PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA BY G. A. GOODENOUGH, M.E. PROFESSOR OF THERMODYNAMICS, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS FIRST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK, JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. Loypoy: CHAPMAN & HALL, Lonrep OnFIGA Corveromt, rors, BY G. A. GOODENOUGH Copyrighted in Great Britain Stanbope pPress F H.orzsoN company BOSTON, USAPREFACE A TABLE of the thermal properties of a vapor should possess two characteristics, consistency and accuracy. A table is thermodynami- cally consistent when the tabular values are obtained from equations that are properly connected by the necessary thermodynamic relations, such as the Clausius and Clapeyron relations; it may be considered accurate if the calculated values show satisfactory agreement with trustworthy experimental data. The older tables of the properties of steam were neither consistent nor accurate. The tabular values were calculated from empirical formu- las based chiefly on Regnault’s data, and the necessity of consistency was not recognized. Two sets of tables have been based on the general theory developed by Callendar. These are absolutely consistent, but in the light of the knowledge acquired from the Munich experiments, they can no longer be regarded as accurate. In certain tables that have appeared recently have been embodied the results of the Munich experi- ments and also the researches of Dr. Davis on the total heat of steam. These tables are undoubtedly far more accurate than the earlier tables, but, having a more or less empirical basis, they are not rigorously con- sistent. ‘The tables of the properties of saturated and superheated steam here presented are based on a new formulation the essential features of which are discussed in the first section of the book. A more complete exposi- tion will be found in Bulletin No. 75, Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois. The new theory correlates perfectly the experi- ments on the volume and specific heat of superheated steam; it gives values of the heat content of saturated steam that agree with those deduced by Davis from the throttling experiments; and, in general, it meets satisfactorily all the tests furnished by the available experimental evidence. The tables derived from the formulation are necessarily con- sistent, and they are at the same time extremely accurate. ‘The tables of the properties of ammonia are based on a formulation worked out by Mr. W.E. Mosher and the author. (Bulletin No. 66, Eng'g Exper. Station, Univ. of Ill.) Since, in the case of ammonia, the experimental evidence is far from complete, the formulation is re- garded as only tentative, and the tables will perhaps require revision as further experiments are made.iv PREFACE Several supplementary tables have been included. Of these, Table 6, Mixtures of Air and Water Vapor, will be found specially useful in con- nection with problems that involve hygrometric conditions. The Mollier diagrams for steam and ammonia can be used as a sub- stitute for the tables in the approximate solution of certain classes of problems. The use of the diagrams is illustrated by the examples on pages 27 and 28. : The author acknowledges his indebtedness to Mr. W. E. Mosher for his cordial consent to the use of the ammonia tables; and to Pro- fessors L. A. Harding and A. C. Willard for many valuable suggestions. G. A. GOODENOUGH. Unsana, ILL, June, 1915.CONTENTS THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM ExpeRIMENTAL Dara. DeveLoraent or A GENBRAL THEORY. . : PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES OF SATURATED STEAM. VoLUME oF SUPERHEATED AND SATURATED STEAM. . Speciric Heat oF SUPERHEATED STEAM. co Heat Content oF SUPERHEATED AND SATURATED STBAM sees 10 Senciric Heat or Warer. Hear oF Liqup Larent Heat oF SaruraTep STEAM 15 ENTROPY ..... 8 Intrinsic ENER ce eeeeeeee veces 19 Computation oF Steam TABLES... vottttttteetee eee 19 Units anp Consranrs EMPLovep 19 THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA Expsrimentat Data... : tees 88 Pressure-TeMPeRature RELATION... vitttettttttetteeeeserne 20 Sprciric Vorume oF Lrqum AMMonra.. : cececeeeees 22 Spsciric Vorume or SaTuratep VAFOR........ 22 Latent Heat oF AMMONIA... veveeeeeees 22 PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED AMMONIA <0... 00... 23 THE TABLES AND DIAGRAMS EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES...... 24 EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAMS... 23, InLustRaTIve EXAMPLES..........- 26 TABLES 1. SATURATED STEAM: Pressure TABLE.. 30 2, SATURATED STEAM: TEMPERATURE TABLE. 38 3. SUPERHEATED STEAM oo 46 4. Bowne Porsts..... 8r 5. THERMAL Prorsxtiss oF WATER. . 82 6. Mrxtunes or Air ap SarurareD WarER Varor.. 83 7. SATURATED AMMONIA: PRESSURES... 87 8, SaTuRATED Ammonia: TEMPERATURES 92 9g. SUPERHEATED AMMONIA. . 96 10. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUID AMMONIA. 103 11. COMMON LOGARITHMS...0060606000bseeeeseeeee 104, x2. NapmeRIAN LOGARITEMS............ weve 106 108 13, CONVERSION TABLES........NOTATION The symbols given below are used throughout the preliminary dis- cussion of the properties of vapors, and in the tables. In the selection of symbols the following principles have been observed. 1. The pre- vailing usage of recent writers on thermodynamics, for example, Bryan and Planck, has been followed. 2. In the case of magnitudes propor- tional to the mass of the medium under consideration, as volume, entropy, energy, small (lower case) letters are used to represent the value per unit weight. 3. The liquid state is characterized by a symbol with a prime, and the state of saturated vapor by a double prime. Thus s’ and u' denote respectively the entropy and energy of the liquid, s”” and u”, the same properties of the saturated vapor. J = mechanical equivalent of heat Au i reciprocal of mechanical equivalent temperature on F. or C. scale absolute temperature pressure volume of unit weight (r Ib.) of fluid v= 5 weight of unit volume c, = specific heat at constant volume Cp = specific heat at constant pressure u = intrinsic energy per unit weight q= heat absorbed by fluid per unit weight q' = heat of liquid q’’ = total heat of saturated steam i= heat content = u+ Apo latent heat of vaporization p=r—¥ = internal latent heat y= Ap (o" — 0’) = external latent heat $= entropy u= Joule-Thomson coefficientProperties of Steam and Ammonia THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM Experimental Data.— Recent experimental investigations of the various properties of saturated and superheated steam have furnished data of a high degree of accuracy covering nearly every phase of the subject. The following is a summary of the more important of these investigations. 1. The relation between the pressure and temperature of saturated steam has been established definitely by three series of experiments made respectively by Holborn and Henning, Holborn and Baumann, and Scheel and Heuse. The three series taken together cover the range 32°F. to the critical temperature. These experiments were conducted at the Reichsanstalt with all the resources afforded by modern apparatus and methods of precise measurement. 2. The relation between volume, pressure, and temperature of super- heated steam has been determined by the experiments of Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe at the Munich laboratory. These experiments afford satisfactory data for the range of pressure and superheat covered. 3. A number of experiments have been made to determine the spe- cific heat of superheated steam. Of these, the experiments conducted in the Munich laboratory, first by Knoblauch and Jakob and afterward by Knoblauch and Mollier, are justly accepted as the most reliable. Similar experiments covering a wider range of pressure are being made by Lanz and Schmidt. 4. The direct experiments of Griffiths, Joly, Smith, Henning, and Dieterici furnish data on the latent heat of saturated steam. 5. The variation of the specific heat of water has been the subject of several investigations. For the range 32°-212° F. the experiments of Barnes have been verified by those of Callendar, and they are gen- erally accepted. Above 212°F. precise measurements of this impor- tant property are lacking. The only available experiments are those of Regnault and Dieterici, and neither of these can be accepted as thoroughly reliable. 6. Four sets of experiments on the throttling of steam by Grindley, Griessmann, Peake, and Dodge, respectively, furnish valuable data that may be used for various purposes. r2 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA Development of a General Theory. — The various thermal properties of a vapor are related through well-known thermodynamic laws. Thus the Clausius relation ‘ac; ay i) ar ), (sr), connects the specific heats and volumes of the superheated vapor; and the Clapeyron equation rare (2), expresses a relation between the latent heat r, temperature, change of volume o~ o' during vaporization, and the derivative ab of the pressure- temperature function. ‘A satisfactory formulation of the properties of a vapor therefore involves two processes. 1. The establishment of equations for the various properties that represent accurately the most reliable of the experimental data. 2. The correlation of such equations through the thermodynamic laws. If such correlation can be effected without sac- rifice of accuracy, the resulting formulation will have the equally essen- tial attributes, accuracy and consistency. The experimental evidence summarized in the preceding section is sufficiently extensive and trustworthy to justify the conclusion that a satisfactory formulation of the properties of water vapor may be worked out; and in the following sections is described the development of a con- sistent theory that apparently gives with extreme accuracy the proper- ties of superheated and saturated steam over a range of pressure and temperature far wider than the range employed in technical applications. Pressures and Temperatures of Saturated Steam. — The early ex- periments of Regnault have been superseded by the recent experiments conducted at the Reichsanstalt. Each of the three series of experiments conducted covered a different range of temperature. Scheel and Heuse’s * experiments covered the lower range 050° C. (32°-122° F.), Holborn and Henning’s t the range 50°-200° C. (122°-392°F.), while Holborn and Baumann’s } experiments extended from 200°C. to the critical tem- perature. The values of the saturation pressure as deduced from the respective sets of experiments are given in the following tables. In the third table the values are not those given by Holborn and Baumann but values deduced therefrom by Prof. Marks.§ * Annalen der Physik (4), Vol. 31, pp. 715-735, 1910. t Annalen der Physik (4), Vol. 25, pp. 833-883, 1908. $ Aonalen der Physik (4), Vol. 31, pp. 945-970, 1910. See also articles by Risteen: The Locomotive, Vol. 26, pp. 85, 183, 246; Vol. 27, p. 541 Vol. 28, pp. 88, 128, § Proc. A. S. M. E., Vol. 33, p. 572+THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 3 SCHEEL AND HEUSE ‘Pressure in mm. of mercury je [i a f«|s © | 4579 | 4.926 | 5.254 | 5.685 xo | guazo | 984s | xo.gi9 | r1.233 | 20 | arg50 | wags | 19852 | arora | 22383 30 | 31-8534 | 35706 | 35.674 | a7-7ax | go.grr | 42.188 fo | saat | $835 | bese! | 8482 | 88.38" | Teo go | sas fe eee ees 6.543 HOLBORN AND HENNING Pressure in mm, of mercury i =e werg 123 & | 163.6 179: p 254.5 ayy fo 3849 416-7 9° sor be3 100 815.9 875.1 ie 49 wait ue 1588 1687 130 2150 22 ne 2888 3ese 150 3784 | 3968 x0 iba gem 170 baz9 bs33, 180 7868 8330 190 9823 0256 = | 3142 12653 | HOLBORN AND BAUMANN oan ‘Pressure in Ib per ain oe 7 7 7 7 ejf»|=|= |e] |e] |» 400 | 246.99] 276.34 goo | 679.20 | 742.55 Boo | 3339.9 | x657.8 700 | 3983-4. | gobas| gaps | aoga| aan8e| sisos | c1a6s| 58 Good Bred! | SBNGs | Seo-85 | dias st583° | 889" | fase [aaesa ribs | sores | set |aaeat [age [asssa [sein (alias Of the many formulas that have been proposed for the relation p=f(® between the pressure and temperature of saturated steam, a number are simply modifications of the general equation log p= A+ 34 Clog T+ DT+ET?+ FI'4 +++. The number of constants may be increased indefinitely by taking additional terms involving the higher powers of T. The signs of the coefficients B, C, D, E, etc., may be either positive or negative. Many of the proposed equations are simpler in form than the preceding, in particular Bertrand’s equations, which have been extensively used.4 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA However, such equations cannot be extended over any considerable tem. perature range without change of constants, and it is, of course, desirable that the entire range 32°F. to the critical temperature be represented by a single equation with the same constants. After a number of trials the preceding equation was written in the form log p= A-2— Clog T— DT-+ ET?