized
approach proposed or implied by McClure, Schunck,
Wolfbauer, Su, and many others. The proposal is that all
systematic solutions (as distinguished from procedural
solutions) must fall into one of the following three categories:
1. Control of heat flows into the three-element system.
2, Redesign of the frame and scale to reduce their
sensitivity to heat flow.
3. Compensation through controlled relative motions
withinhetween the frame or scale.
Steady State Gradients
Good Progress Since 1967
Encouraging progress has been made since 1967 in dealing
with the problem of gradients. Finite Element Analysis
programs have been developed that can do a reasonable job of
calculating the effect of steady state gradients.
Trapet a n d Waldele (106) 1989, have made a major
contribution to an understanding of gradients. They
deliberately induced gradients in a measuring machine located
in a special, adjustably bad, roombox at PTB and then showed
excellent agreement between analytical calculations and actual
error as measured by the new 2-D, calibrated, Zerodur,
ballplate method being proposed by Kunzman et a1 ( 1 1 1)
1990. They used 56 temperature sensors with an accuracy of
.03 deg. C. as the basis for their calculations. In the future,
they plan to compensate the machine for gradients in real
time.
As an answer to the problem of "how do we know that the
sensors are calibrated and functioning during the life of the
machine without the necessity of removing them". they
propose the possibility of "back calculating" the correct sensor
readings based on periodic mechanical accuracy testing using
the new ball plate method.
TrapetIWaldele (106) also call our attention to the fact that
there is no mechanical stress in a beam, made of homogenous,
isotropic material, subjected to a uniform gradient. This
conclusion is not new, but has come as a surprise to many
people, including myself. It means that we should avoid using
the term "thermal stress" on a casual basis. "Thermal
deformation" is a better term. Deformation may or may not
be associated with a stress.
Another recent development (Zeiss. Sheffield, for example) is
the use of aluminum beams for the slideways of measuring
machines. The high conductivity of the aluminum minimizes
the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the
beam (when subjected to a given gradient) which in turn
minimizes the thermal distortion and consequent angular
motion and Abbe error.
TrapetlWaldele (106) also report on the effectiveness of
insulation on sensitive elements of the machine such as the
column supports.
649
The use of insulation is an example of solution # I , (control of
heat flow into the frame.) The use of aluminum is an example
of solution #2, (redesign of the frame to reduce sensitivity to
heat flow.) The use of temperature sensors and software
correction is an example of solution #3, (compensate)
Lingard e t a l (102) 1989 have induced thermal gradients of
up to 9 deg. C. across a Leitz PMM-866 measuring machine of
granite construction. They report a surprisingly small
influence of one micron per deg. C. of machine gradient when
measuring the apparent change of length of a 250 mm.
Zerodur ball bar at different positions within the machine
volume.
The studies by T r a p e t l W a l d e l e and L i n g a r d both used
Zerodur workpieces. This is understandable for the purposes
of their experiments on the effect of gradients on the scale
and frame of the machine. The results of these experiments
must be carefully interpreted, however, because of the
absence of real parts and consideration of the three element
system. TrapetlWaldele (106) acknowledge this point:
"Without any doubt, in the future, temperature-related
errors will be reduced by combined approaches comprising
numerical correction and thermomechanically advanced
construction. These measures, however, will only be
effective if the thermomechanical behavior of the
easured obiects can be mastered."
A better understanding of the influence of gradients has also
been achieved in the granite surface plate industry. The U.S.
Govt. standard GGG-P-463c (1973). (64) includes a graph,
developed by R. McClure, which shows the magnitude of
non-flatness for different dimensions of the plate and thermal
gradients. A two meter long plate, 1/3 meter thick will have.
for example, a flatness error of 10 microns for each degree C.
of gradient. (It is also of some interest to realize that the
radiation from normal shop lighting can create a one deg.
temperature rise on the surface of black granite.)
Quasi-Static Gradients
Sartori, Balsamo, a n d Marques, (108) 1990 have recently
conducted a study on the possibilities of real time software
compensation of errors induced by quasi-static gradients on a
SIP 560M measuring machine. This study is the most
ambitious and perhaps the most successful of any such effort
to date.
The thermal model has the capability of handling 1400
equations. The number of thermometers used is more than
lM)! The authors believe that:
"such a high number of thermometers is a minor problem.
