IB HISTORY DUCK FOR HL/SL

http://blogs.4j.lane.edu/yamada/files/2009/09/IB-HOTA-Guide.pdf

1.1 Stalin and the USSR (1928-53)

1.1.1 Rise to Power
1.1.2 Establishment of an authoritarian state
1.1.3 Domestic policies and their impact
1.2 Hitler and Nazi Germany (1933-45)
1.2.1 Rise to Power
1.2.2 Establishment of an authoritarian state
1.2.3 Domestic policies and their impact
1.3 Mao and the CCP (1949-1976)
1.3.1 Rise to Power
1.3.2 Establishment of an authoritarian state
1.3.3 Domestic policies and their impact

2.1The Origins of the Cold War

2.2 The Cold War Goes Global

1.1 China 1976-2000

1.2 USSR 1976-1989

2.1 20th Century China

2.1.1 Warlords, Nationalists and Communists 1912-28
2.1.2 Nationalist Triumph and Communist Survival 1927-36
2.1.3 Mao Zedong and the Communists at Yanan 1936-45
2.1.4 The Japanese Occupation of China 1931-45
2.1.5 The Chinese Civil War 1946-49
2.2 Imperial Japan: Empire and Aftermath 1912-52
2.2.1 Taisho Japan 1912-26
2.2.2 Rise of Militarism 1926-37
2.2.3 Japan at War 1937-45
2.2.4 American Occupation and Recovery 1945-1952
Topic 3: Origins and Development of Single
Party States
1.1 Stalin and the USSR (1928-53)

1.1.1 Rise to Power

Conditions in USSR - 1924
● Bolshevik Party - Consolidation gained through violent means
● World’s first Marxist State
● Ban on factionalism.
● Democratic Centralism - lies in party members’ obedience to enlighten leadership
● Concentration camps
● Absolutism
● No public worship
● International isolation - USSR was the only Communist country at the time
● Nationalization

Stalin vs. Trotsky

● Stalin
○ Delivered oration at Lenin’s funeral - sight as leading mourner
○ Dedicated himself to following in the tradition of departed leader
○ Triumvirate
○ Held positions in the party that allowed him to know everything about everyone -
connections
○ Power of Patronage
● Trotsky
○ Not present at Lenin’s funeral - did not appear to be a dedicated Leninist
○ Politburo regarded him as a great danger
○ He was Jewish - USSR was anti-semitic
○ Appeared as an outsider - not fully committed to CPSU
○ Only became a Bolshevik in 1917
○ Intellectualism - could not associate with the ‘common man’

Stalin’s position
● People’s Commissar for Nationalities (1917)
○ in charge of the officials in the many regions that made up the USSR
○ Lenin felt that as a Georgian, Stalin had a special understanding of national minorities
● Liaison officer between the Politburo and Orgburo (1919)
○ Monitored both the Party’s Policies and Personnel
● Head of Workers and Peasants Inspectorate (1919)
○ Oversaw work of ALL government department
● General Secretary of the Communist Party (1922)
○ Enabled him to build a dossier on all party members - he knew everything that
happened
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---> All positions gave him Power of Patronage - used authority to place supporters in key positions
(eg: Lenin Enrollment - people felt they owed one to Stalin)

Debate:
Area of Debate Stalin’s viewpoint Trotsky’s viewpoint Outcome

New Economic Used Trotsky’s attitude to Wanted to squeeze life out of People saw Trotsky as a
Policy (NEP) undermine him the peasants to advance the disruptive force and
revolution hence his reputation
Party considered Trotsky decreased along with
as an unacceptable Said that NEP put interest of his support
disruptive force Nepmen over those of the
revolution (Capitalist
movement)

Modernization Wanted to persuade the Demanded peasantry be A divergent was

peasants to co-operate forced to conform through created in the nation as
and create surplus for coercion (Left Communists) opposing notions
organization (Right clashed greatly
Communists)

Ideological ’Socialism in One Marxists Permanent Trotsky’s notion

Conflict Country’ Revolution appeared as
irresponsible
Wanted to turn USSR Wanted to export the
into a modern state revolution so that the USSR Direct opposition
capable of defending would survive
itself Trotsky was removed
Worldwide revolution of the from position
Condemned Trotsky’s working class
ideas as a threat to
security

Defeat of Left and Right:

How Stalin overcame the Left How Stalin overcame the right

● Trotsky failed the propaganda war in
1920s → in no position to persuade the
Politburo or Central Committee to
support his proposals
○ removed from his position in
1925
○ Stalin gained support from
Kamenev and Zinoviev
● New Opposition was created
● Right stood in the way of Stalin’s
industrial and agricultural schemes
○ he wanted to start
collectivization and
industrialization
● Stalin played on fears of Right
○ used fear of revolution to
undermine the Right

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 ○ Opposition block - Trotsky +
Kamenev and Zinoviev
○ Stalin used his support from the
right to resist pressure
■ outvoted and hence
they were expelled from
the party
● Trotsky also tried bureaucratization →
failed
○ Right had poor organization and
hoped they could win the Party
over using persuasion
● Right has lack of support (only from
trade unions)
○ Stalin politically assaulted them
● 1929 - Right was beyond recovery as
their ideology was completely
undermined.