~A (a) where A= 0.0002 [x0- 10 (ery +( 55°)} The addition of the term A amounts to the inclusion of terms in T* and T* in the general formula. The constants are A = 10.5688080 log D = 3.6088020 log B= 3.6881209 log E = 6.1463000 C= ors T=1+450.6 The agreement between the formula and the experimental values is shown in Fig. 1. The equation is used as a standard of reference and 0.008; one ‘oonn} : ° 0a — : ° School and tlewso 002 SHoitors sad Horning outa it Hoibora and Buoman si 30 z or wr 70 ir ‘Temp. Fe iG. 1. PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE OF SATURATED STEAM, ordinates represent the relative deviation of the experimental values of » (taken from the preceding tables) from the calculated values. From 200 to 700 degrees the agreement is remarkably good, the deviations for the most part being less than 1 in 2000. Below 200 degrees the discrepancies are relatively larger but absolutely very small. Thus the discrepancy at 122° F. between the last Scheel and Heuse point and the first Holborn and Henning point, which looks large in the figure, is only 0.24 mm. of mercury. The equation gives an intermediate value at this temperature. At 32 degrees the equation gives 4.587 mm., while the value generally accepted is 4.579 mm. of mercury. So far as pres- sures are concerned the discrepancy is unimportant. The significant fact is that the derivative & is quite uncertain at low temperatures.THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 5 Volume of Superheated and Saturated Steam. Characteristic Equa- tions. — Direct experiments on the specific volume of saturated and superheated steam have been made by Ramsay and Young,* by Bat- telli,t and by Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe.{ The experiments in the Munich laboratory were so superior in all respects to those of the other investigators, that the results have been generally accepted. In conducting these experiments the volume of a predetermined weight of steam was kept constant and corresponding temperatures and pressures were observed. These observed values of p and # when plotted give a constant volume curve, or “isochor” on the pt-plane. It was found that the curves, within the limits of accuracy of the experiments, were straight lines. These lines were prolonged to intersect the satura- tion curve p= f(t), and the points of intersection gave, therefore, simul- taneous values of , v, and ¢, at the saturation limit. For convenience in establishing a characteristic equation, Linde made use of the scheme of representation devised by Amagat. Values of the product pv were plotted as ordinates against values of p as abscis- sas. The experimental points were not taken for this purpose but rather the points determined by the intersection of the successive isochors by ines of constant temperature. In this way the points on the pu-p plane are separated into groups, each of which is associated with a particular temperature. In other words, curves through the successive sets of points are lines of constant temperature, or isotherms. Fig. 2 shows the points as thus determined. Calendar § in his paper on the properties of gases and vapors had from theoretical considerations deduced the characteristic equation 9-5-2 (TM, ? T in which 5 represents the minimum volume or co-volume of Hirn and van der Waals. This equation gives fair agreement with the experimental values at the lower temperatures, but it requires that the isotherms on the pv-p plane be straight lines, while the experimental points indicate that they should have appreciable curyature. In Linde’s equation 3 peren[cCA)—2] the introduction of the term (1+ a) provides for the requisite curvature. ‘The resulting isotherms are parabolas. While Linde’s equation represents the experiments very closely, it is open to two serious objections. 1. At 402°C. the “‘correction term” changes sign. 2. The equation cannot be reconciled with the accepted * Phil, Trans. Roy. Soc. of London, Vol. 183-A, p. 107 (1892). + Annales de Chimie et de Physique (7), Vol. 3, p- 408 (1894). + Mitteilungen uber Forschungsarbeit., Vol. 21, pp. 33-72 (1905). § Proc. of the Royal Soc. of London, Vol. 67 (1900), pp. 266-286.6 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA specific heat measurements through the Clausius relation. In the at- tempt to remove these objections several equations have been developed and the one finally chosen has the form omen BE (x4 300) Fe (B) ‘That equation (B) satisfactorily represents the experiments is shown by Fig. 2, in which the points represent the experimental values transferred —— J — ee { ox] — 4 20500] T + 4 pe SS — (TES CRRP SEE i t = | ore i il ay ore F : ¥ rel tr | ccc TT T Al | a a a ‘Pressure, ke per 69.20. Fic, 2, Isorszewat Curves rzou Eg. (8). Tue Ports Repassent 12 Exrerments os Kxosiavcx, Linpz, ap Kress. to the po-p plane, and the curves represent the equation with the various constant values of T indicated. The term c in the equation is not strictly a constant. Following the suggestion of Callendar, this ‘“‘co-volume” term is taken as the volume of the liquid corresponding to the pressure p. Hence when the equation is used to determine the volume of saturated steam the first member becomes v"— v’, that is, the increase of volume during vaporization. The following are the constants. Metric Units English Units (pin kg. per oq. m) @inW per sq. in.) log B = 1.67213 log B= 7.7448 log m log m = 10.82500 log 3a= 3.71000 n= 4 Specific Heat of Superheated Steam. — The experiments on specific heat may be divided into groups as follows: 1. The early experiments of Regnault with steam at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures relatively close to saturation. 2. The experiments of Mallard and Le Chatelier, Langen, and Pier at very high temperatures. log 3THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 7 3. The experiments of Holborn and Henning with steam at atmos- pheric pressure and a temperature range of 110°-1400° C. 4. Recent direct experiments with steam at various pressures. Of these, the experiments of Knoblauch and Jakob and of Knoblauch and Mollier performed in the Munich laboratory are specially noteworthy. Similar experiments have been made by Thomas. Regnault’s experiments made in 1862 * indicated a constant value of c= 0.4805. Davis f has recomputed Regnault’s values and has de- duced a somewhat smaller value, namely, c, = 0.4762. For the pressure and range of temperature covered in the experiment, Regnault’s value agrees well with the results of recent experiments. aa pen. Fic. 3. Curves or Speciric Heat Depucep rrow Eo. (C). Tue Ports Represent THE EXPERIMENTS oF Kwontavci aNp Mouuinr. The high temperature experiments noted in group 2 have only an indirect bearing on the present discussion. The results obtained by the different investigators are discordant, but they all agree in showing a marked increase of specific heat with rising temperature. Thus Lan- gen’s experiments are represented by the linear relation Cp = 0.439 + 0.000239 t. ‘The experiments of Holborn and Henning { form a link between the high temperature experiments of group 2 and the experiments of group 4. These measurements indicate values of ¢, consistently lower than those obtained in the Munich experiments. While considerable weight must be attached to the Holborn and Henning experiments, it seems probable that preference must be given the Knoblauch and Mollier * Mem. Inst. de France, Vol. 26, p. 167 (1862). + Proc. Am. Acad., Vol. 45, p. 286 (1910). $ Annalen der Physik, Vol. 18, p. 739 (1905) Vol. 23, p. 809 (1907).8 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA measurements. Callendar * has expressed the opinion that the Holborn and Henning values are too low by as much as 10 per cent. Knoblauch and Jakob,t and subsequently Knoblauch and Mollier,{ made observations of the specific heat at four different pressures, 2, 4, 6, and 8 kg. per sq. cm. The latter experiments extended the temperature range of the former from 350°-550° C. After reviewing all the experimental evidence one must be convinced that for the range of temperature covered, the Knoblauch and Mollier measurements should be accepted without modification. These are shown in Fig. 3. For convenience in the identification of the measure- ments associated with the four pressures employed, the points have been separated into four groups. By a combination of the characteristic equation (B) and the Clausius relation a general equation for the specific heat c, may be derived. From the equation Br_ a), p 7 E+ 3 ab) Fe the second derivative a (3 *), is obtained. Hence, from the Clausius relation, Mcp) gp dte _ Amn (n+ 1) : (3), =- AT or Ton (E+302!). An integration with T constant gives an expression for ¢,, namely y= F(T) + AED p01 4 2 0ph, = (+ 3 0p!) MED The arbitrary function F(T) is evidently cj, that is, the specific heat at zero pressure. This was taken as a constant by Callendar. The experiments of Knoblauch and Mollier show that ¢p, cannot be constant, and this conclusion is confirmed by the high-temperature experiments of Langen and others. It has been suggested that a simple linear relation c= a+ pT may be assumed, but it is found that better results are obtained by a relation of the form mat Blt ae Writing the equation for ¢, in the form = F(T) +f (6, T) values of the term f(b, T) may be calculated for each of the Knoblauch and Mollier experiments, and by subtraction the corresponding values of * Report of British Assoc. Committee on Gaseous Explosions, pp. 31, 32 (1908). + Mitte. uber Forschungsarbeit, Vol 35, p- 109. t Zeit. des Ver. deutsch. Ing., Vol. 55, p. 665 (1911).THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 9 n= F(T) are found. From the curve through these points the con- stants a, 8, and 7 are obtained. The equation for c, finally takes the form Goat T+ + AMEE 9 (14 2 06h), © and the constants are Metie English 320 0.320 0002268 0.000126 371 23583 The constants a, m, and n are those of the characteristic equation. If in Eq. (C) various constant values of p are substituted, the result is a family of c,-curves, c= f(t). A comparison of this system of c,-curves with the systems established by Davis * and by Jakob ¢ reveals certain essential differences. In Fig. 3 the curves for 2, 4, 6, and 8 kg. per sq. cm. are shown super- posed on the Knoblauch and * Mollier points. It is evident | / that the agreement is satisfac- T tory. Jakob's system repre- sents the experiments equally 15} - - well. In carrying the curves to + the saturation curve both Davis 0%5-— = | and Jakob assume a sharp in 4 | alee crease of c, and the result is a 2 A-Griom ta | |/_ | system of values of c, at satu- 2°% eae 6 ration that appear to be unwar- & 12 Those J rantably high. Fig. 4 shows a 0m — | comparison of the values of | ()au- Curve A is deduced from — 4s5|__| Eq. (C), curve J represents | | (Z| | Jakob’s values, and the points | | represent the Davis values; “| curve T represents the experi- x ments of Thomas, and curve C5, 1 _f the values calculated by Callen- ‘Temp. ©. dar, Passing now to the other Fi. 4. Curves or Srrcic Hear av mz Satunaton Laan. end of the temperature range, values of c calculated from Eq. (C) agree fairly well with the experi- mental values of Langen, Pier, and Holborn at high temperatures 1000°— 2000° C. Jakob’s values tend to run somewhat lower, and the Davis system of values still lower. Hence it may be asserted that the system derived from Eq. (C) (1) satisfies the Knoblauch and Mollier experi- * Marks and Davis, Steam Tables and Diagrams, p. 97- + Zeit. des Verein. deutsch Ing., Vol. 66, pp. 1981-3. 1912.10 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA ments at least as well as the other systems, (2) gives more probable values of cp at saturation, and (3) gives more trustworthy values of ¢, at high temperatures. Regnault’s measurements of ¢, at atmospheric pressure may be used as a rough check on corresponding values calculated from Eq. (C). The four series of experiments covered the temperature range 122.8°-231.1° C. The mean value of c given by Regnault was 0.4805, but this value is Jowered to 0.4762 by Davis. All experiments were conducted at atmos- pheric pressure. The following table gives values of c, at atmospheric pressure calculated from the equation, also the values assigned by Jakob for the slightly lower pressure, 1 kg. per sq. cm. SPECIFIC HEAT AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, =[= [=|=|-|=|= ease | oars | om | oars | oir | 08s | ose The mean c, deduced from the equation agrees very well with the recomputed value 0.4762. Heat Content of Superheated and Saturated Steam.