In fact, once the idea of placing thermometers on a machine
(in particular, on its moving parts) is accepted, their
number, be it ten or a hundred, is of small importance,
when considering the limited cost of sensors and of the
acquisition-system cards, and the necessity of solving space
and cable movement problems".
A special temperature measuring system was developed
which is capable of scanning the platinum resistance
thermometers every 3 seconds with an uncertainty of 0.05
deg. C. The temperature readings are fed to the thermal
model which then calculates the deformation by integration
along a line from the coordinate origin to the measurement
point. It then updates the machine control system every 5 to
10 minutes (which is the author's definition of "quasi-static").
The thermal model was developed using a combination of
P.E.A. and 'black box' empirical techniques.
A three dimensional workpiece consisting of a space frame
and spheres was used. Some thermometers were placed on the
workpiece, and nominal differential expansion corrections
were made. The material and size of the space frame was not
mentioned.
Results of the study showed that 80 to 85% of the
deformations could be explained by the model. Automatic
650
corrections were able to compensate for 65 to 75% of the
errors. The magnitude of corrected errors was more than 100
times the resolution of the machine (0.1 micron). The
gradients, induced by a 2 kw panel about one meter away,
were as high as 10 deg. C. per meter. Rotations of the part
with respect to the machine and rotations within the machine
(squareness errors) were the largest source of uncorrected
errors. The large gradients were for experimental purposes
and were not intended to simulate expected operating
conditions.
Sartori (*) believes that: "Software thermal compensation of
CMMs only makes sense where high accuracies are required.
It can therefore be assumed that environmental conditions are
reasonably good":
"(1) the average temperature should be 20 deg. C. , (2)
temperature variation should be less than plus or minus 2
deg. (3) thermal gradients along any direction should be
less than 2 deg./m. and (4) temperature variations with
time should be such that "quasi-stationary conditions
should be achieved with reference to the thermal time
constants of the machine"
Sartori (*) is also of the opinion that the design of the
machine should be optimized before compensation:
"All the precautions and the methods described in the
literature should be adopted in order to reduce thermal
effects. This is a very important point. It is in fact
deceptive to believe that real-time correction for thermal
deformations can eliminate design defects connected with
thermal phenomena.
"Thermally symmetric structures, circulating temperature-
controlled fluids, appropriate disposition and screening of
heat sources. structures capable of uniform and rapid
distribution of the heat they produce, these, as well as
others, are the essential prerequisites for defining software
procedures for thermal deformation correction"
Part Compensation
Sartori (*) agrees with T r a p e t l W a l d e l e that the problem of
compensating real parts is the challenge of the future:
"When workpieces are sizable, it is impractical to obtain a
model for them. and even if modelling is possible without
difficulty (families of similar pieces) it is out of the
question to cover the piece with thermometers. It is
therefore essential to develop Qptical temperature
measuring devices capable of coping with the problem of
emissivity effects."
H a r a r y (*) has some experience with optical temperature
measurement devices and thinks that they will not be
accurate enough.
Thwaite (*) is equally pessimistic about part compensation:
"It is not going to be possible to instrument the workpieces
to the degree necessary to determine their temperature
condition and, as well, their response to temperature
distributions."
There is one confusing statement in the paper by Sartori e t
a1 (108). The authors say that:
"It is not possible (by means of coolant and room
temperature control and other design solutions) to limit
temperature differences between different points of a
CMM structure (or part) to less than a few deg. C. or the
magnitude of gradients to less than a few deg. C. per
meter."
The collective experiences obtained with liquid and air
showered machines in boxes (60). (67). (73). (74) and coolant
temperature control (78). (107) indicates that temperature
differences, (or more importantly, changes of temperature,) of
a few hundredths of a deg. C. or better are possible. The choice
between design solutions and software compensation is a
matter of engineering judgement.
 Temperature Variation
General
The problem of temperature variation is much more
complicated than that of gradients. It is not now possible by
any means to determine the sensitivity of a machine to
temperature variation before it has been built and tested.
Environmental Temperature Variation
The environment (room temperature or box temperature)
affects the three-element system in a way that is not readily
apparent. There would be no consequence of temperature
variation if all portions of the three-element system had
exactly the same coefficient of expansion, the same volume-
to- surface ratio, and the same density and specific heat. This
is not the case in real systems. Thin sections having small
volume-to-surface ratios will respond faster than thick
sections. Temperature variation affects the length of every
object in a different way. This effect is called dimensional
response. It is a function of the frequency of temperature
variation. The difference in response between any two objects
is called differential response. Differential response reaches a
maximum at some particular frequency of temperature
variation in a manner that is analogous to resonance in
vibration work. The magnitude of differential response
between part and master, part and frame, and scale to frame
determines the sensitivity that a given machining or
measuring procedure will exhibit to environmental
temperature variation. Every procedure has a different
sensitivity which is dependent on the length of time that
elapses between mastering and measuring (mastering cycle
time) and on the frequency of temperature variation.