1.1.2 Establishment of an authoritarian state

Economic Policies:
● Collectivization- the setting up of collective farms to squeeze out all capitalist elements from
the land

● Bring peasants under control

● Raise capital
Aims ● Bring land under state control (centralize agriculture)
--> USSR needed ind. dev. --> land could provide both --> surplus was sold -->
surplus peasants = more factory workers

● State would own all land and peasants would no longer farm for individual
profit (believed that large farms were more efficient)
● Kulaks - rich peasants
● Simply people who farmed efficiently
● Created by Stalin to justify collectivization
Methods ● Dekulakization (propaganda movement)
● Land + property were seized
● Sped up collectivization
● OGPU - anti-Kulak squad
● Arrested and deported
● Collectivization was forced on reluctant peasants

● Civil War broke out in country-side

● Massive social upheaval
● Starvation - national famine
Effects
● Peasants were moved to towns so pressure of land was relieved
● In protests, peasants ate grain and slaughtered livestock
● By 1930, 25% of farms was collectivized

● Achieved mass migration

● Stalin achieved his aims
● By the end of 1930, all of USSR was collectivized
Success?
● Helped Stalin consolidate power and authority
● Contributed to industrialization
● Huge man-made famine - 6-8 million peasants died

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 ● Industrialization

● Establish a war economy

● Prepare the USSR to fight against Capitalists abroad
Aims
● Over production of iron + steel + oil = sinews of war
● Guarantee strength and readiness

● Five Year Plans (5)

● 1st Plan set targets
● Quotas were falsified
● Production of coal and iron and electricity was boosted
Methods
● Ideology (Socialism in One Country) was used to promote industrialization
● Stakhanovite Movement - propaganda
● Fictitious worker who produced ’14 more times’ than usual produce. -->
used to inspire other workers to work harder towards industrialization

● Mass production of war sinews allowed USSR to survive German

Occupation (1941-45) and also win the war
● Production of coal tripled in 13 years (from 35m to 150m)
Effects ● Industrial program succeeded in heavy industry
● Schemes failed to raise standard of living
● When Germany invaded, they destroyed the 3rd FYP, conditions were
worse than in 1928.

Early Purges 1929-1934:

● Made it difficult to maintain an effective opposition
● Chief mechanism for removing anyone Stalin regarded as a threat to authority
● Made Party members surrender party card - followed by expulsion from party
● Purges were accompanied by:
○ labour camps
○ civilian police
○ border and security guards (NKVD)
● Ryutin Affair 1932
○ Rightist opposition to Stalin
○ Made Stalin realize that some opposition was possible - paranoid
○ Kirov Purges 1934
■ ‘Decree Against Terrorist Acts’ - allowed Stalin to justify purging
Great Terror (1936-39):
● Intensified period of purges
● Stalin thought there was constant assertion so he called for greater vigilance
● 3 main sections: Purge of Party, Army and People
● Purges were integral part of the Stalinist govt.
● Stalin made purges legal
○ Forced people into making false confessions
○ Suggested a large scale conspiracy against him
● 1949 - Leningrad Affair
● Doctor’s Plot - Jews were persecuted
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 ● Lack of opposition to purges
○ Many welcomed purges to increase local power
○ Purges were popular to those who wanted a stronger USSR
○ Revolutionary Idealism

Significance of the great terror

● Stalin now had complete control of the party, and in a sense, Stalin became the party
● He had so much control that he destroyed opposition to the point where he ended u0p
making all the decisions
● He eventually destroyed the politburo, the last remains of any form of democratic or
discursive rule
● His ability to make people work towards him, meant that all members of the party recognized
that the only practical way of furthering their political career was to follow (and not oppose)
Stalin’s word
● Leaders of industries were also employed under Stalin, so they were under the same control
● Purges (coupled with propagande eg Stakhanovite Movement) meant that people were a)
always in fear of the Party and b) indoctrinated at every step, to support not only the party, but
Stalin personally (Stalin’s Cult, filled the whole of religion and Tsarist Regime)