—From the two laws of thermodynamics the following general equations are derived. dg=cdT~A (54) ae, = 7 oe) di=c,dT [r(#) o]ae. In the second equation we introduce the expression for ¢ given by (C) and the expressions for (2) and v obtained from the character- istic equation (B). The result of the substitutions is the exact differen- tial equation di=[et or+ + Ament, (+ 2ap)| ar ~ A[E ED (14 5 apt) Jap, which upon integration gives the following equation for the heat content, . A ix oT+ier—b- An GSD 54 2apl)+Ach+%. (D) The constant % is determined as follows. Corresponding saturation values of p and ¢ at some definite temperature, say 212 degrees, are sub- stituted in the equation, which for this purpose may be written fant = $ (b, T) + to. ‘The function ¢ (f, T) is thus calculated, and ix: being known, % is found by subtraction. The value i)= 948.54 B.t.u. is thus determined.THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM In Since the constant ¢ is taken as the liquid volume »’, the term Acp is Apu’, which is the small difference between the heat content i” and the total heat g”. Hence, when applied at the saturation limit, equation (D) gives i” and the same equation with the term Acp omitted gives g”. At the saturation limit formula (D) may be checked with the Davis formula for heat content, which is surely valid within the range 212° 400° F, The comparison is shown graphically in Fig. 5. The points are | : s EE — a earns ae steel “= = ar or a ‘Temp. F. Fie. 5, Comparison oF i’-Curve om Eg. (D) wits Ports Depucep FROM THE ‘TuRorrline EXPERIMENTS. those determined by Davis from the throttling experiments of Grindley, Griessmann, and Peake, and they are plotted from the data given in Table 1 of Davis’ paper.* The ordinates represent the difference be- tween the i at the given temperature ¢ and the i at 212 degrees. The curve therefore represents the equation i" — i" =f), where 7” is calculated from the formula and 2” = 1151.74. The curve does not fit the points quite as well as the Davis second-degree curve, * Proc. Am. Acad., Vol. 45, P. 276.12 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA but the agreement is satisfactory and is probably well within the limits of accuracy of the throttling experiments. Beyond the last point the curve begins to bend downward rather sharply and thus diverge from the prolonged Davis curve. The maximum value of i” is reached at about 440 degrees, while the Davis equation gives the maximum at about 550 degrees. - For the lower range 32-212 degrees, values of 7” calculated from equation (D) show excellent agreement with the available experimental values. In the following section on latent heat a comparison will be shown. In the region of superheat formula (D) may be checked by the throt- tling experiments of Grindley, Griessmann, and Peake. According to the principles of thermodynamics a throttling process is also a constant-i process; that is, the points obtained in any particular throttling ex- periment when plotted on the pt-plane should lie on a curve #= const. When the curves are superposed on the experimental points good agree- ment is shown. (See Fig. 9, Bulletin No. 75, Eng. Exper. Station Univ. of IIL) Essentially the same test may be applied in another way. The slope of a curve i= const. on the Tp-plane is given by the derivative (2) scout and this is the Joule-Thomson coefficient «. From equation (D) the fol- lowing expression for w is readily obtained: wn AMD 4 509 —¢ > Davis has computed values of u from the various throttling experiments, and these may be compared with values calculated from the preceding equation. Reasonably good agreement is shown. (See Bulletin No. 75, Fig. 15.) Specific Heat of Water. Heat of Liquid.— For the temperature range 32°-212° F, (0°-100° C.) there are available five sets of experi- ments on the variation of the specific heat of water with the temper- ature. The curves that represent the results of these experiments are separable into two groups having quite different characteristics. Ludin * working with the method of mixtures obtained a curve which shows a minimum value of ¢’ at about 20° C., then a rapid rise to a maximum, at 87°C. The curves obtained by Dieterici 7 and Barnes ¢ are similar in character; each shows a decrease of c’ to a well defined minimum, then a steady rise without any suggestion of a maximum. The experi- ments of Regnault and Dieterici above 100° C. show a steady rise of the specific heat with the temperature; hence, if Ludin’s curve be accepted, * Inaug. Diss, Zurich, 1895. + Annalen der Physile (4), Vol. 16, pp. 593-620 (1905). $ Phil. Trans., Vol. 199-A, pp. 55-548, 149-263 (1902).THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 13 the specific heat after reaching its maximum at 87 degrees must diminish and then increase again. It is difficult to account for such a variation on any rational basis, and the curves of Barnes and Dieterici should be preferred to Ludin's curve. Davis * attached no weight whatever to Ludin’s values and adopted a curve lying between those of Barnes and Dieterici, with Barnes’ values given double weight. However, the question is again complicated by the experiments of W. R. and W. E. Bousfield + which reproduce Ludin’s results, although the method em- ployed (electric heating with a vacuum-jacket calorimeter) was entirely different from Ludin’s method of mixtures. Finally Callendar ¢ has undertaken to throw light on the subject by a set of experiments in which a new and very accurate method was employed. Callendar’s paper contains an exhaustive and valuable discussion of the whole subject. The methods used by Barnes and Callendar, respectively, have the marked advantage of being continuous. In the Barnes experiments a steady current of water was heated through a small range of temperature by an electric current, and the result obtained was therefore the actual specific heat at a pre-determined temperature rather than the mean specific heat over a considerable range. Callendar used a continuous- mixture method in which two steady currents of water at different tem- peratures were passed through a system of concentric tubes which con- stituted a heat exchanger. The continuous-flow methods have obvious advantages over other methods. The water equivalent of the calorimeter is not required, and various corrections that involve uncertain measure- ments are eliminated. The results of Callendar’s experiments by the continuous-mixture method completely verify the earlier experiments of Barnes by the con- tinuous-electric method. As these two independent methods are much superior to the other methods used and give identical results, there can be no question that these results should be accepted. Taking the specific heat of water at 20°C. as unity, Callendar gives the following equation for the variation of the specific heat with tempera- ture 5 i 2 c= 0.98536 + 2524 + 0.008455, + 0.0090 (35) z From the specific heat c’ the heat content 7’ of the liquid is derived by the relation fea ‘After changing from C. to F. temperatures and applying a factor to * Steam Tables and Diagrams, p. 89. + Phil. Trans,, Vol. 211-8, pp. 199-251 (1911). } Phil Trans., Vol. 212-A, pp. 1-32 (913)-14, PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA reduce from the 20-degree calorie to the mean calorie, the equation for i’ becomes =3 0.9838 t+ 2.0856 log (¢-++.4) + 0.233 (5) zy 4, + 0.09245 (' Too) ~ 3473: For temperatures above 212 degrees, two sets of experiments are available, Regnault’s and Dieterici’s, neither of which can be accepted as thoroughly reliable. Regnault’s results have been recomputed by % ay % % 7 6 ‘¢ Regnault| © Dicteriet 2 0 ~ 3 So BO 0 om m6 ‘Temp. F, Fic, 6. Heat Content or Waren, 212°-600° F. various investigators. In Fig. 6, six mean values deduced from Cal- Iendar’s computation are shown. The ordinates in this figure represent values of Av (— 32), that is, the excess of the heat content over ¢ — 32, the temperature range. Abscissas are temperatures F. In the same figure are shown the points obtained by Dieterici. The curve D represents the equation adopted by Dieterici and curve C represents Callendar’s equation extended beyond 212 degrees. . Callendar questions the accuracy of Dieterici’s experiments and gives preference to his equation extrapolated through the range 100°-200° C. It is probable that Dieterici’s points are considerably in error, as the method of the experiments involved large corrections, and it is also probable that Regnault’s points are no more reliable. However, thereTHE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 15 seems to be no valid reason for choosing a curve, like curve C, lying below both sets of points. Latent Heat of Saturated Steam.— The Clapeyron relation r=A(v"-0') re. gives a means of calculating the latent heat. It is convenient to write the equation in the form Td; B Ab") 5 Tp in which the second member is made up of two factors. From the char- acteristic equation, the first is expressed by Ap (0"— 0’) = ABT — Ap (1+ 3p!) a. Upon differentiating equation (A) connecting the pressure and tempera- ture of saturated steam, namely logp=A -8- Clog T— DT + ET?— A, the second factor is obtained in the form oan = 2.3026 [3 DI-+2ET?— r%)- c} For the range 32-212 degrees, within which the heat of the liquid is given accurately by the experiments of Barnes and Callendar, a second independent method of calculating the latent heat is available. Satura- tion values of i are calculated from the formula for heat content and from these are subtracted the corresponding known values of the heat of the liquid. The difference gives, of course, the latent heat. The following table gives values of r obtained by the two methods. LATENT HBAT, j2°%212° F. | x70 3194 grass | orere gre | artze 095.45 8.05 130.79 87 een e807 soteze | roar yeigaa | reaiar Above 212 degrees the heat of the liquid is so uncertain that the method of determining r by subtraction is hardly justified. Hence values of r are calculated from the Clapeyron relation, and subtracted from corresponding values of #”. The result is a set of values of #’ that may be compared with the Regnault and Dieterici experimental values. The following table exhibits the details of the calculation.16 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA LATENT HEAT AND HEAT OF LIQUID, 212°-600° F. i za | ae | om | me | we | @ | oo | | Pom Ba. (D). | sre) aes | ngs [subg | pss] tans | 200.6 | 00. |2x9499| 85.68 | 6504 Pf Cap ras 2. | aia] seoaB| outs | tts | seato| soe | veece | zsor8| Sebae| Sane | stout Spectmetoe | Be"| tae] Sie] ae | as] ste | tas] aor | seer | san] beat Referring to the first of the preceding tables, the close agreement of the two sets of values of r may be noted. The greatest difference, which occurs at 32-40 degrees, is about 6 in 10,000. This agreement is a decisive test of the validity of the analysis. The two sets of numbers are obtained independently, one from the characteristic equation, the other from the heat-content equation, and the agreement between the two shows the satisfaction of the Clapeyron relation. Of the two sets the one obtained from the heat-content equation should be chosen, rather than the set derived by means of the Clapeyron relation. The reason for this lies in the slight uncertainty in the exact value of the derivative oA at low temperatures. It was shown in connection with Fig. 1 that the course of the Scheel and Heuse points indicates that the true value of this derivative at 32 degrees is probably slightly greater than the value obtained from the formula. The slightly lower values of r calculated from the Clapeyron relation in the range of 32-80 degrees may be ascribed, therefore, to a small error in the derivative. For the range 212°-600° F. the important result is the set of values of.z’, heat of the liquid. In Fig.6 curve A represents the new set of values for the range 212°-600° F. It lies between Dieterici’s curve and Callen- dar's extrapolated curve and represents very well the Regnault experiments as interpreted by Callendar. Above 400 degrees the curve runs from 1 to 3 B.t.u. lower than the Dieterici points, a deviation of 0.2 to 0.6 per cent. Dieterici admits a possible error of 0.3 to 0.5 per cent in the experiments to determine the mean specific heat ¢, and a further error in the reduction of cm to the actual specific heat. It is likely that a possible error of at least 1 per cent may be attached to Dieterici’s points; hence if the points are too high, as is indicated by Regnault's experiments and Callendar’s extrapolated formula, the curve probably represents the true values fairly well. The values of the latent heat 7 given in the preceding table may be compared with direct experiments within the range 32-212 degrees. For this purpose four sets of experiments are available, those of Dieterici,* Griffiths, Smith,} and Henning§ The following table gives the results of these experiments expressed in a common unit, the mean B.t.u. * Annalen der Physik, Vol. 37, pp. 494-08 (1889). + Phil. Trans., Vol. 186-A, pp. 261-341 (1895). $ Phys. Review, Vol. 25, pp. 145-170 (1907). § Annalen der Physik (4), Vol. 21, pp. 849-878 (1906).THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 7 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATIONS OF LATENT HEAT Temper, Egat bet Dieterici 3 1072.9 Grifiths ... 