Geometrical as well as size errors can result from temperature
variation.
Grand, (3).1952 and (7) 1955 was the first to explain the
exact way in which the frequency of temperature variation
affects dimensional measurements. Most of his work was
theoretical, but he conducted some experiments on a SIP
measuring machine to confirm his calculations.
Internal Influences
A quote from the contribution of G. Spur (*) to this keynote
paper provides an w e r i e n c e d and realistic assessement of
the situation regarding internal (as well as environmental)
influences: Prof. S p u r has been working on thermal effects,
on a continuous basis, as long or perhaps longer than any
other academic researcher.
"Optimizing the design of the machine tool is the most
effective solution, considering energy and additional
components. Design measures alone are insufficient.
however, to completely avoid thermal displacements.
Compensation techniques are necessary for increasing the
working accuracy especially of numerically controlled
machine tools. Methods using correlation functions
between locally measured temperatures and displacements
only permit description of the displacements for machine
components in steady state. These formal relations
between temperatures and displacements d o not deliver
satisfying results for rotating components such as spindles,
because the temperature field causing their displacement
cannot be obtained from temperature measurements at
steady state. The use of a signal proportional to the
average temperature in the direction of displacement gives
better results. Such a signal may be obtained by using
resistance thermometers as integrated measuring sensors."
"According to our experience, numerical alogorithms such
as the finite element (FEA) or differential method, are only
suitable for a qualitative description of the thermal
behavior of machine tools. Empiric equations have to be
used for calculating the amount of thermal energy as well
as the convective coefficients, as these values cannot be
calculated using analytical methods."
H.Harary (*) reports on his experience in using a particular
FEA code to determine the temperature and displacement of
an imaginary metal sphere with an incremental temperature
suddenly imposed on the outer skin of the metal. An
analytical solution is available for this problem which can be
used as a test of the FEA code. The results were in serious
disagreement (with respect to the accuracy needed for
machine tools and measuring machines) and did not tend to
converge as a finer and finer mesh was used. H a r a r y
believes. however, that the FEA method can make an
important contribution in deciding where the temperature
sensors should be initially located.
It would seem that a CIRP cooperative effort should be
organized to determine if all FEA codes fail the sphere test
and if so, 'why'. Such a project has the advantage that no
experimental equipment or errors would be involved. Our
colleague, A. Clement, has already agreed to conduct such a
test.
D.E.A (*) HickslStrangelRaholCuarini have also had poor
results with FEA codes: "The finite element method is a very
good means of predicting mechanical stress. However, for
thermal deformations, we believe it is only able to predict
about 20% of the deformation."
Environmental Drift Check
An environmental drift check consists of recording the
readings of a differential transformer (or other) gage head
installed between the tool and part, during a representative
time period. when the machine is not being operated. A total
of three gage heads may be necessary for three axis machines.
After soak out, any changes in gage head readings are the
result of changes in the environment.
The drift check is a simple but extradinarily powerful tool for
evaluating the influence of the environment on machines of
any size or complexity. It can provide concrete justification for
the need for improvements and can support the effectiveness
of procedural solutions such as working at night. It can
provide proof of the influence of sunshine and the dramatic
benefit of shielding machines from the sun. It can be used to
demonstrate the influence of heat created by People near the
machine. The effect of room lighting is easy to measure by
simply turning the lights on and off and observing the
resultant drift.
The drift check has been incorporated in ANSI B-89.6.2
(62) as the method to be used for determining the
Temperature Variation Error (TVE) portion of the Thermal
Error Index.
Drift of High Speed CMM's
The high speed measurement capability of modem CMMs is
an important step forward in minimising the consequence or
drift. It reduces the "Mastering Cycle Time" which is always
desirable. D.E.A (*) agrees that speed tends to overcome
drift, with two exceptions:
"Machines with rotary tables and machines with two arms
are still vulnerable to drift. In the first case, the drift
affects the position of the center of rotation of the table
relevant to the machine axes with an error magnification
when a work piece is measured with two positions of the
table. In the case of dual arm machines, a similar effect
takes place with respect to the relationship between the
two arms."