1.1.3 Domestic policies and their impact

Treatment of Minorities:
● Cossacks
○ Aim was to get Cossack’s on Stalin;s side to help fight against Germany
○ Stalin used their strong patriotism and created a Cossack division in the Red Army
○ After the war Stalin returned to his anti-Cossack activities - destroyed what was left of
Cossack communities
○ Stalin denied their right to exist as a special entity
● Kulaks - rich peasants
○ Aim was to liquidate the Kulaks as a class
○ Accused Kulaks of holding back the revolution by keeping produce for themselves
○ Justified collectivization by taking Kulak farms away
○ Kulaks were left homeless without possession
○ Deported to “special settlements” in Siberia
● Baltic States
○ Stalin wanted to expand the Soviet sphere of influence
○ Wanted to spread communism
○ Wanted to create a true soviet state
○ Soviet Occupation and Annexation (1940-41)
○ Re-occupation 1944
○ Mass deportation of Baltic people
○ Drastic social effects
○ 1941 - new “true soviet” govt. was set up --> Stalin thought of Baltic population to be
beneath him
● Religious Minorities
○ Aim was to encourage worship of Stalin
○ Wanted an atheist society

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 ○ “Religion is the opium of the people”
○ Instigated campaigns to suppress the Jews
○ Doctor’s Plot in 1953 - aimed at liquidating the Jews
○ Buddhists and Muslims were deported
○ Any religious traditions were suppressed
■ Synagogues, churches and mosques were shut down
■ Religious leaders were persecuted
■ Anti-religious laws were imposed
● Overall most religious minorities were killed and suppressed
● Deportation Minorities
○ Stalin wanted to prevent people of Western USSR from supporting the invading
German army (1941)
○ Did not want opposition - wanted total control
○ Ordered national great scale deportation to Siberia (Crimean Tatars and Volga
Germans)
○ A third of the 4 million people that were deported died
○ 20 million people were uprooted from homes
○ Tatars were deported for alleged acts of treason

Soviet Culture: (Socialist Realism - Any piece of creativity was to reflect the problems and victories
and progression of the Bolshevik working class)
● Paintings and Sculptures
○ Aim was to promote Stalin as a symbol of Soviet glory
● Film
○ Aim was to make all the arts a propaganda tool
○ Demonize the enemy
● Literature
○ Aim was to stop people from publishing works critical of the govt.
○ Promote Socialist Realism
● Music
○ Aim to promote socialist realism
● Komsomol
○ Youth movement to create loyal following for the future
● Stakhanovite Movement
○ Propaganda movement to increase worker efficiency and inspire nationalism
● Stalin in Print
○ Stalin was glorified in all forms of propaganda
○ Promoted him as the leader, savior and giver of good of the USSR

Religion:
Aims ● Removal of all churches
● Spread cult of personality
● Arrest church members and place them into the Gulags
● Revival of Russian Orthodox Church

Effects ● By 1941 only 500 churches remained open compared to 54000 prior to
WW1

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 ● Public enjoyed atheism
● Young Pioneer and Militant Godless were successful
● Public believed church was greedy and corrupt
● Worship of Stalin was initiated

Women:
Aims ● Establish equality between men and women
● Modernize the Soviet Union
● Build up a stable economy
● Removal of the idea of the independent movement

Methods ● Unregistered marriages were no longer recognized

● Homosexuality was outlawed
● Put emphasis on family - mothers with more than 2 children = heroines
● Housewife movement in 1936
● Abortion was banned in 1936
● Women were not allowed in politics - USSR was a male dominated
society

Effects ● Control over women

● Number of women in the workforce increased to 15 million by 1945
● Women were then responsible for children, household and income.

Education:
Aims ● Modernize the USSR
● Make education widespread and available to everyone (compulsory)
● Create skilled and disciplined workers needed for industrialization
● Make future generations loyal Stalin supporters
● To spread literacy
● Create sense of nationalism

Methods ● Thousands of new schools were built across USSR

● School compulsory for 5-15
● Newspaper prices were reduced
● Uniforms were made compulsory
● By 1935 - tests and examinations were reintroduced
● Traditional/core subjects were taught
● Homework was made regular
● Emphasis on discipline
● Textbooks were rewritten to fit Stalinist ideas
● Teachers were monitored by secret police
● Marxism and Leninism were compulsory
● Students were taught that Stalin was a great leader
● Establishment of Elite
● Youth Groups

Effects ● Literacy rate rose from 28% to 86%

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 ● Most educated generation in Russian history
● Growth of innovative ideas