86 04st ro45 rosa Smith. 57-5 1061.6, jor 1054-5 as 10478 103.8 rosso 88.2 1043.2 205 robe 187 10080 vee 3054 1927 383.3 213.1 969.8 In Fig. 7 these results are shown by the plotted points and the curve represents the variation of r according to equation (D). The agree- ment is satisfactory, though Smith’s points would indicate that the calculated values may be slightly low. 100 A Bt ‘Latent Heat T Dieters 1000 Sea Beaune IS SY 0 0 700 5) 5 ‘Temp. F, Fic. 7. Lavent Hear of Saruratep Seam, 32°-212° F. Special interest attaches to the value of r at 212°F. For years Regnault’s number 966 B.t.u. was universally accepted. Callendar in his 1900 paper gave the value 972, which is almost precisely the value that is now considered most probable. Davis made use of the experi- ments of Henning and Joly at 212° and set the value of r at 970.4 B.t.u. Smith’s recent experiments * on slow vaporization of water under atmospheric pressure indicate a value higher than any yet assumed. Heck uses the value 971.2, Mollier uses 971.4. The present investi- * Physical Review, Vol. 33, p. 183 (1911).18 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA gation leads to the number 971.7, which is probably quite close to the truth, though if anything slightly low. Entropy. — An expression for the entropy of superheated steam is readily obtained from the fundamental equation, odT—~A 1 (5p) 4. Dividing by T, mn + Te = 1-+3 ap3). > (1 +3 ap?). Introducing this and the expression for , in the preceding equation, the result is = [49+ + Amt p+ aopt)]er— 42 as=[S40+ H+ qi >b (1+ 2aph) |ar— 2E ap ~ FE + sap!) dp. The integration of this exact differential equation gives the following equation for the entropy $= alog, T+ 91-125 ~ AB log. p-FBE (1-42 ap!) + so ) The constant sy is found by applying the equation at the saturation limit. The value thus determined is s) = — 0.08108. For the range 32°-212°F., within which Callendar’s formula for the heat of the liquid is surely applicable, there are available two inde- pendent methods of calculating the entropy of saturated steam. 1. The entropy of the liquid s’ is determined by the integration of Callendar’s equation for ¢’ and the entropy of vaporization F is added. 2. Corre- sponding saturation values of p and T are substituted directly in the preceding formula for s. The two methods give substantially identical results. Above 212° F. the entropy s” of saturated steam is calculated from formula (E) and the entropy of the liquid s’ is obtained by the relation re gt as Z. T Integration of Callendar’s ?’-equation gives the following formula for s': s 8’ = 2.3623 log T + 0.0045775 log (t+ 4) — 0.00022609 T + 0,00000013867 T? — 6.28787.THE THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM 19 Intrinsic Energy. — From the defining equation Aut po) the energy « in thermal units is readily obtained by subtraction; thus u= i Apo. Combination of equations (B) and (D) gives therefore the following explicit expression = (@~ AB) T+ Lor 2—AMP(r 424 Fapl)ein (F) Computation of the Steam Tables.— The tabulated properties of superheated steam — volume, entropy, and heat content —are calcu- lated directly from formulas (B), (E), and (D), respectively. The same formulas with corresponding saturation values of p and ¢ inserted give, respectively, the volume, entropy, and heat content of saturated steam. The pressures of saturated steam are calculated from formula (A). Within the range 32°-212° F. the heat content #’ of the liquid is obtained from Callendar’s formula, and the latent heat r is then found by subtraction, according to the relation y= 4’ — i’. For temperatures above 212° F. the latent heat is calculated from the Clapeyron relation Ladp ‘oar in which v= 4[BT—p (1+ 3004) Values of ’ are then obtained by subtraction, since i’ = internal latent heat p is found from the relation parmv and the internal energy u” from the relation ul =i!" — Apu". The entropy of the saturated steam s” having been obtained from the general formula (E), the entropy of the liquid s’ is found by subtracting r pe thus In the process of computation the formulas were used to give values of the required magnitudes for temperatures (or pressures) so selected as to give a suitable constant interval, and the intervening values were obtained by interpolation. Units and Constant: In these tables the mean B.t.u. is taken as the thermal unit. This is defined as y4yth of the heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of water from 32° to 212° F. The correspond- ing mean calorie is by Griffiths identified with the 17}-degree calorie and by Barnes with the 16-degree calorie.20 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA The various determinations of the mechanical equivalent seem to justify the value established by Griffiths in 1893, namely, I mean calorie = 4.184 joules 1 mean B.t.u. = 777.64 standard ft. Ib. This value has been used. Various determinations of the absolute temperature of the ice-point have been made. These indicate a value of 273.1° C. or about 459.6° F. The investigation of Rose-Innes (1908) points to the value 459.64, but it does not appear that the degree of accuracy indicated by the fifth figure is at present justified. The value 459.6 has been taken, and the relation between absolute and ordinary temperatures is therefore given by T= t+ 459.6.THERMAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA Experimental Data. — Experiments on the properties of ammonia are by no means as complete or as concordant as the experiments on water vapor. Hence any formulation for ammonia must be regarded as merely tentative and subject to revision as further experimental evidence becomes available. Experiments on the pressure-temperature relation for saturated am- monia vapor have been made by Regnault, Faraday, Bhimcke, Brill, and Davies.* Data on the specific volume of liquid ammonia are furnished by the experiments of Lange, D’Andréeff, and Dieterici, and on the specific volume of the saturated vapor by the experiments of Dieterici. The experiments of Perman, Guye, and Leduc furnish a few isolated values of the volume of the superheated vapor. Measurements of the latent heat of vaporization have been made by Regnault, Franklin and Kraus, Von Strombeck, Estreicher and Schnerr, Denton and Jacobus. The values obtained are very discordant. Fairly trustworthy values of the heat content of liquid ammonia throughout the range 50°-160° F. are given by the experiments of Die- terici and Drewes. Finally, a few values of the specific heat of superheated ammonia are given by Keutel, Voller, Wiedemann, Regnault, and Nernst. Pressure-Temperature Relation. — The law of Ramsay and Young affords the most satisfactory method of calculating corresponding tem- peratures and pressures of saturated ammonia vapor. This law is ex- pressed by the equation R=R+k(T-T), in which R and R’ denote the ratio of the saturation temperatures of two different substances at two different pressures, and T, T’ denote the abso- lute temperatures of one of the vapors corresponding respectively to the pressures. Let water and ammonia be the two substances and let T,, and T, denote respectively the absolute temperatures of saturated steam and ammonia at the same pressure; then the law is expressed by the simple equation 1 x ror t* * For an exhaustive bibliography of the investigations of ammonia, see Bulletin No. 66, University of Illinois Experiment Station, pp. 92-94. 2122 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA Accurate values of T., are given in the steam tables; hence, if the con- stants c and k are known, values of T, are readily calculated. Using the graphical method suggested by Moss, Mosher plotted the available experimental values and established the following values of the constants C= 1.70343 k= — 0.0002242. Values of T, thus obtained represent with satisfactory accuracy the most reliable of the experiments. Specific Volume of Liquid Ammonia. — For the temperature range —60° to 160° F., Mosher, following Avenarius, assumed an equation of the form y a— blog (t.— 2), to express the relation between the liquid volume and the temperature. In this equation f denotes the critical temperature of ammonia, which is taken as 273.2°F. With the constants a = 0.06335, b = 0.016, the equa- tion represents satisfactorily the experiments of Dieterici, Lange, and D’Andréeff. Above 160° F, the liquid volumes were determined by the law of the “straight diameter.” Specific Volume of Saturated Ammonia Vapor. Latent Heat. — By a combination of the equation expressing Ramsay and Young's law with the Clapeyron equation, the following relation is obtained: Wanye, Br) Yo To The subscript w refers to water, the subscript a to ammonia. The ratio 2 is ~0.0001316. At any given pressure the term in the first mem- ber of this equation and the bracketed term in the second member may be found from the known properties of steam. Hence the quotient oa for ammonia may be calculated. With reference to the numerator v’—v’, satisfactory values of 0’ are available and Dieterici’s experiments give acceptable values of 0” within the range 30°-222° F. Hence tentative values of the latent heat r may be calculated and compared with the experimental values. Follow- ing this procedure, Mosher deduced the following formula: log r = 1.856064 + 0.37 log (273.2 — 2). ‘The curve r= f() representing this equation fits the discordant experi- mental points at least as well as any of the other proposed curves and the form of the equation is such as to justify extrapolation to very low tem- peratures. With this equation for r available the process just described may be reversed, and values of v'"— v' may be calculated. Values of 2” up to 160° F, were thus obtained. For temperatures above 160° F., values of v' were obtained from the law of the straight diameter.THERMAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA 23 Properties of Superheated Ammonia. —The characteristic equation for superheated ammonia was given the form ven and the following constants were chosen: 0.6321 (p in Ib. per sq. in.) 5 With these constants the equation represents satisfactorily the experi- mental volumes of the superheated vapor, and at saturation it gives values that agree closely with values of »’ obtained from the Clapeyron relation. With the analytical methods that were used in the case of super- heated steam the following equations are derived: mater Smee », imal +3eP—A (n+ 2D pt - Ach + te s = alog, T+ BT— AB log. p— And Tai + 50 ‘The constants must be adjusted to meet two conditions. 1. Values of ¢, calculated from the first equation should agree with available ex- perimental values. 