Functional Drift Check
After an environmental drift check has been completed, the
same setup can be used to demonstrate the influence of other
thermal sources of error that are present during the
functioning of a machine. These include the errors caused by
Memory From Previous Environment such as inadequate soak
out time on the part, and moving the elements of large
machines from one location to another in the presence of
gradients. The functional drift check can also be used to
demonstrate the influence of internal heat sources such as
friction from spindle bearings, drive motors, electrical
cabinets, and coolant flow by turning these sources on and off.
Memory From A Previous Environment
When an object is moved to a different environment, a certain
amount of time must pass before it reaches thermal
equilibrium with the new environment. During this soaking
651
time, the object may suffer temporary geometrical distortion.
and serious size errors can result if attempts are made to use
the object as a portion of a three-element system during its
soak-out period. The effect is always dynamic and its location
on the diagram (Fig.1) reflects this fact. The part is the most
likely part of the three-element system to be moved, but
there are many situations where the scale is moved and a few
where the frame is moved. A simple example is the case of a
machinist who keeps his micrometer in his pocket.
The soak-out problem is well-known, but frequently forgotten
under the press of business. It can become a critical
production bottleneck in the FMS and JIT concepts of modern
manufacturing. It is also an issue in the Factory of The Future
where the factory is visualized as having an airporthhopping
mall environment and all of the critical machines are in 20
deg. boxes. A number of respondents to this survey, ( D E A ,
Timken, Weck, Knapp, KegglKline a n d Thwaite) h a v e
expressed concern. A quote from DEA (9,
HickslStrangelRaholGuarini is as follows:
"The time required for 'presoak' may be reduced by the use of
a prewash set to the nominal ambient temperature. The
prewash may be a liquid (used to remove chips and cutting
coolant) or a high velocity air stream"
KegglKline (*) have a similar idea:
"We believe soakout time is very important for workpieces
and advocate this practice at Milacron and for our customers.
We have thought about exploring the use of liquid soakout
methods to speed the process. For example, on machine tools,
temperature controlled cutting fluid could be used for this
purpose. At a CMM installation, water showers or tanks could
be used prior to measuring."
ANSI B-89.6.2 (62) pg. 10.11. includes a coolant
effectiveness chart for air vs. water in natural and forced
convection for metal thicknesses varying from 0.1 to 100
inches. (2.5 mm to 2540 mm) This chart, originally drawn by
R. McClure, shows that the film coefficient for natural
convection in air is about 1.0 BTU/Hr./ sq. ft. /deg. F. (1.7
wattslsq. meterldeg. C.( and that it can be increased by
several orders of magnitude using forced convection. It also
shows that natural convection in still liquid can achieve
another order and for forced convection of liquids it can reach
four orders. The chart shows, however, that the internal
resistance to flow in metals will become equal to the film
resistance when the thickness approaches one inch (25 mm)
and the film coefficient is 800 Btu/sq.ft./deg.F. (2.800 W/m/C)
This is the point at which an increase in the film coefficient
begins to produce diminishing returns. There is of course, a
significant difference between the conductivity, density, and
specific heat of different metals, but this chart is intended to
give order of magnitude values.
Timken(*),Cooper/Pack/Cogdelll have recently completed
some experiments which generally confirm McClure's chart.
Their preliminary results show that a steel roller bearing cup '
of 8 inches diameter (200 mm.) and one inch (25 mm.)
thickness required a soak out time of 6 hrs. to reach a
temperature that was 0.2 deg. F (0.1 deg. C.) above a 70 deg.
F. (21 deg. C.) ambient, starting from a soaked condition at
100 deg. F. .(40 deg C.) , (5 time constants) in still air. The
same bearing soaked-out in 25 mins. when subjected to 2000
ft./min (600 m/min) air velocity and only minutes when
submerged in still grinding coolant.
The errors caused by Memory From a Previous Environment
appear to be manageable. Very thick walled parts and plastic
parts will still be a problem. Considering the overall field of
thermal errors, there are more important things to worry
about, such as the heat from spindle bearings on machine
tools.
Heat Produced By Spindle Friction In Machine
Tools
This problem is the most serious and also the most
investigated aspect of thermal effects. Thermal distortion of
the machine frame due to internal heat sources, and spindle
growth in particular, constitute some of the largest errors in a
machine tool. Typical values are in the hundreds of microns.