2. Values of i’ obtained from the equation for ¢ (by subtraction of r from #”’) should agree with the experimental values found by Dieterici and Drewes. The following values were finally chosen «= 0.382 to= 358.0 8 = 0.000174 S0= — 0.8266THE TABLES AND DIAGRAMS Explanation of the Tables. — Tables 1 and 2 give the properties of saturated steam and Table 3 the properties of superheated steam. Tables 7, 8, and 9 give similarly the properties of saturated and superheated ammonia. In Table 2 the temperature is taken as the argument and the tabular values were calculated directly from the general equations. The values in Table 1, in which the pressure is the argument, were obtained by interpolation from Table 2. Below atmospheric pressure, the pressures in Table 1 are given in inches of mercury, and from 0.2 to 5 inches the interval is taken as 0.1 inch. Hence the properties associated with the low pressures involved in modern condenser practice may be easily determined. The upper limit of the range of temperature for which the general equations may be considered valid is apparently about 560° F. However, tentative values of the various properties between 560 degrees and the critical temperature are given in Table 2. These were obtained by cer- tain empirical methods that are described in the original paper. (See Bulletin No. 73, Eng’g Exper. Station, U. of Ill., pp. 61-64.) While experimental evidence is lacking for temperatures above 400° F., it is believed that the values between 400 and 560 degrees are fairly accurate. Those for temperatures above 560 degrees are not so worthy of confidence. In the case of superheated steam, the properties are functions of both pressure and temperature. Table 3 is so arranged that the properties for eight successive pressures appear on each page. The temperature rather than the degree of superheat is taken as the variable. Ten- degree intervals are used up to about 200 degrees of superheat and 50-degree intervals beyond. Under each pressure is given in parentheses the corresponding saturation temperature so that the degree of super- heat if desired may be readily obtained by subtraction. Table 4 gives corresponding temperatures and pressures of saturated steam near atmospheric pressure. In other words, the table gives boil- ing points for various barometer indications. Table 5 gives the important thermal properties of water. At the lower temperatures the values of density and volume were taken from the most reliable existing data. The specific heat throughout and the other properties at higher temperatures were recalculated. Table 6 gives the more important data of mixtures of air and satu- rated vapor of water. It will be found useful in the solution of prob- 24THE TABLES AND DIAGRAMS 25 lems that involve hygrometric conditions. As is customary in present practice, tabular values are based on the weight rather than the volume of the dry air. The three columns of thermal magnitudes may require some explanation. The first of these gives the heat content of 1 pound of dry air above o° F. The values were obtained from Swann's expression for the specific heat of air, namely, p= 0.24112 + 0.000009 t. The next column gives the heat required to vaporize the weight of water required to saturate the air at the given temperature. Below 32 degrees the heat of sublimation rather than the latent heat of vapor- ization is used. The third of the three columns gives the heat content of the mixture, and the values are obtained by adding the corresponding values in the other columns. Strictly speaking, the term “heat content” is improper in this connection, because the heat of the liquid is not in- cluded. The heat content of a non-saturated mixture with known rela~ tive humidity may be found with sufficient accuracy from the first two of these three columns. Multiply the tabular value in the second col- umn by the relative humidity and add the product to the value in the first column, Thus with a temperature of 80° F. and relative humidity of 0.70, the heat content of 1 pound of air with the contained water vapor is 19.32+ 0.70X 23.31 = 35-64 B.t.u. ‘Tables 7, 8, 9, and 10 for ammonia correspond to Tables 1, 2, 3, and 5 for water vapor, and require no special comment. The Diagrams. — For the expeditious solution of many engineering problems in which extreme accuracy is not required the tables of prop- erties may be replaced by certain graphical charts. It is perhaps true that the value of such graphical aids is generally overestimated, and that most problems can be worked from the tables with the expenditure of very little more time and effort and with much greater accuracy. While any two of the variables 9, », f, u, s, i may be taken as the ordinate and abscissa, respectively, the Mollier chart, in which ¢ and s are so used, has important advantages. Two Mollier diagrams, one for steam and one for ammonia, accom- pany these tables. These differ in one essential respect. In the case of steam the properties of the medium near the liquid state are rarely needed, hence the chart includes only the properties near the saturation limit and in the region of superheat. In the case of ammonia, on the other hand, the liquid curve must be included on account of the phe- nomena connected with the free expansion of the fluid through the expan- sion valve. Therefore the ammonia diagram has two parts, one showing the properties in the region of superheat and near the saturation curve, the other the properties near the liquid curve.26 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA Each diagram gives several families of curves. Lines parallel to the co6rdinate axes give, respectively, values of heat content and entropy as read on the scales along the margin. There is a family of constant- pressure curves, in the superheat region a family of constant-tempera- ture curves, and in the mixture region a family of constant-quality curves. Any point on the diagram represents a definite state of the fluid. If the point lies in the region of superheat the heat content, entropy, pres- sure, and temperature are read off directly; if it lies in the mixture region the quality is given but the temperature must be obtained from the pressure. Two important properties, the volume and energy, are not given by the diagram as constructed. While it is possible to con- struct constant-volume and constant-energy curves, the inclusion of so many families of curves on a single diagram would lead to confusion. Furthermore, at low pressures the volume changes so rapidly that it is impossible to read volumes with any degree of accuracy. The volume and energy may, however, be easily obtained from the other properties. Thus to find the volume: If the point lies in the region of superheat read the pressure and temperature from the diagram and simply look up the corresponding value of v in Table 3; if it lies in the mixture region read the pressure and quality from the diagram, look up the value of the saturation volume v for the pressure, and multiply this by the quality. Having the specific volume, the energy is readily obtained from the relation u=i- 144 Apo = i 0.1852 po. (log 0.1852 26758.) If the pressure is given in inches of mercury the formula becomes — 0.091 pu. Illustrative Examples. — The following examples illustrate some of the more important uses of the diagrams and tables. Example 1.* Find the properties of steam at a pressure of 120 Ib. per sq. in, and a temperature of 412° F. From the steam diagram the point that represents the state of the steam is found at the intersection of the curves p = 120 and ¢ = 412. From the scale: are read the values i = 1231 B.tu., s = 1.637. From Table 3 the volume of Tb, is found to be 4.16 cu. ft. Therefore 4 = i — 0.1852 pu = 1232 — 0.1852 X 120 X 4.16 1138.5 Btu. Example 2. Steam in the initial state p = 120 Ib., ¢ = 412°F. expands adiabatically. At what pressure does it become dry and saturated? * In this example, the use of the diagram is superfluous, for the values of # and s arc obtained as easily and with greater accuracy from Table 3. When the problem involves « change of state or a comparison between two states, as in Examples 2 and 3, the advantage o: the diagram becomes more apparent.THE TABLES AND DIAGRAMS 27 In adiabatic expansion the entropy remains constant; hence the second state is given by the intersection of the line s = 1.637 with the saturation curve. ‘The pressure indicated by this point is 68 Ib. per sq. in. Example 3. Steam in the same initial state as in Examples 1 and 2 expands adiabatically to a pressure of 25 in. of mercury. Find the volume, heat con- tent, energy, and quality in the final state. The entropy in the initial state is 1.637; hence find the intersection of the line s = 1.637 with the curve p = 2.5 in. of Hg. This point gives the values x = 0.822, i = 925 B.tu. From Table 1, #” for 2.5 in. of Hg is 247.7 cu. ft., hence the volume of the mixture with quality of 0.822 is 247.7 X 0.822 = 203.6 cu. ft. The energy is 925 — 0.091 X 2.5 X 203.6 = 878.7 B.t.u. Example 4. With the data of Example 3, find the work done by 1 pound of steam in expanding. When steam expands adiabatically the work done is equal to the decrease of energy. tt = 1138.5 (Ex. 1) and m = 878 7; hence the work is ty = 1138.5 ~ 878 7 = 259.8 B.t.u. = 202,030 ft. Ib. Example 5. Steam having an initial pressure of 180 Ib. per sq. in. and a temperature of 550°F. is assumed to pass through an ideal Rankine cycle. Find the heat changed into work (a) when the steam is exhausted at a pressure of 16 Ib.; (6) when it is exhausted at a pressure of 3 in. of Hg. In the Rankine cycle the heat changed into work is given by the decrease of the heat content during adiabatic expansion. From the diagram, i = 1297.4 B.tu. Following the line of constant entropy-to p = 16 Ib., é: is found to be 1094 B.t.u., and continuing to p = 3 in. of Hg, # = 950 Btu. Hence the heat turhed into work is for the first case 1297.4 — 1094 = 203.4 B.tun,, and for the second case 1297.4 — 950 = 347.4 Btu. Example 6. Steam at a pressure of 200 Ib. per sq. in. and quality 0.97 is throttled in passing through a reducing valve. At what pressure will the steam be dry and saturated after passing through the valve? In a throttling process the heat content ¢ remains constant. Hence a line i = const. through the initial point intersects the saturation curve in a point that gives the required final state. The pressure is found to be 44 Ib. per sq. in. Example 7. In a throttling calorimeter the observed pressure is 17 Ib. and the temperature 255°F. If the initial pressure of the steam was 160 Ib., what was the initial quality? A line of constant through the point p = 17 Ib., = 255° cuts the line = 160 Ib. in a point at which the quality is 0.973. Example 8. Steam at a pressure of 200 Ib. per sq. in. and a temperature of 450° F. expands in a nozzle to a pressure of 60 Ib. per sq. in. Find the velocity attained by the jet (a) when the flow is assumed to be frictionless; (6) when, due to friction, there is a loss of 12 per cent in the energy of the jet. If the expansion in a nozzle is adiabatic and frictionless the fundamental 2 —- equation of flow is 35 = J (i — i), or w = 225.7 Vite, The effect of fric- tion is to decrease the jet energy, and if this decrease is y per cent of the friction- less jet energy, the velocity in this case is given by w = 223.7 Vl — &) @ — 9). From the diagram the initial heat content is 1240, and the final heat content28 PROPERTIES OF STEAM AND AMMONIA after adiabatic expansion to 60 Ib. is found to be 1139 B.t.u. Hence, if the flow is frictionless, w 223.7 Viago ~ 1139 = 2250 It. per sec., approx. With 12 per cent loss of energy, the velocity is w = 223.7 V(i2g0 = 1139) X 088 = 2110 ft. per sec. Example 9. In case (8) of Example 8, find the quality and specific volume of the steam in the final state, that is, after expansion to 60 Ib. In the frictionless case the change in é is 1240 — 1139 = 1or B.tu. With friction this is decreased 12 per cent, leaving tor X 0.88 = 88.9 B.t-u. Hence in the second state i = 1240 — 88.9 = 1151.1 B.t.u, and the pressure is 60 Ib, From the diagram the corresponding quality is 0.97, nearly. For 60 Ib.,v” = 7.18 cu, ft., hence the volume per pound is 7.18 X 0.97 = 696 cu. ft. Example 10. Determine the area of the end section of the nozzle for a dis- charge of 75 Ib. of steam per minute, using the results obtained in Examples 8 and 9. In the equation of continuity, Fw = Me, M is given as $§ Ib. per sec., w = 2110, 9 = 6.96. Hence the area Fis 96 2110 Bx = 0 00413 8q. ft. = 0.595 5 Example 11. In an ammonia refrigerating machine the ammonia enters the compressor dry and saturated at a pressure of 40 Ib. per sq_in. and is com- pressed adiabatically to 190 Ib. per sq. in. It is then cooled and condensed and in passing through the expansion valve attains the initial pressure 4o Ib. in. the brine coils. Required the heat absorbed from the brine, the heat rejected in ‘the condenser, and the heat equivalent of the work per pound of ammonia. The solution of this problem requires the values of the heat content 4 at four points of the cycle. At the beginning of compression the ammonia is dry and saturated at 40 Ib. pressure; from Table 7, or from the ammonia diagram, ‘+ = 541.8 B.tu. and the entropy is s = 1.149. In the adiabatic compression the ammonia is superheated and at the end of compression it has the same entropy 1.149 and a pressure of 190 Ip, From the diagram, or from Table 9, the heat content for this state is i: = 639 B.tu. The ammonia leaving the con- denser is liquid at 190 Ib. pressure, and the corresponding heat content is és = 68.6 B.tu. The passage through the expansion valve is a throttling process in which i remains constant; hence the heat content of the ammonia as it enters the brine coils is i = 68.6 Btu. In any constant-pressure process the heat entering or leaving the medium is given by the change in heat content; there- fore during the passage through the brine the ammonia absorbs 541.8 — 68.6 = 473.2 B.t-u., and in the condenser it rejects to the cooling, water 639 — 68.6 = 570.4 B.tu. per pound of ammonia circulated. The work done by the compressor per pound of medium is the difference between these, or 570.4 — 473.2 = 97.2 B.tu. Example 12. With the data of Example 11 find the refrigerating effect per horsepower-hour. The ratio 4732 gives the number of B.t-u. absorbed from the brine per B.t.u.: “N18 ‘LNALNOO LV3H ost ort oses oes oszt ozs ost ott osot 001 086 ort ove ost ost oot joo" ot out ost oe" 08 7 007 00° ove, ove ‘oar ‘Cort ‘oer ‘08b o8zh ‘one! AdOULNZTHE TABLES AND DIAGRAMS 29 of work done by the compressor. Since 1 horsepower-hour is equal to 2546 B.t.u. the heat removed per horsepower-hour is 473.2 _ 2546 x U2 = 12,600 Btu. The following problems illustrate the use of Table 6, Mixtures of Air and Water Vapor. Example 13. Humidifying Air. Air is to be maintained at 70°F. with a relative humidity of 0.40, when the outside air is at o° F. with a relative humidity of 0.70. Find the weight of water vapor per pound of dry air to be added by air washer, the temperature of the saturated air leaving the washer, and the heat required to bring the air to this condition Referring to Table 6, 1 pound of air at 70° F., if saturated, contains 0.01578 Ib. of water vapor; hence with 40 per cent humidity it contains 0.40 X 0.01578 = 0.006312 Ib. 1 pound of air at 0° F. contains 0.000781 Ib. of vapor when satu- rated and 0.70 X 0000781 = 0.000547 Ib. when the humidity is 0.70. The water vapor to be added per pound of dry air is therefore 0.006312 — 0.000547 .005765 Ib. By inspection it is found that air at 45° F. completely saturated contains the same weight of vapor, namely 0.00631 Ib , as air at 70°F. with 40 per cent humidity; hence the air should leave the washer at 45°F. The heat content of air at 0° F. and 70 per cent humidity is 0 + 0.70 X 0.964 = 0.675 B.tu, and the heat content of 1 Ib. of air at 45°F with the vapor required to saturate it is 17.59 Btu. The heat required for the process per pound of dry air is therefore approximately 17.59 — 0675 = 16.92 B.t.u. Example 14. Cooling. Air enters a washer at 84°F. with a relative humidity of 0.50 and is to be cooled to 54°F. Find the dew-point, weight of vapor con- densed and heat removed per pound of dry air. At 84° F. 1 pound of air contains 0.02547 Ib. of water vapor when saturated and therefore 0 50 X 0.02547 = 0.01274 Ib. with 50 per cent humidity. At 64°F. saturated air contains the same weight of water vapor; hence the dew-point is 64°F. At 54°F. 1 pound of air, if saturated, contains 0 00887 1b. of vapor. Hence in cooling from 64° to 54° the weight of vapor removed is 0.01274 — 0.00887 = 0.00387 Ib. The heat content of the air in the initial state (84°F, 50 per cent humidity) is 20.29 #+o.50 X 26.62 = 33.60 Bt u., and the heat con- tent of 1 Ib. of dry air at 54°, with vapor required to saturate it, is 22 45 B.tu. ‘The difference is 33.60 — 22 45 = 11.15 B.tu. A slight correction may be made for the heat removed in cooling the water, due to condensation between 64° and 54°F. At 64° condensation begins, at 54° 0.00387 Ib. has been condensed; hence the heat that must be removed from the water is approximately 4 X 0.00387 X ro = 0.019 B.tu. Adding this to 11.15 B.tu,, the heat removed per pound of dry air during the process is 11.17 B.tan30 TABLE 1 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM PRESSURES ve |e | eee | wee [| Beer an Joruqu st vapoH4 rater] Jot tassel YR r vag > -le eee Po eos ee eos ea ee jo.cc0334] 2.56) 1074.2] 1078.7 1016.3 {200493| 43.04 | 1079.2| 1066.1 |t0r0.5, 200645] 20.75 | 1082.8| 1062.0 1005.7 000797] 26.9% | 1085.7] r0s8.8|ro0r.7 000947| 32.06 | 1088.2 | 1056.0] 9u8.4 268; ioe] Babe zl 0.001096) 36.50 | 1090.1 | 1053.6 995.5 “oorags| 4:42 | 1091.9) 3057-5| 995.0 19768, | “001383| 43-93 | 1093-3| 1049.6] 999.7 1.3602 seoxgsal 47-11 | 1095.0] 047-9] 988.7| 3035.8] 0915] 0455 telelwirle lel. lw |e la] 15 | 213.0 | 26.30 | o.og8o2| 181.0 | 1152.2 | 971.2 | 898.1 | 1079.x | 0.3135 | 1.4438 | 1.7575, 36 | 210.3 | 2476 | -ogos8 184.3 | r53-4 | 969.1 | 895.8 | so80.0 | 3x84 | 1-4957 | r.7sar x7 | 219-4 | 23.40 | “oga7a| 187-5 | x154.6 | 967-r | 893-5 | 1080.9 | 3250 | 1-4242 | 1.7473 28 | 22a | 2038 | “oggo8| ro0.3 r155.7 | 965-2 | 898-4 | 2081.7 | 3274 | 1.4153 | 17427 39 | 225.2 |'a1.09 | “egpaa | x953 | 1156-7 | 063-4 | 889.3 | 1082.5 | 3316 | 14088 | 1.7384 20 1.7343 ar 3.7304 a 17267 a 1723t BI ang7 5 3.7364 28 27133, 2 17193 a 1074 5 17008 30 xorg a 1.6992 33 s.b92 ee 1.6918 35 1.6895 38 1.5873, ee 3.685¢ % 3.6830 aa 3.6809 0 1.6788 ri 1.6768 a 16149 ae 1.9730 a 16712 5 1.6694 Pa 1.6676 % 1.6559 a 1.6692 a 1.6635 50 1.6609 = 1.6503, 3 3.6577 & 1.6362 Ea 1.5547 55 1.6552 36 est x 1.6503 8 1.6489 59 1.6475, 80 | 2927] 7.28 | 0.2392 | 261.7 | x279.2 | 917-4 | 837-8 | 1099.5 | 0.4267 | x-2195 | 1.5462 Gt | 293.8] gor | xgre | 262.8 | 179.4 | 916.6 | 836.9 | r099.5 | -4a82 | x.2167 | 1.8448 G2 | 2949] 6.97 | 24s | 268-9 | 1179-7 | 915.8 | 836.0 | 2099.7 | “4296 | razugy | 1643s 83 | 295.9 | 6.85 | x457 | 265.0 | r180.0 | o1s.o | 835.2 | 1100.0 | “4gio | 12182 | 1.6422 64 | 298.9 | 6.75 | x479 | 268-x | 1380.3 | 914-3 | 834.3 | 1100.2 | “432g | 1.2085 | 1.6409 85 | 298.0] 6.66 | o.zgor | a67.r | 1280.6 | 913.5 | 835.5 | x300.4 | 0.4338 | 1.2058 | 1.6597 86 | 299.0 | 6.57 | x522 | 268.2 | 2180.9 | or2.7 | 832-7 | 1100.6 | -agg2 | 12032 | 7.6384 67 | 300.0 | 6.48 | 2544 | 269.2 | 1181.2 | or2.0 | 831.9 | 1100.8 | 4366 | r-2006 | 1.6372 68 | 301.0 | 6.39 | 12566 | a7o.2 | rx8t-g | grz.2 | 83r-2 | rx0r.0 | “4379 | rexo8r | 1.6960 6 | Soz0| 630 | “x58? | 271-2 | 1181-7 |gxo.s | 850.3 | xx01-2 | “gage | rigs | 18948TABLE 1, SATURATED STEAM: PRESSURES Hextgontent m | Lategt heat ia 33 fhe ‘Volume, | Weight, Beta, Btw Entropy ee [Te] See | Wee | Bee per | SF | pertb. | ent ‘of vapor Baa sq.m. lotnauia| of vapor of 82° internal of quad | E85 |r asor plete fale le fs lo) w |e le | 0 | 302.9 | 6.22 | o.x609 | 272.2 | r382.0 | 909.8 | 829.5 re | $03.8) 6x3 | 22530 | 273-2 | 2182.3 | gog.r | 828-7 ja |go48 | 60s | “x5ga | apqca |sx821¢ | go8.g | 827.9 3 5.97 | «3874 | 275-1 | 1282.8 | Go7.8 | 827-1 cs $s0 | ‘x695 | 276.1 1383.0 | 906.9 | 826.4 15 582 | ory | 277.0 | 1383.3 | 906.2 | 825.6 6 57g | 738 | 2780 | 1383.3 | 905-5 | 824.9 7 E68 | ‘i780 | 278.9 | 1385.8 | o04.9 | 824-2 8 gr | “1781 | 279°8 | 1184.0 | goa.a | 825-4 9 $55 | ‘1803 | a80.7 | 1184.2 | g03.5 | 822.8 80 548 | on8ag | 281.5 | 21844 | 902.8 | 8219 8r Sta ee 3184.7 | 902.2 | 821.2 8 335 BEG ors S30, 3 529 1185.1 | 900.9 819. 8h 523 1185.3 | goo.s | 819.2 85 sa8, 1185.5 | 899.6 | 818.4 Fa Sis Has3 [85 jain 7 1185.9 | 898.5 | 817.0 88 rx8a.t | 897°7 | 810.3 85 3185.3 | 89p-t | 815-7 80 1185.5 | 896.4 | 815.0 or | 4185.7 | 895.8 | 814.3 52 4185.9 | 895-2 | 813-7 93 1187. | $94.6 | 813.0 93 1187.3 | 894.0 | 812-4 95 ax87.5 | 893.4 | 811.7 | 1305-5 96 3187.7 | 898.8 | Srrd | 1305.8, 82 1187.8 | 8ga.z | St0\g | 1305.8, 98 1188.0 | 893.6 | 809.8 | 1105-9, 99 4188.2 | 895.0 | 809.2 | 1106.0 300 sage 1188.4 | 890.5 | 808.6 | 1108.2 ror | Saks Sato Has | e855 | fob | trons 12 | 329.2 | 4359 1188.7 | 889.3 | So7-4 | 1108-4 13. | 330.0| 4318 3188.9 | 888.7 | 806-7 | 1106.5 roa | 330.7 | 4.279 r18g:0 | 888.2 | 86.1 | 1108.6 1189.2 | 887.6 | 805.5 | 1106.8 3189.4 | 887.1 | 804.9 | 1108.9 23854 | 886.5 | Sou. | 1107-0 1189.7 | 885.9 | 803.8 | xx07-1 sx189.8 | 885.4 | 805.2 | 1107.2 105 | 332-4] 4.240 108 | 332.0 | 4.202, ro | 332.7 | 4.16 ro8 | 5334 | 4228 ro | 5342 | 4.092 1189 | 115989 raa7e | 1.3981 bass | 15973 310 | 334.8 supe | SiS fons nr ras | nsf ax | 339: Hgo.t | 8843 | S020 | rio Enda | 18957 im | Set Treg | 885-7 | Sora | 1107.6 Han06 | 15950 3 | 3368 Tigo | 885-2 | B00.g | r107-7 Tiroge | 15943 14 | 3374 E190. | 8827 | B00.3 | 1207.8 rere | 15958 1658 | 1.5928 rto4g | 1-392" 1a agp | 3.880 | ovagze | 5086 | magog | Ste | ron | erg x16 | 338.7 | 3.837 | 2593 | 309-2 | 1190.8 | 887.6 | 799.2 | 1108.0 8 1.0937 | 1.3872 eq8 | layar 313.8 | 13928 | 878.9 | 79545 | 3108.7 ee 7s | See 1.0922 | 1.5865 323 | 343-1 620 | 12762 | 3x44 | xx9r.9 | 877.5 | 794.8 | 1108.8 324 | 343-7 3 ax | $394 | 5.826 | “2614 | 309.9 | 1291.0 | 88r.r | 798.6 | 1108.1 rxea7 | 1.3914 ai | 340.0 | 3.795 | 2833 | 310.8 | x29r.1 | 880.6 | 798.0 | 1108.2 exer | 15907 gag | 340.6 | 3.765 | -2657 | 3rn.2 | x291-2 | B80.0 | 797.5 | 1108.3 ¥og97 | 1.5900, 120 | saxs | 5.735 1108.4 1.0982 | 5803 rar | 34r9 | 3.705 1108.5 1.0967 | 15880, raz | 342.5 | 5.678 3108.8 T0952 | 13879, 3 3TABLE 1. SATURATED STEAM: PRESSURES 34 Tet content in | Lategt heat 1s : lee Votsme,| Weient, | BAM Biss. | Soeray Entry HS, | TEE cae") Te bee Be. am Per, | 8 ceria of vapor [9420 Internat) fof tquud | EYEE | of vapor ate | ew fae fe fe foe foe | ow fo | ee |] 126 | ssa | 3-593 | 09783 | 315.1 | r1920 ni08.8 as | ego | Ss@8 | “vados |Sig7 | nae He8.9 ray | 3458 | 3-339 | 2826 | 310.3 | x192.3 1109.0 x8 | 34.2 | Sisk | a8ey | 516.9 | 1190.4 1109.1 12g | 346.8 | 3.487 | 2868 | 517.6 | x192.5 1109.2 130 | 347.4 | 3.46 | 0.2889 | 318.2 | 1192.6 3109.3 xgx | 3479 | 3-438 | -29r0 | 318.8 | 1102-7 1109.4 nyo | 3485 | Sara | laggr | 319.4 | 1192.9 1103.5 333. | 349-t | 3.387 | L2932 | 320.0 | 1193.0 1109, 334 | 3497 | 3:38 | S2973 | 320.6 | 1293.2 1103. 135 | 350.3 | 3.40 | o-20g¢ | 321.2 | 1193.2 1109.7 536 | 350.8 | 3.316 | -g0t6 | 321-8 | 1103.3 1109.8 x37 | 3564 | 3-293 | -3037 |322-4 | 1193-4 1109.9 338 | 3320 | 3.270 | 3056 | 323.0 | 1193.5 110.8 339 | 3825 | 3.248 | 3079 | 325.6 | 1103.8, 2110.0 140 | 353.1 | 3.226 | o.gt00 | 324.2 | 1193-7 i110. xqr_ | 3536 | 3.204 | -3rax | 324.7 | 1193.8 10.2 aq2_| 3542 | 3482 | 3ra2 | 325.3 | 2193.9 31103 ua | 3548 | 3.61 | 3163 | 3289 | 1194.0 311033 x44 | 3553 | 3-140 | 3184 | 320.5 | 11041 m0 145 | 3558 | 3.120 | 0.3206 | 327.0 | 1194.2 1110.5 x46 | 336: 3297 2194.3 a110.8 Hy “3eq8 1044 1110.6 nb “3289 94.5 310.7 149 3290 3394.5 ano. 150 | 358.5 | 3.020 | ogre 3194.7 1110.9 asx | 339.0 | 3.0m | 3332 1394.5, u1e9 352 | 3595 | 2-982 | 3353 2394.9 m9 253 | 300.0 | 2.965 | 3375 3195.0 niny 154 | 360.5 | 2.045 | "3396 1195. mnt 165 | 36rr| 2.927 | osaty | 3325 | 1195.2 rin. 156 | 36x5 | 2999 | 3438 | 335.2 | n195:3 mtg 3g | 36ar | 2.892 | “Sago | 323.6 | 1105-4 mi 358 | 362.6 | 2874 | 3480 | 334.x | 2195. nrg 359 | 363. | 2.857 | “asor | 334.7 | 1195. m5 reo | 8559S e361 2839 | ossee | 335.2 | x195-7 murs x6r | 3641 | 2.822 | 3543 | 335-7 | 1195.8 | 860. an8 362 | 364.6 | 2.806 | 3564 | 336.2 | 1195.8 | 859.6 | 776.0 | 2181-7 3s | 5652) 2989 | as8s | 3568 | ti969 |p | 775s [rrr x64 | 363.5 | 2-773 3373 | 1196.0 | 888.7 | 773.1 | amd, 465 | 366.1 | 2.757 | 0.3627 | 397.8 | 2196-r | 858.5 | 774.6 | axxx.8 66 | 386 | ret | 368 | abe | 98 [8878 | 714 | reg oy | 3679) 2745 | 360 | ase: | gb. rg | Fs-7 | ae rs | 2 +3691 | 339.3 | 1196-3 | 857.0 | 773.3 | 1112.0 x69 | 368.0] 2.694 | “37r2 | 339.8 | 1196.5 | 830.6 | 772.8 | r1r2.1 470 | 3685 | 2.679 | 0.3733 | 340.3 | 1298.5 | 858.2 | 772.4 | rrr2.x x7x_ | 369.0 | 2.654 | 3754 | 340.8 | 3196.6 | 855.7 | 772.9 | xex2.2 re | se94] 2649 | 378s | ang | 1986 855.3 | 7785 | 22 x73 | 360.9 | 2.634 | 3796 | 34.8 | 1196-7 | 834.9 | 770 | x112.3 a7 | 3704 | 2.620 | 38r7 | 3423 | 2196.8 | 854.5 | 77006 | axag 195 | 370.8 | 2.605 | 0.3858 | 342.8 | 2398.9 | 854.2 | 770.2 | x112.4 x76 | 373.3 | 2.59% | 3859 | 343.g | 1196.9 | 853.6 | 760.8 | xrxa.5 a7 | 3708) 2377 | 388 } 343.8 | rro7-0 | 853.2 | 769.3 | xax.g 378 | 372.2 | 2.503 | “3900 | 344.3 | rro7-r | 852.8 | 768.9 | xar2.8 x79 | 372.7 | 2.550 | “3922 | 344.8 | 1197-2 | Sg2.4 | 768.5 | r12.6TABLE 1. SATURATED STEAM: PRESSURES 5 33 Hest content in | Late eat in Pron 2 tate | poeer Bntrony iveporleoeal BES ofvager ot vapor ternal ot guna | F296 | ot spor ete foe foe fe foe fe le | w | we |e] w 180 | 373-1 | 2.536 | 0.3043 x8r_ | 373-6 | 2523 | 3964 x82 | 374.0 | 209 | 3983 "yo08 384 [574.9 | 2483 | “4027 185 | 375.4| 2.470 | 0. 186 | 375.8 | 2.457 | 4069 x87 | 376.3 | 2.445 | 4090 388 | 376.7 | 2.432 | grt x89 | 37-1 | 2420 | “4x32 190 | 377.6] 2.408 | 0.4154 zor | 378.0] 2395 | 4875 x92 | 378-5 | 2.383 | 4190 x93 | 378.9 | 2.372 | “4aty 194 | 379.3 | 2-360 | “4238 195 | 379.7 | 2.348 | 0.4259 196 | 380.2 | 2.337 | 4280 x97 | 380.6 | 2.325 | “azor x98 | 381.0 | 2314 | 14320 x99 | 381-4 | 2.303 | 4343 200 | 381.9] 2.292 | 0.4364 203 204, 205 208, 207 208 209 210 212 214 215 216 217 218 213 220 aor 223 224. 