652
Machine frame distortion can be angular as well as linear.
Angular distortion is more difficult to correct. Machine frame
distortions caused by friction are both dynamic and static.
During warm-up the effect is dynamic: after warm-up, it is
static, Steady-state distortion of the frame is not necessarily a
complete solution because heat flows, resulting from
temperature gradients may, in turn, affect the part. or the
scale, either dynamically or statically.
The problem of heat flow from the face of the spindle into the
part (in the case of a lathe), is often overlooked. For example,
if we had a machine frame and scale made entirely of Zerodur
the measured spindle growth would be zero, despite the fact
that the spindle face was at a temperature of say. 60 deg. C.
because of bearing friction. An aluminum part 300 mm. long
fastened to this spindle could still grow more than 100
microns. The same comment applies to spindle growth
compensation by temperature measurement of the frame and
software correction. It also applies to design solutions that use
dissimilar materials to balance the growth in opposite
directions. The use of insulation between the face of the
spindle and the part, or the use of ceramic spindles can help
reduce the rate of heat flow into the part.
The common practice of pre-warming a machine cannot be
considered as a satisfactory solution because of spindle face
temperature rise, extra wear during warm-up, wastage of
power, and the need to shut down the spindle to load work,
change tools, measure, etc.
Spur, et al, (631, (69). (72). (79). (81), (84), (88h (89).
(90). (91). (92), (98). (99) have justifiably concentrated their
efforts on the spindle friction problem. In his 1988 CIRP paper
S p u r (92) describes the application of all three of the
available approaches to reduce thermal error: (1) design to
reduce sensitivity to heat flow, (2) control of heat flow, and
(3) compensation. A simplified model was constructed to
study spindle friction. Electrical heaters were used to simulate
friction. Calculations were compared to experimental data to
gain a better understanding of the fundamentals of the
problem.
A real ball bearing spindle was then constructed that
permitted the substitution of different materials such as
carbon fibre, reaction bonded silicon nitride. and steel.
Spindle growth was reduced from 30 microns for steel to 2
microns for carbon fibre at 5000 rpm. Another equally
successful approach was the use of heaters to keep the spindle
at the same temperature regardless of the speed. A third
approach was the measurement of average temperatures and
software compensation. These techniques all appear to give an
order of magnitude improvement. It would be a welcome
surprise if they become commercially available in the near
future.
Prof. S p u r should be congratulated on his perserverance in
continuing to work on this most important problem. We hope
he is able to continue this research in the future.
Weck (*) has used ceramics in the design of aerostatic and
hydrostatic spindles. The ceramic air bearing had axial
displacements of only one micron at 1200 rpm for five hours.
The same bearing showed radial displacements of 3 microns.
The ceramic hydrostatic bearing showed radial and axial
displacements of 4 microns under operating loads.
In spite of these impressive results, Prof. Weck is still
cautious about the use of ceramics:
"At the moment there are no ceramics available, which
have a very low expansion coefficient combined with a high
Young's Modulus. I think there are only a few applications
where the use of ceramics can lead to remarkable
improvements. (in machine tools)"
J.Jedrzejewski e t al (109) 1990 describes the development
of a computer program to help the engineer during the design
phase of a machine tool spindle. FEA techniques alone were
found to be inadequate. They use a determination of power
loss in the spindle as an index of performance. Some data is
presented which shows the effectiveness of liquid flow
through grooves machined on the outside of the bushing
which supports the bearings.

BryanlDonaldsonlClouserlBlewett (61) 1973 used the
approach of pumping large quantities of oil (160 literslmin.)
directly through the spaces between the tapered rollers on a
500 mm. dia. Monarch lathe and a 750 mm. dia LeBlond lathe.
The axial growth was reduced from 100 microns to 2.5
microns and the time to reach thermal equilibrium was
reduced from 5 hrs. to one minute at 1000 rpm. The spindle
face temperature was within a few tenths of a degree of the
oil temperature which can be held to 20 deg. +I- .01 deg. C.
The only serious disadvantage of this approach is high power
consumption.