295 226 237 28 229 230 231 232 233 234,36 TABLE 1, SATURATED STEAM: PRESSURES Heat content in | Tategt Rent in Meant, | Bete Bese | Boersy aaa ibrar ss | ottuqundl of vapor |Pf880" tavern of igen] 82°°°| of vapor > te) wl aw fe fe fe fe | we | ew | we] 1285 369.1 | t200.1 | 831.0 | 746.5 [1124.8 | 0.5597 | 0.9717 | r.s5r4 236 360.5 | r200.1 | 830.7 | 746.2 | r114.8| -soor | .9709 | 2.3310 237 369.9 | x200.2 | 830.3 | 745.8 | 1134.8 | "3606 | “970% | 1.5306 238 {3104 | 1200.2 | 830.0 | 745.4 | 1114.9 | 3610 | 9692 | 3.3302 = Sod | tena [Sis | Fast [tea | Seis | ones | reg 240 43100 | x200.3 | 829.3 | 744-7 | 1114.9 | 0.5619 | 0.9676 | 1.5295 ee he 1200.3 | 828.9 | 744.4 | 1124.9 | 3624 | 9668 | r-g29r 242 37158 | x200.4 | 828.6 7aa.0 | 1115.0 | “3628 | (9660 | 1.3288 243 | s72i2 | 2004 | 898.2 | 743.6 | 1115.0 | (3633 | -965t | 15284 244 37266 | x200:4 | 827-8 | 743.3 | 1115.0 | 3637 | 9643 | 1.5280 245 373.0 | 1200.5 | 827.5 | 742.9 | 1113.1 | 0.s64r | 0.9635 | 1.5276 246 373.3 | s200.§ | 827-2 | 742.6 | r11g-t | 13646 | 9627 | 113273 24 47327 | 1200.5 | 8268 | 42.2 |ru1g.t | “3650 | 9619 | 13269 248 51a | 1200.8 | 826.5 | 74r.g | rirs.r | “3635 | -g6xr | 113206 19 3745 | 1200.6 | 826.1 | arg | x1xg.r | “$639 | 960g | 1.3262 250 374.9 | 1200.6 | 825.8 | 741-2 | r115.2 | 0.5663 | 0.9595 | 1.5258 238 325.2 | 1200-7 | 825-5 | 740.8 | 115.2 | 3658 | 0387 | rsass 232 375.6 | s200.7 | 825-2 | 740.5 | 1113-2 | “3672 | 19379 | 1-ga5e 253 376.0 | x200.7 | 824-8 | 740.2 | rax5.2 | 15676 | ‘9572 | 1.5248 254 378-4 | 1200.8 | 824-4 | 739.8 | 1125-3 | “3680 | “g364 | 15244 255 376.7 | 1200.8 | 824.1 0.9336 | r.524r 235 377-1 | 3200.8 | 823.7 “9338 | 13237 237 377-3 | 1200.9 | 823.4 9540 | 15233 238 3773 | 1200.9 | 823.1 9533 | 1.5230 239 378.2 | 1200.9 | 822.7 9535 | 15227 260 378.6 | r201.0 | 822.4 ovgst7 | 3.5225, 261 378.9 | r201.9 | 822.1 “9gto | 1.5220 pa 3199 | por |. ‘ogo | rgar6 2 379.7 | t20t | Sarg logge | 2.5223 284 380.0 | aors | 821.0 “oaB7 | $209 285 380.4 | r20r.1 | 820.7 0.9479 | 1.5206 266 S80cy | teots | S204 ‘Bu | Xgaos 267 38rcr | r20r-1 | 820.0 “946s | 3.5199 268 3815 | x20r.2 | 819.7 “9457 | 125196 289 3818 | ror | 819.4 9489 | $192 270 382.2 | 1201.2 | Sra.r | 734.4 | 1115.6 | 0.5747 | 0.0442 | 15189 271 38245 | r2o1.g | 8187 | 734.0 | 1025.6 | -grst | -94a4 | 15185 272 3829 | 12013 | 818-4 | 733.7 | 1125.6 | “3755 | “oaa7 | 15x82 23 1383-3 | x20rg [818.1 | 733-4 | r1x5.7 | 3799 | 9420 | 1.5179 274 383.6 | 201.3 | 817-7 | 733.0 | 1135.7 | “5703 | “9¢n2 | 115175 375 383.9 | r20n4 | 817.4 | 732-7 | 1215-7 | 0.5767 | 0.9405 | 1.5172 278 384.3 | r201-4 | 8r7-x | 732-4 | r1r5-7 | 877" | 9308 | r-g169 277 384.6 | x201-4 | 816.8 | 732.3 | 2215-7 | “3775 | “os00 | x-3x65 278 385.0 | x200-4 | 816.4 | 731-7 | 218.7 | “3779 | 9383 | 3.5262 279 385.3 | raon.s | Bx6.x | 731-4 | rm05-7 | “5783 | (9375 | 3159 280 385-7 | r201.5 | 815.8 | 73x-1 | 1125.8 | 0.5787 | 0.9369 | £.51: 28 $88. | taorss | Brses | fda [sete | Stee | ager | ESS 282 386.4 | rzor.s | 815-2 | 730.4 | 1125.8 | 5795 | “9354 | Tua 23 S869 [toorg B48 for [runes | “Spop | “gset | suas 284 387. | x201.6 |81r4.5 | 729.8 | r115.8 | 3803 | “9340 | 1.5248, 285 387-4 | r2016 | 814.2 | 729.5 | 1115.8 | 0.5808 | 0.9833 | 5139 285, 38h7 | ons | 8859 | 729't | sexe | vssro | 19528 | 1.5038 287 3BB.x | x207.6 | 813.5 | 728.8 | r115.9 | “$8x4 | “93x9 | 2.5233 288 388.4 | x201.6 [813.2 | 728.5 | xaxg.g | 5818 | “gra | 1.5230 389 3888 | x20r7 | 812.9 | 728.2 | x15. | "5822 | 9905 | 1.5227TABLE 1. SATURATED STEAM: PRESSURES 37 Pros: Tb. per sein “Heat gontent in | Lategt heat in ‘Sete Ba | Baeegy hominid Bins lott of vapor [YI stoma tana | ERIE | 6 vapor 47, 480 490 500 & 3 650 700 750 820 850 900 7128 “ya05 “1349 17482 17807 1100TABLE 2 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM TEMPERATURES eoatent | Latent hese vonopel oom. | MESES" | USB emer] Boson ace’ | Woieet ‘a pert. | cocks [ot ) of lotvapor| Inge | Bt | ot Jotvapon] of wegind | vapor Meatton | ast | rugind [atbe | viper elo | - me |e fo foe foo fw | oe fa] ow * 32, | 0.0887) 0.1808 lo.coago4| 0.0 | r073: lr018.9 | r018.9|0.0 33 | -0923) 1880] “eoogr5| 1.0%| 1073.5 | 1072-5 1018.2 |ror9. | .co2r 34 | ‘296r| “1957} 1200327| 2.01| 1074.0] 1072.0|r017.6 | 2019.6) cost 35 | 0.1000] ©.2036| 2941 |o.coas40| 3.02) 1074.4 1020.00.02 38 | -toar| -ax1g| 2832 | -000355| 3074.9 37. | 1083] ‘2z04| 2728 | ‘000367| 1075.4] 38 “azga| 2628 | ‘000381 10159, 39 2384| 2533 | .000595| 1075.3, 40 0.2478] 2441 [0.000410] 8.05] 1076.8 a '2576| 2352 | .000425| 9.08| 1077-4 @ 12638| 2268 | Lovoaat| 10.06] 1077.8 B 2983} 2387 | “ooogs7| 13.06| 1078.2 4a ‘a8oi| 2109 | ‘co0a74| 12.07] 1078.7 45 1079.2 6 2079.6 47 080.1 8 3080.6 43 soBrt 50 1081.5 st 1082.9 2 1082.5 3 1082.3 4 3083.4 55 1085.9 6 3084-4 5 1084.8] 1059.7 s ro8e.3 2089.2 39 3085.8 | 1058.7 60 1086.2 6 1088.7 & 1087.2 “0504 |2.0268| 2.0860 6 1087.5] 5 20830 65 1088.1 2.0801 65 1088.6 2.0771 66 1089: 2.0742 6 1089.5 zope 8 ic .08| r085.9, 70883 6 7139] 896 | ‘eorzs6) 37:07] 1090.4 2.0654 70 0.7388] 868 lo.corrss| 38.07] rog0.9 2.0625 a 7842] 840 | .eornge| 39.07] r09r-3 2.0508 ia “Joo6| B14 | ‘Sonaso| 42-07 | roan 8 Poses B ‘Br77| 788 | ‘oota69) 4r-0p| 1092.3 2.0540 a 8456] 763 | ‘ootgr0) 42.07| 1092.7 1.9699] 2.0582 15 2.8744] 740 Jo.corss2| 43.06] x093.2 1.9643] 2.0483 fa gor] 27 72958 1.9590] 2.0455 5 104.7 1.9550| 2.0427 6 9658] 673, | .oor485| 45.06] 1094.6 1.9503] 2.0399 i ‘Batr| 643 | “oorss3| 47:08| r0989| ros 29598TABLE 2. SATURATED STEAM: TEMPERATURES 39 Prewre | votame| went, | MASTS" | TESGRASY Batrooy Top. vange| Yeieee | Bee | Bes | Boer pei | el |G Tat tvaory Enter | Batu. | “of Jalvapc] Jigid | vapor [anton | “nal tiqua [ation ‘ mete la |e |e | ow | we lat] # 80 o.cors8o, eee ar ‘201529 | 49.05 | 1095.9 |t046.9| 987-4 |1036.5| .o9sr [1.9365] 2.0316 a2 “oor680 1096.4|t046.3] 686.8 |1038.8) ‘eg7o|r.9319 | 2.0289 83 1001732 3096.g)ro4s.8] 686.x |1037.2) 10988|1.9274 | 2.0262 x ores ror 3|tosss| 9855 [1097.5] “007 fGen | onas 85 o.cors4x 1097.8|t044.7 1037-9 0.1095] 1.9385 | 2.0208, 86 ‘co1897 1098.2|t044.2 1038.2| 045 |2.9:58 | ners 87 ‘001955 13098.7)1043.6 1038.6) ‘206r |r-9003 | 2.0155 38 ‘ooz0r4 | 1099.1 |t043.2 1038.9| ‘1080|r.g048 | 2.0228 89 ‘202075 | 1099.6|1043.6) 1039.3 | “1098|1.5004 | 2.0102 a0 0.002137 1100.0]042.0] 1039.6 |o.r226] :.8959| 2.0073 2 ‘202201 3100.5 r04%-5| 1e40.0| 1254|1.8985 2000. 2 ooss87 Hrore|regi'9) 986.3 soos) \aiss|r887s | 20089 93 12002334 101.4|1040.4 1040.7 “1170|1-8827 | 3.0997 oe “202403| r101.9|t039.9| xogr.o| 1r188|118785 | 1.9972 95 lo-congre 1102.3)1039.3 1041.3 [0.1206 |s.8740| 3.9946 96 002587 1102.3 1038.8) xoqu.7| «1224]1-8696 | 3.9920 97 ‘ooadar | 65.0r | r103.2|1038. 1o42.0| -1242]1-8653 | 1.9805 Ea per ein (ison aie ce 99 “00277 67.00 | 110411 |t037-4 xoq2.7| -1278|1-8568 | 7.0844 100 0.002855 | 68.00 | r204.6}1036.6 04g.r 0.1236 |1.8523 | x.989 ror 002937 | 69.00 | 1205.0|1036.6 rogg-a| -1313|.848x | 2.9708 102 | “oogoat | 69,99 | r208.§|1035.5 20438] “1331 |1.8438 | 1.9769 393, -093107 [7099 | r105.9|2054.9 oaq.r| 21349 |1-8396 | 1.0745 104 1093195 | 71.99 | r10b.alt054.4 ogdea | +1387/£8353 | 1.9720 105 0.003285 | 72.98 | 1r06.8)1033.9 044.8 0-384 | 1.832 | 1.0605, 306 -085377 | 73-99 |rr07.3)1033.3 roagir| +1492/1.8269 | 1067 307 003472 | 74.98 | 1107-7 {1032.8 roag.s| "x420|1-8227 | 7.9647 308 “03908 75:97 | r208-2|1032.4 ro4g.8| “1437/8185 | 1.9623 309 21520 | 272.7 | -003667| 76.97 | 1108.6 1031.7] 1046.2 | -1455 1.8144 | 1.9599 uo opt | sp [wagsa| 7p. fers loa2| a8 o4 |r Soe x90 mr 21070 | 238.2 | -003873 | 78.96 | rx09.5 1030.5 1046.8] -x490|1-8e6x | 1.955" aa 2.748 | 251-3 | [003979 | 79.98 | rx20.0|r030.0] 967.2 |z047.2| -1$07|1-8070 | 1.9$27 m3 2.827 | 242-7 | ‘oogoSz | $0.96 | rx20.4|2029.5| 966-5 |soa7.s| “1525 1.7979 | 1.9503 114, 2.909 | 238.2 | .004198| 81.96 | r110.9|1028.9| 965.9 |1047.9| .1542|x-7938 | 1.9480 | ‘ | 115 2.995 | 231.9 |o.004312| $2.95 | rx11.3|1028.4) 965.2 r048.2 /o-1550|x.7897 | 1.9456 136 3.079 | 225.8 } .004428| 83.95 | rr11'8|1027.8) 964.6 |r048.5| -x577|1-7856 | 2.9433 uy 3.167 | 219.9 | “ooasa7| 84.95 | x12-2|1077.3] 963-9 |r048.9| -x594) 17885 | x-9409 8 3.257 | 214-2 | 004869) 83.94 |xxx2.6|2020.7| 963-3 |s04g.2| -tOrt|1-7773 | 1.9586 19 3.349 | 208.6 | 1004793 | 86.94 |1x13.1|t026.1| 962.6 |roag.5| -x629|1.7735 | 1.9363 320 3.444 | 203.2 | c.co4g2 | 87.04 |x1x3.5]1025.6| 961.9 |x049.9 0.1646] .7695 | r.934z a5 3.gas | 198.0 | 00503 | 88.03 | x2x4.0|s025.0] 96r-3 |r050.2| -1663|1.-7855 | 1.9508 zea | 11788 | 5540 | 1929 | Loogrd | $0.95 | rx24.4\2024,5| g6016 |ro0g0.5| «x680)1.7615 | 1.9205 za | Spar | 188.3 | “oogge | gorge |zrie8 roas.a| aso |rogecg| -160y|n-7573| 29272 324 | BERS | 18502 | -SO5H8 | $193 a5 ronda] 93 |t0512] x75 |r7835 | r9250 | | 125 3.952 | 178.6 |o.cos60 | 92.92 | xrxg.7|1022.8| 958.6 |r051-5] 0.1732 1.7496 | 1.9297 126 201 e0g74 | 93.92 | x1x6.2|1022.2| 937-9 {r051.9| 17491-7436 | 1.9205 27 azz o0g89 | 94.92 | x2x6.6|ro2z-7| 987-3 |z032.2| -1708|1-7417 | 1.9183 128 286 ‘eob04 | 95.92 | r2x7.0\ro2x-1| 956.8 |x032-5| 27831-7578 | 19x61 19 $403 {00820 | 98.9 |x217.5}1020.6] 936.0 052.9) -1800|3.7839 | 1.9139 180 | a.2ar | 4.523 1127.9 x020.0] 955.3 {1053.2 fo.x817|r.7300| 1.9817 ag | auaSr | 4.645 x11d.4|ror9.5| 954.8 [2053.5 | -x834|:.726r | 1.9005 x32 | 2.343 | 4770 | x118.8|r018.9| 954.0 |x053.9| “28502-7223 | 5.9073 133. | 2.408 | 4.898 3119.2|r018.3| x034.2| «3867 1.7184 | 1.9058 134 | 2.470 | 5.029 1119.7 1054.5 | -x884|0-714b | 1.9030TABLE 2, SATURATED STEAM: TEMPERATURES 0 Besgerust | HEBER | psec] ——_-Eatony A bisaee faa | Bs. [aoa ucla | vile [este | Maat gina Pee] whe el ot- |e pele tet) [ele] «| 138 o0720 |202.90| 1120.2] r0r7-2| 952.0 |1084.9|o.200x [2.7207 a -eort8 [rey Sol tise g| soree] Seg [reas | stand |tcpeee Eo -SeREE | kek Bo) ttar S{toxtsa| ga0.8|rose-s| “tese|t feet ay Sees [rot S| tratg| ors] geno) ross] “1ass [1 oss BH “Gorda [icbgo| rard|sorg's| o.s| 080-2 “ages [1.0508 uo 48.6 | r0s6.5|0.2985| 1.6928 - SiS |roses| 8] rekas a Sie glicara| ocd renee & Sie ose g| “tosa| ease Be Sapa|regy | “aed ecepeh 145 945.3 | x058. 1.6737 He Bi 8 rose ea 5s 943.9 [2088.3 1.6637 148 943-3 | 1059.1 1.6620 | 29 942.6} 1050.5 1.6583 160 941.9] 1059.8 1.6547, rd Eee fesse betta bed 152, 949.6 | rofio.g, 1.6474, 353 939.9 | 100.7 1.6438, Ey S39 a|teenet| “3592| Cease 155 938.5 | ro61.4, 1.6366 356 937.8 | 1061.7 £.6330 5 Say a|ro0n9| “236g | 88S 3 Beg loeee| “ass [renee i S3s8]roeng| “3iy¢| tease 160 35-4 | 1063.0] 0.2312) 1.6187 i Sea reed g| aha | eney 162 933.8 | 1063.6 .2344| 1.6106. ee Gai |689) 2503] ceasE 164, 932.4| 1064.3] .2376| 1.6036, 165 931.7 | 1064.6 |o.2392 | t.6017 "6 8513 |e | 8 | gore % Hes [roee | “itay| cae : SiS] ieege | 2s] cs % Sap. |ooe| “aege| CSSee 470 ee 105 “ox6g6 |138.88| 1135-4) 9965] 927.5 | 066s | casas |1s8ey ih ‘erode [135.88 |r13¢8| 9955] b2eg|sone's| “aio [4 Seed % ‘bered |1go88|sag0ia) Sos-a| 920.2 to6p-r| “ages |e Shon im “outss [141.8 |21968| 99nd] gass|roeya| “aase |e gr 46 '0.01793 | 142,88] 1137-1] 994.2] 924.9 |1087.7 |o.2590]| 1.5666 ar Subvo [ngs surg] Gage] Sate Zoeee) ety [1 shs2 mB “or909 |1g89) 215603] So2cg| gea-8 1068.8) “asg5| 4 S8ee BH “o1g90 |x48.89 [21385] 9x8] Sane [1089.0] “abes| sees 180 .o1ggt |147.89| 1139.1] ggr. 180 orggr |r47.8912139.2| gox-2| 921.4 r060. o.2650| 1.5 FS srr iasaletes| see| Sosa lSehg| ae t2 2 ater |ias83| ans] gyne| San [tet “br |esaa| ne Ey Sieh [2850 tu) gl dee |sores| “ers |eSsby|caore 02x62 |x51.90|1140.7| 988.8| 918.5 |r070.5 | /2693|1.3364 1.8057 Be }0,02206 |152.90 1141.1] 988.2] 917.9 | 1070.8 = “saaga [isggo(aara| Sera] er 3 sores 187 4.02298 |154.9r | rz4r.9| 987.0] 9x6.5 |ro71.4 fs | gst | 1390 600 | xs40 | oars | 3.68 | 604.5 1164.2 | 539.7] 488.9 | 1086.7 Jo.8or |o.528 | 1.330 Gro |20s9. | “248 | dog | O28 [aes | Sa0 | 47x | ros a iesch Gao [anda | 1226 | 4.45 | 65g [asse | 528 | 452 | so77 sae | IT 630 |1g17 | f205 | 4:88 | 648 | axas | 495 | 432 | 2072 “ass |: 640 | 2os7 | 1288 | 538 | 664 | 3x54 | 470 | 499 | 2054 3 |: 50 | aos | oss | gos [oar J2xee | ass | 385 | r0s6 0.399 Gio [2361 | “cxsr | 88° | 700 faeea | Hea | 358 | tor 388 Gro [25:6 | ade | 74 | za [3098 | 577 | 327 | 2056 “353 So | 280 | S238 [8S | jas | 1080 | 335 | 390 | some "4 G0, [2882 | xox | 99 | 776 | 3055 | 382 | 243, | s002 sn yoo’ |3ors | [oS f'2g | Sz | ror8 | 298 | are | ‘ors ie 706.3 | 5200 | o.og8 [20.9 | oar | or | c | | 893 °46 TABLE 3, SUPERHEATED STEAM Pree| aa) 2 3 4 bal bese} fei) tears] se} vfs Sa i 118.7 | 1.8871 | 1122.9] 90.6 | 1.8637 | 1127.9 120.4 1.8937 | 1126.9]... . 22.4] rgotg | r131.6| 9x.7 | x.86gr | r1si.2 24-4 1.9088 | 1136.3 | 93.2 | 1.8706 | 1135.9 126.4) rgx6r | 1140.9 | 94-7 | 1.8840 | r1q0.g 128.4 | 1.9233 | 1145.6 | 96.2 | r.89r2 | rigs. x30.4| r93oq | 1g0.2| 97-7 | 18085 | 12499 3 | noose | naa | 34.4] rgaa3 | ages | roo | cones | noes (2384 | 1gat | 116g | ton | ronos | Hes 332.4 | 1.9374 | 1154.9 | 99. 138.5 | 1.9577 | 1168.7 | 103.8 | 1.9257 | 1268.5 nyo 1.9323 | 1273.1 19387 | 77 : ast | 1623 | n46 -95i4 | 1586.9 184 1.9576 | org 1504 1.9857 | 1196.1 ea £5897 | 1260.7 154. juss 1.9756 | 1205.3 184 117.3 |1.98te | 1200.9 138-4 188 | 1.9872 | 1214.6 160.4 1.9930 | 1219.2 x70.4 2.0207 | 12422 180.3, 5 20470 | 1265.4 390.3 | 2.1036 | 1288.8 | 142.7 | 2.0719 | x288.7 200.2 | 2.1274.| 131213 | 1g0.1 | 2.0957 | x322.2 5 T 8 su2al tea 891 Sat 73.3 | 1.8456 3135.0 53-7 | 1.8184 8077 | 1140.5, 180) 75.7 | 1.8589 sxs0.7 | 53.9| 1.8208 fee oe | 8g | 22862 mags| 548) 18282 8130 | 1843.7 200) 78x) 28734 rug.t | 55-7| 18554 18200 | 1148.4 aro | 79.3] 1 8804 tiggg| $06 | 18539 rSang | ura 220 | 8.5 | 1.8875, wigb.5 | 57-4 | 1.8405 3163.2 | $853 | 118563, | Foss 1197-9 ‘B8o4 | 1267.9 | 59.2 ra) x 18q2 240 | 83.0 | 1.9908 3.8480 | 1267.3 260) 84.2] x.9074 3172.5] 60.0 | 1.8697 | xx72.3 1.8347 | 1172.0 a0 | 85.4 | 1.9139 3277.2| 60.9 | 1.8762 | 1176.9 4.8013 | 1276.7 ajo | 86.6 | x.9208 181.8 | 61.8 | 1/8826 | rr8x.6 1.8677 | rx8r.3 abo | 87.8 | 1.9265 1386.5 | 62.6 | 1.8890 | 1186.2 1.8740 | 1185.0 290 | 89.0| 1.9327 augr.t | 63.5 | 1.8952 | x190.9 1.8802 | 1190.7 300| ¢0.2 | 1.9589 1395.7} 64.4 | 1.9013 | 1195.5 1.8864 | 1195.3 310 | 91-4 | 1.0448 3200.3 | 5.2 | 1.9074 | 1200.8 ¥.8925 | 1299.9 320 | 92.6 | 1.9509, 1203.0 66.1 | 1.9134 | r204.8 1.8985 | 1204.6 330 | 93.8 | 1.0568 1209.6 | 66.9 | 1.9¢93 | x209.4 1.9044 | 1209.2 ‘340 | 98.0 1.9626 rarg.2 | 67.8 | 1.9252 | 12141 1.916 | 1213.9 360 | 96.2 1.0685, 1218.9 | 68.7 | 1.9309 | r218.7 1.9160 | 1218.5 400 | 102.2 | 1.9960 3242.0 | 72.9 | 1.9587 | r240.9 1.9438 | 12407 450 | 108.2 | 2.0223, nats | gral vase ater r.g7oe | 1265.0 360 | 114.1 | 2.0478 3288.6 | 8115 | 2.0100 | 1288.5 1.9952 | 1288.4 350 | 120.1 | 2.0720 312.1 | 85.8 | 2.0338 | 13120 2.orgn | 1312.0 600 | 126.0 | 2.0940 3333.8 | 90.0 | 2.0568 | 1335. 650 | 132.0 | 2.1160 380.7 | 942 | 2.0989 | 1590.8 2.ogat | 1335-7 1359-7 | 94.2 | 2.0789 | 1359.6 2.0641 | 1359-6 Se entrooy — deheat content, BemTABLE 3. SUPERHEATED STEAM aT Pree | 9 10 | i” TS] vie was tose Tepe = i ’ ® i ¥ 5 i vfs 1 Sat gaa | ero] v0aes 9845) e7Bo7 [ates 508) LaBee [saqba | Guar Raver ward 200 | 43.2 | 1.8068 | rx48.x | 38.85 | x.7947 | 1147-7 | 35.28 | 1.7838 | 1147.3. 2x0 | 43.9 | 18140 | x152.9 | 39.47 | 1.8519] 1252-5 | 35.84 | 1.7980 T1S2 220 | 44.6 | 182r0 | 1197-6 | 40.09 | 8099 | 1137-2 | 30.48 | ¥-798e | 115609 age | 45:3. | 18279 | 1x83 | 4or70 | 1.8159 | 1182.0 | gB.g7 | best | reer 240 | 45.9 | 08347 | 1167.0 | 41.32 | 1.8227 | 1166.7 | 37.55 | 18119 | 1266.4 250 | 46.6 | 1.8414 | 1172.7 | 41.93 | 1.8294 | 1172.4 | 38.09 2.8186 | ryt. 260 | 473 | 1-84 | 1276.4 | 42.56 | 1.8560 1176.1] 38.65 1.8052 | 1175-9 3.0 | 1.8544 | rx8x.1 | 43-15 | 1.8425 | 1180.8 | 39.20/ 1.8317 | 1180. 18608 | 1185.8 | 43.78 | 1.8489 | 1085.5 | 39.78 | 1.8384 | 1185.3 1.8670 | 1190.4 | 4437 | 1.8352 | 1190.2 | 4o.gt | 8444 | 1190.0 4.8732 | 1195.1 | 44.08 | 1.8614 | 1104.0] 40.87) 3.8506 | 1294.7, E8708 | 199.7 | 4588) 18675 090 §| 43 | 18467 | T1904 118835 | r204-4 | 46:29 | 18758 | r204.2| 41-97 | U8ba6 | 120g xe8ore | x209.1 | 46.73] 1-874 | x208.9 | 42.52 | 1.8688 | 1208-7 28971 | vaxgcy | 47-40 | 1.8853 | x215.5 | 43.07 | 18747 | T2834 19088 | 1223.0 rou42 £168 2.9253 1.9308 1.8987 | r2gr2 1937 Tgast | 12648 13820 1.9503 | 1288.1 ood ‘ 19742 | 1300-7 2.0290 * sarge 119972 | 1335-5 13 14 | 16 oo e981 tess Sat.| 30.07 | 1.7687] x149.4 | 28.06 | r.7628 | 2130.8 | 26.30 752 | 1153-4 2x0 | 30.27 | 1.7727 | 1151.4 | 28.07 | 2.7631 | 1151.0]... 220 | 30.74 | 1.7789 | 1156.2 | 28.52 | x.7703 | 3155.9 | 26.59 230 | 31.22 | 1.7859 | tr6r.0 | 28.97 | x-7774 | 1160.7 | 27.08 ao | 31-70 | 1.7928 | 1165.8 | 29.4 | 1.7843 | 1165.5 | 27-43 r7ga8 | 1155.2 E7brg | roo. 3.7683 | 1164.9 2.9738 | 1289.7 9825 | 745 1.7891 | 1793 7956 | rx840 riBo2o | 1188.8 260 | 32.18 | x.7996 | x170.6 | 29.86 | x.7oxt | x170.3 | 27-84 260 | 32.65 | 1.8063 | 1175.3 | 30.30 | 1.7978 | 1175.1 | 28.26 270 | 33.83 | 18128 | rrB0.2 | 30.74 | x 8043 | 1179.8 | 28.67 Bo | 33.60 | 18192 | 1184.8 | 3x18 | x-8108 | 1184.6 | 29.08 ago | 34.07 | 1.8255 | 1189.5 | 32.62 | 2.817% | 1189.3 | 29.49 3.8327 | 1394.2 | 32.06 | 1.8294 | 1194.0 | 29.90 rotots | 2105.6 goat Bug | 0983 joqe 28208 | 1203 . | Beas £58266 | 1207.8 158550 | 1213.0 | 33:80 | 1.8476 | xana.8 | 3x54 r.83as | 12125 2.8617 3894 1.8384) ra07.2 1.8675 3235 raga | r22r9 18792 3275 18499 | 1206.6 Tes 18555 | 2303 1.8843 xBbrt | 1236.0 1.8898, robs r94t4 1.9054 1.9884 2.0r05 1.8666 | 1240.7 1.893r | 1264.2 10 | 1.9183 | x287.8 £9424 | 13165, ¥.9654 | 1335.3, 1.9875 | 1359-248 ‘TABLE 8. SUPERHEATED STEAM Pree iT 18 19 se 9.41 bal bal Tepe lee tt Sat. raga | 228 | E7aa7 | 1455-7 | 21.09 | 1.7384 2 ango.7 | 22s | x-7482 | xegoue | 20-25 | 1.7418 as 164.6 | 22.80 | 1.7552 | 1164.3 | 21-58 | 1.7489 250 1169.4 | 23.15 | 1.7622 | 1169.1 | 2.97 | 1.7558. 20 Tapa | agige | 1.7689 | 31740 | 22-24 | 1.7526 70 217g | 25.85 [7755 | 12788 | 22.57 | 1.7692 2b 114338 | agg | 1720 | 128366 | 22.90 | 1.7758 299 1188.6 | 24.54 | 7884 | 1288.4 | 25.25 | 1.7822 300 1193.4 | 24.88 | 3.7947 | 2193-1 | 23.56 | 1.7886. 310 11h | 25.22 | 18009 | 2197-9 | 23°88 | 1.7048 ea ¥ rfeo9 1.8070 = ie 350 1.8189 360 38047 310 2 | 1.8304 i360 38 1.8361 be 8477 400 1.8472 450 £8739 1638 50 eset Bea 550 93g2 agit & 13403 clea 650 1.9684 1.9628 | 1359.1 700 1.9898 rgse | 19833, 750 2.0164 2.9047 | 1407.7 24 3551 _ Baal ‘Sat. 1158.7 1159.6 | 17.64 | 1.723% | xx60.4 | 36.95 | 1.7397 | 3163.3 240 1163.3 1163.0 | 17.76 | 1.7264 | 1462.7 | 17.08 | te7203 | 1162.4 250 1168.2 1167.9 | 18.04 | 1.7334 1.7283 | 1167.3 360 ngs sip2.8 | 2853 | 17403 ung | 11783 2 up 3177-7 | 18.60 | x-7470 Efaie | rupee 28> 282.8 1182.5 | 18.87 | 1.7596 127486 | 1182.2 299 2187-7 1187.4 | 10.14 | 1.7000 27351 | 1386.9 300 1192.5 axg2.2 | 19.g2 | 2.7653 x.7615 | 1391.8 310 1197.3 1197-1 | 19.69 | 1.7729 1.7679 | 1196.6 320 x202. 201.9 | 19.96 | 1.7797 aoyzat | 1201-4 33° 32088 3208.8 | 20.33 | 1.7852 3.7803 | 1206.2 3 ya15.6 gaurg | 20.50 | 2.7902 1.7883 | ratio 350 1216.4 | 21.72 1.8022 | 1216.2 | 20.77 | 2.7972 3.7922 | 1215.8 360 1221.1 | 25.00 18089 | 122019 | a8.95 | 1800 1.798 | x20.6 3r0 3295.9 | 22.28 | 1.8138 | 1225.7 | 21-30 | 1.8087 ¥.8939 | 1285.4 380 3230.6 | 29/96 | 18195 | 123044 | ar $7 | 18cah 41.8096 | 1230.2 390 123503 | 22.83 | 1Bast | 3235.2 | at 84 | 1.8200 1.8153 | 1234-9 400 1249.0 | 23.11 | 1.8307 | 1259.9 | 22.20 | 2.8256 18208 | 2230 450 rata.) bap | Bbq | 12858 | 2543 | 1 8sae 1.8476 | 1203.4 50 12874 | 25.87 | 2.8828 | 1287.5 | ag-74 [18778 1.8730 | r287.2 350 xgrt-t | 27224 | 1.9069 | r3r¥.9 | 26.05 | 2.9019 18g7a | 3310.9 0 1335.0 | 28.61 | 1.9300] 1354.9 | 47.36 | x-925¢ 1.9204 | 15344 650 1359.0 | 29.97 | 1.9522 | x350.0 | 28.66 | r.9473 9425 700 | 32 salsa | ngs |r ares| 8804 | sor | vale 1.9659 750 | 34.25, 1.9993 1407.6 | 32.69 | 1.9942 | 1407.6 | 31.27 | 1.9893 1.9845 feo | $5.67 | 2.0103 | 1432.3 | 34.03 | 2otas | kase-3 | 32057 | 2.0092 2.0045TABLE 8. SUPERHEATED STEAM 49 Prea| 26 26 27 28, sae ben) tana] baal bea Tey 8 i v |e ee fe fe vide 1 Sat,| 16.32 | 1.7064 35.73 | 17333 | 1628 260 | 16.57 | x-7235 as.g2 | x.7188 | 1166.7 260 | 16.85 | 17304 37 | 17238 |axyey ae | x78 | 17372 x6gt | 17326 | 1768 abo | t734 | 17439 36.66 | 1.7593 | 1181.6 ago | 17-39 | 17508 36.go | 1438 | 1186.5 800 | r7.8¢ | 1.7568 apts | 1.7523 | 193 310 | 18.09 | 17832 37.39 | 1.7587 | 1196.2 32 | 1834 | 17604 27.83 | 1.7849 | 1201.0 330 | x8.g9 | 7756 2787 | 7701 | 1205.9 34 | 18.84 | 1.7816 xr 1.1876 18.35 rags 4 | 3.7935 88 13203, 2.7993, 18.32 135.9 1.8050 19.06 139.8 18108 130 1348 1.8362 19.53 | 1.8117 | 1239.3, r8ar7 ra7 | 18173 | 1244 18271 20.00 | 1.8227 | 1248-9 1.8325 20.24 | 1.8281 | 1259.6, 18578 zo.a7 | 1.8334) 1238-4 34 | 1.8430 | 1263.2 | 20.71 | 1.8986 | 1263.1 75 | 1.8654 | 1287.0 | 21-88 | 1.8640 | 1280.9 98 | x-8926 | 1310.8 | 23.04 | x 8882 | rgr0.8 Beer | 191g8| 13347 | se | Bong 347 650 | 26.37 | 1.9360 | 1358.8 | ag.35 | 3.9336 | 13588 29 30 fsa tesa) Sat.| 24.20] 1.7046 | 1365.0 | 13.76] t.709 | 1365.7 | 15.58 | 2.6992 | 1166.5 | x2.95| 1.6967] 1366.9 260 | 14.46 | 1.7128 | 2370.8 | x3.97 | 1.7088 | x170.5 | 15.50 | 1.7049 | xx7043 | 13.07 | 17021 | r170.0 270 | 14.68 | 1.7196 | 1175.8 | x4.28 | 127356 | r175.5 . 2Bo | 14.90 | 1.7264 | 1180.8 | r4.40 | 1.7224 | 1180.5 ago | 15.13 | 1.7330 | 185.7 | 14.61 | 1.7290 | 1385.5 300 | x5.35 | 1.7395 | 1190.6 | x4.82 | 1.7355 | 1390.4 gre | 15.56 | 1.7459 | x195.5 | 15.04 | 7420 | 1105.5 320 | 15-78 | 1722 | 1200.4 | 13.25 | 1-748 | 1200.2 $0 | 18.00 | 17584 | 12033 | 2548 | 7943 | 1205.2 $4 | x6-2r | 1.7645 | s210.2 | 15.67 | 1.7008 | 1208.9, 350 | 16.43 014.8 360 | 16.64 nag 5 37 | 16.88 r2284 38o | x7.07 339.2 390 | 17.28 400 | x7.50 1238.8 400 | rp7e 143.5 420 | 17.92 12484 450 | 18.33 1253.1 440 | 18.34 1579 450 | x8.55 93 | x 00 | 19.80 8 | aB.95 | 450 | 20.65 | 18760 | 1310.5 | 19.96 | 1.8722 | x310.4 G00 | 21.89 | 1.8992 | 1534.5 | 20.96 | 1.8955 | 1534-4 650 | 2272 | £9285 | 1358.6 | 20-97 | 1.9377 | 1356.6 700 | 23.76 | s.9429 | 1382.9 22.97 | 1.959 | 1382.950. TABLE 3. SUPERHEATED STEAM er 34 35 | 36 Entei sl wo | Wop tt te Bat | ras | vbone er | Ta | 268] HRA aroT| HRS HT |S pa 1238.1 | 14.06 1292.9 | 14.24 1247-7 | 14.41 1252.5 | x4.58 1257.3 | 14.75 1238.0 12428 1247.6 1252.4 257.2 3.7845 | 3238.3, 15.54 | 1.7901 | 1243-2 420 | 15.73 | 1.7956 | 1248.0 | 4430 | 15.92 | 18oi0 | 1252.8 4o | 18.0 | 1.8063 | 1257.6 3938.2 | 14.47 3243.0 | 14.05 247.8 | 14.82 2252.6 | 15.00 257-4 | 15.18 | | 60 | 12.67 | 1.6074 | x169.7 | 22.29 | 1.6938 | 1260.4 | x1.92 | 1.6905 | 1r69.x | . Bho | Eg.og | Haste | x1y9cy | 22067 | tora [127915 | 12-30 | 1.7099 | rx99.2 | 11.95 | 1.7006 | 1378.9, ‘290 | 33.26 | ro7a77 | 1184.7 | 12.80 | x.7xq7 | 1184.5 | 22.48 | 1.7207 | 1184.2 | 12.13 | 1.7073 | 1184.0 | 7243 | 1189.7 | 13.05 | 1.7207 | 1189.5 | 12.67 x2.g1 | 1.7140 | 1589.0 1788 | Heke | ESE | fap | noes [286 reg | gees | H39e'9 Tpaze | txg9.s | 13-42 | 1.7836 | 1199.3 | 13.03 12106 | 117269 | 1198.9, Toyags | ra0qe | 15.81 | 1390 | 1208-2 | 13.28 12.84 | 1.7331 | 120338 Efap§ 120013 | 35.89 E7480 | r2oge | ta.40 | cf4a8 | 13089 | 508 | 7598 3908-7 | xrgs6 | x214.2 agar | rarq.0 | 13.58 17487 | 22158 | x59 | n-7456 | 1205.6 | 281s | 2215.0 £oyg8t | r208lg | 13.75 | x-7gay | x218-7 | 13.37 | .75ta | 1218.5 eitera aaa EAggo| tase 9 | fade | 2808 | 209 | s's4 | gers 23g 8 277ga | 1208.7 117697 | 1228.6 | 4.3 xaa8.g | 13.73 | 1.7833 | raal.g 207789 | 43505 | 24.72 | 1.7754 | 1233.4 | 14.29 1233.2 | 13.89 | 1.7889 | 1235.2 450 | 16.29 | 1.8107 | 1262.3, goo | 17.22 | 1.8373 | 1286.3, §50 | 18.14 | 1.8626 | 1310.2 | 39.05 | 1.8848 | 1334.3 1358-4 ra6a.t | 14.92 1286.1 | 15.77 1286.0 aio. | 16.62 110.0 13st | 17-46 | 1875e | 1334.8 1358.3 | 18.30 | 18974 | 1358.3 1262.0 1262.2 | 15.35 | 1286.2 | 16.23 3310.2 | 17.10 3334.2 | 17.98 1358.4 | 18.82 100) 20.88 | 1.9286 | 2382.7 | 20.5 | 1.9252 | x5807 | 19.68 | 1.922 | 1382.7 | 1913 | 19189 | 19826 37 38 39 40 626) la) bes. 67} Sat [Tag | 1.6852 | 1960.8 | 1193 | 1.6830 | 1176.5 | 30.70] 1.0809] 1x70 768 | TS 1.6808 | 1172.7 1.6878 | 1177.8 1.6946 apo | r1.g6 | 1.6905 | 1375.6 | x0.25 | 1.6871 | 1173.3 | x0.84 | 1.6859 ] 175.0 ako | 11.62 | 1.6972 | 2278.7 | x1.30 | 116040 | 1178-4 | 32.01 | 1.8909 | 5178-1 ago | 11:79 | 1.7040 | 283.7 | x447 | ¥-7008 | 1183-5 | 32.27 | 1.6977 | 3183.2 5188.2 a1 gt | 1.7109 | 1193.2 167 | 1.7173 | 1198.2 1203.2 1208.2 800 | rr.g7 | x.7107 | 1188.7 | 11.65 | 1.7075 | 3xo | rata | 2.7172 | 1303.7 | 21.82 | 1.7249 | 320 | rag | 17236 | 1198.7 | 2198 | 1.7204 330 | r2.49 | 17209 | 1203.6 | z2.85 | 1.7267 | $40 | 12.80 | 1736E | 2208.6 | 22.32 | 1.7330 r.7or3 | 1188.0 1.7079 | 1193.0 17443 | 1198.0 1.7207 | 1205.0 ro7aby | 1208.0 | au7ggt | 1212.9 | xc7aox | x17 8 17450 7509 1.7367 i 350 | 12.83 | 1.7422 | r21g.g | x2.49|| 1.739% | 1213.3 369 | 13100 | 1.7482 | xar8.3 | 32.65 | x.7452 | 3218.2 370 | 23-07 | x-7g4r | 1225-2 | 12.82 | 117310 | 1223.0 4380 | 15.34 | 1.7800 | 1298.1 | 12.99 | 1.7369 | 1207.9 4390 | x3.5r | 1.7657 | 1232.9 | 33.25 | 1.7626 | 1232.8 400 | 13.68 | x.7714 | 1257.8 | x3.32 | 1.7683 | 1257.6 saxo | 13.85 | 1-770 | x242.6 | 33.48 | 1.7739 | 124205 420 | x4.0r | x.78as | 3247-4 | 13.64 | 1.7794 | 1247.3, 4430 | 14.18 | 1.7879 | 1292.3 | 33.81 | 1.7849 | x2g2.t 440 | 14.35 | 1.7933 | 1257-1 | 33.97 | 1.7995 | 1256.9 1233.1 1218.0 1222.9 1.7624 | 1237.3 1.7680 | 1242.2 17738 | 7247.9 17799 | 1251.9 17844 | 1256.7 450 | x4.52 | 1.7986 | 1261.9 | 24.15 | 1.7956 | x261.8, 00 | 15134 | 1.8243 | 1285.9 | r4.94 | x.82x3 | 1285.8, §50 | 16-07 | x-8487 | 1309-9 | 25.74 | x-84s7 | 1300.9 G00 | 16.99 | ¥-8720] 1534.0 | 16.54 | 1.8690 | 1334.0 850 | 17.80 | 18944 | 1358.2 | 17-34 | 8984 | 3558.2 1.7897 | 1261.5 x.8155 | 7285.6 £8399 | 1309.7 3333.9 | 15.71 | 1.8633 | 1333.8 1358.1 | 16.46 | 1.8856 | 1358.1 700 | 18.62 | r.9158 | 1382.6 | 18.13 | x.9129 | 1382.5 730 | 19:43 | 1.9385 | r407-r | 18.92 | 1.9336 | 1307-2 1382.5 | 17.22 | a.g07r | 138244 307.0 | 17.97 | 1.9279 | 1307.0