H. Sato et al (94) 1988 describe the use of portland cement
concrete as the frame of a large milling machine. The concrete
has the advantage of economy, low conductivity, and low
coefficient of thermal expansion. They also describe the use of
a heat pipe to remove heat from the spindle bearing zone. A
functional drift check made with the gage head at the top of
the column (1.5 meters above the table top) showed a total
drift of SO microns for a repeated duty cycle of 1000 rpm.
increasing to 5000 rpm over a 2 hr. time period for a total of 8
hrs. This is a very severe test of any machine. The use of heat
pipes seems to be a very attractive option.
J. Janeczko, (97) 1988 has had good results in compensating
for spindle growth on a large horizontal boring machine as
well as a vertical spindle milling machine. He uses a two
sensor input thermometer to provide the data for 2- axis
software compensation. The system updates on a 10 sec. time
cycle and is able to correct for 95% of the original growth. The
approach used was to position the sensor as close as possible
to the spindle besring outer races, and use t h e time constant
feature of the compensating algorithm to account for thermal
delay between the bearing temperature and spindle growth.
The system is now commercially available.
D. hlchfurtry (87) 1987 believes that:
"Thermal drift causes the largest reoeatabl ilitv errors,
which include linear dimensional changes along the
machine axis due to lead screw thermal growth. This
growth may he checked by a repeatability test using the
(Renishaw) probe.
Coolant, at a constant temperature is sprayed inside the
machine enclosure to cover all the structural elements.
This ensures that the structure of the machine remains at a
constant temperature and virtually eliminates all thermal
effects associated with slideway distortion."
"The main thermal error is soindle erowth. This can easily
be corrected by using a spindle mounted probe, and re-
datuming on a datum object located on the now thermally
stable bed."
Use of a touch-trigger probe to reference off the spindle or the
finished part is a very cost effective means of dealing with the
enormous errors associated with spindle displacement. This
technique is equivalent to reducing the "Mastering Cycle Time"
which is a powerful weapon for dealing with thermal drift.
Correction for angular drift of the spindle has not yet been
reduced to practice, but i t is feasable.
Heat From The Cutting Process
The significance of this effect depends on the rate of stock
removal. An important fact tending to minimize the problem
is that the finish cut is usually light and is the only one that
counts as far as accuracy is concerned. Any temperature rise
in the work caused by roughing cuts will, however, have an
influence on accuracy. As our colleague, J. Tlusty (55). has
often emphazised, the heat released from the cutting process
in high production work completely dominates all other
thermal effects. Why worry about 20 deg. C. when 100
horsepower is being pumped into the workpiece?
The principle solution to this problem continues to be massive
flow of coolant which can amount to 300 galslmin. (1200
I./min. for the new creep feed grinders. Another solution is
the use of high speed machining and grinding techniques
which divert a higher percentage of power to heating the
chips. Opitz (55). was one of the first to recognize the
advantage of slant bed lathes to prevent contact of the chips
with the bed of the machine.
McMurtry(87), would like to see a production situation in
which the roughing cut and the finishing cut are one and the
same. He uses his Renishaw probe to touch off on each
finished part while it is still on the machine to establish
repeatability of the process "Footprinting" (deterministic
manufacturing) and uses corrected N.C. programs to
compensate for heat from the cutting process, tool wear, and
deflection of the machine structure.
Developments In The Design Of Temperature
Controlled Rooms
Buying, selling, and constructing temperature controlled rooms
is still a primitive business. There is relatively poor
communication between the buyer and seller about the
quality of the product. There are many conflicting theories
about design principles. There is a wide range of costs for the
same product, and the average cost is higher than it should be.
In house designed and built rooms can be very good or
disastrously bad. This situation is in contrast to the buying,
selling and construction of clean rooms. The clean room
industry is now a mature business, with good standards,
methods of test, and design principles. There is good
competition and good value for money.
Some progress has been made in recent years. The clean room
industry is just begining to understand the requirements for
precision engineering. The need for 20 deg. C. and the air
velocity limition of 20 ft./min. (6 m/min) for creature comfort
conflicts with the standard clean room requirement of 100
ftlmin air velocity (30 mlmin). Some clean room companies
are now able to provide good temperature control but it is
generally overpriced.
The use of hanging plastic strips (similar to those found in
some supermarkets) for the walls of temperature controlled
enclosures has been pioneered at Livermore by D a n
Thompson and others . These walls are now referred to as
"soft walls". They are economical and effective. Evans(*)
reports that they are very efficient for blocking the influence
of infra-red radiation.
The Y-12 plant of Martin-Marietta has recently developed a
double soft wall design. The return air is pulled from the
annular volume between the walls. This design should be
quite effective in the airport/mall environment visualized for
the Factory Of The Future.
Side&(*) has provided some insight on the current cost of
permanent, temperature controlled rooms in the western part
of the U.S.A. His experience is that the average cost of new
officellaboratory buildings is $125/sq.ft. ($1345/sq. m.) Of
that overall cost, $100 is for the building and $25 is for
heating, ventilating and air conditioning required for human
comfort, normally 23 deg. +/- 2 deg. C. If high quality
temperature control is required for precision engineering
activities, typically 20 deg. +/- 0.2 deg. C.. the cost of HVAC is
between two and three times as much or $50 to $75 per sq. ft.
This additional cost is primarily for the additional air flow,
and uniform air distribution that is required. (fans, ducts,
false ceilings, and extra refrigeration for cooling the extra fan
horsepower.) The cost of better controls is a relatively minor
expense.
KegglKline(*) report that their experience at Milacron
indicates a current cost of $45/sq. ft. for temperature control
of new factories and $65/sq. ft. for upgrading existing
facilities.
My own experience indicates that general purpose. manned,
temperature controlled rooms of the best quality available are
nnLpood e n o u to do justice to a large percentage of the
world's existing precision engineering equipment. Air or
liquid showered boxes are necessary to allow the potential
repeatablility of this equipment to be revealed and exploited.
Boxes use less energy. They are cheaper than rooms and can
be moved with the machine if necessary. Boxes of the future
653

will be provided by the machine builder. who will then be in a
position of single responsibility.
D e v e l o p m e n t s I n The Design Of Temperature
C o n t r o l l e d Boxes
When does a box become a room or visa-versa? My own
definition is that a box, regardless of its size, is an enclosure,
generally unmanned, built for one machine. A room is an
enclosure built for a variety of machines and activities.
Box design is still as primitive as room design. Most boxes are
built by machine designers as an after- thought. They are
ugly, heavy, hard to take apart, and have poor accessability.
If they are designed to contain coolants, they often leak.
Optimization of the ergonomics, aesthetics, maintainability,
cost, and quality (of temperature control) will be a challenge
for the future. There is one company ( B e h r , Stuttgart.
Germany) that specializes in designing and building boxes for
machine tools. Perhaps they can be encouraged to take on this
challenge.
Developments in Instrumentation
Schellekens(*) reports that:
"TUE uses Pt-10 and Pt-100 resistance thermometers for
their stability and nearly linear behavior in an important
temperature range (15-40 deg. C.) Thermistors can also be
used, but they are strongly non-linear and need a very
accurate calibration. However, they show a very good
reproducibility. The Pt-10 sensors are mostly used as
reference standards for calibration of 100 ohm standard
resistors in simple electronic circuits. The measurement
stations are based on multipoint measurement like a
Keithley system type 196 together with a 100-point
scanner type 706. Also 16 point GSSE PP2 stations and
homebuilt stations are used"
Roblee(*) prefers to use thermistors because of their small
size and high sensitivity (30 microdegrees).
Timken(*) prefers to use thermocouples because of their
general availability and low cost.
My own preference is the use of thermistors calibrated with
quartz crystal thermometers that are periodically checked
against triple point of water cells. Triple point cells are
relatively inexpensive ($1000). They are the principle anchor
point for temperature measurement and should be available
wherever and whenever absolute temperature measurements
are being made.
Schellekens(*) reminds us that one of the most important
advances in instrumentation in the field of thermal error
research in the past 23 years is the development of the
Cogdell(*) calls our attention to an innovative technique for
measuring the temperature of a rotating workpiece . The
method depends on "floating" a thermocouple bead on the
hydrodynamic oil film adhering to the workpiece. The
thermocouple is mounted on a cantilever beam of very low
spring rate that is allowed to "trail" the workpiece on the side
away from the tool or wheel. The spring force is critical but
can easily be determined by watching the temperature
readout. If the spring force is too great, the bead will break
through the film and touch the part. The resulting friction will
show an immediate rise in temperature. The method has been
reliably used for many years with oil as the coolant. Cogdell
believes that water based coolants might work, but more
research would have to be done.
Conclusion
In spite of some excellent research, not much has changed in
industry over the past 23 years. There is. however, some
basis for optimism about the future. Industry is just begining
to waken from its long sleep. There are many signs that things
are changing. Progress in the next five years will very likely
be greater than during the past twenty three years.
654
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