1.2 Hitler and Nazi Germany (1933-45)

1.2.1 Rise to Power

Conditions in Germany pre-Nazi’s:

● Germany lost World War 1
○ Felt humiliation, anger towards political leaders (Diktat)
● Treaty of Versailles 1919 + Diktat (November Criminals)
○ War guilt
○ No conscription, 100000 soldiers only (felt unsafe)
○ Loss of overseas colonies (4m people)
○ Reparations - £6600 million
● Economic Problems
○ Crippling debts
○ 1929 Great Depression - failure to deal with the situation
○ Reparations
○ Unemployment
○ Ruhr Crisis 1923 - hyperinflation
● Weimar was weak
○ Kaiser abdicated
○ New constitution - Article 48 (emergency law abused by Hindenburg. This law gave
power to the leader to create laws without discussing it first at the Reichstag),
Proportional Representation (made all govt. coalition govt. hindering the efficiency of
the Reichstag, each area in the country, depending on its size was represented by a
specific number of politicians in the Reichstag)

Aims in Nazi Party:

1. Unite all Germans under a greater Germany (lebensraum)
2. Revoke the Treaty of Versailles
3. Gain territories to accommodate surplus population
4. Restriction of Citizenship (Aryan ideal)
5. Jews to be denied membership of the Volk

Path to Chancellorship:
● Party politics ceased to function - no party had a majority in the Reichstag
○ Coalition govt. had to happen
○ Germany had to rely on Hindenburg (Article 48)
● 1930-1932 - Brüning
● 1932 -von Papen
● 1933 - Schleicher
○ 3 Chancellors fought themselves out
○ Hitler was offered a minor role but preferred to bid time

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 ● Presidential Elections 1932 - Hitler used them as a measure of popularity
● Hindenburg felt that Hitler would be less harmful in office than out
○ Appointed him as Chancellor (1933)
○ Hitler then outmaneuvered everyone and worked his way up
● Hitler was able to exploit people’s fears to gain more votes
● Nobody could match Hitler’s determination
● Protest vote (against Weimar)

Role of Ideology:
● Jews were used as scapegoats for Germany’s problems
● Mein Kampf
● Nationalism
● Hatred towards TOV - exploited general sentiment
● Hitler used ideology to justify actions
● Belief in survival of the fittest (Social Darwinism)

---> Hitler wanted to be seen as a superman; Germany’s savior, leader.

Key Points to remember:

1. Hitler’s individual personality
2. Propaganda
3. Fear and Terror
4. Ideology
5. Holes in Opposition
6. Germany’s conditions

Role of Propaganda
● Propaganda was key in spreading ideology to the German and greater public
● Example of German public education (new subjects like eugenics, change in curriculum and
content for History (aimed at glorifying Germany’s past), aimed at youth
● Hitler youth also aimed at youth
● People’s Receiver (cheap radios, illegal to listen to the international signals, used to spread
propaganda)

1.2.2 Establishment of an authoritarian state

From Chancellor to Fuhrer 1933-34

● 1933 - Reichstag Fire → propaganda tool
○ Dutch communist set fire to Reichstag
○ Law for the protection of people and state
○ SA took over → especially KDP
● Reichstag Elections
○ ⅔ of votes required to pass Enabling Law
○ coalition governments
● Enabling Act
○ Allowed Hitler to govern as Chancellor without reference to the Reichstag
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 ○ Free to turn principle into practice
● Gleichschaltung - consolidation of authority
○ Turned Germany into a 1 party state
■ outlawed all political parties
■ destroyed trade unions
■ coerced churches
■ removed Jews
● Night of the Long Knives
○ got rid of SA (opposition)
○ Took power away from Rohm
○ SA was replaced by SS (Hitler’s bodyguards)
● Presidency
○ Hindenburg died
○ Hitler became Fuhrer
○ Plebiscite → 92% voted yes
■ legal election

Methods of Control
● Army
○ without its power Hitler would have been fragile
○ known as Wehrmacht
○ army oath → did not want army to be independent
○ unconditional loyalty to Hitler
○ Blomberg Fritsch Crisis 1938
■ purge of army leaders
■ Hitler became active commander
● SS
○ originally Hitler’s bodyguards
○ Heinrich Himmler
○ 3rd Reich was an SS state civilian police run on military lines
○ Ran concentration camps
○ Death Head Division
○ maintained ideology
■ protection of Germans against racial corruption
■ loyalty
■ absolute obedience
○ Gestapo
■ secret police
■ no legal restriction
■ fear and violence

Structure of Government
● Theory - balance between state and party
● Reality - all key posts were held by Nazis
● Organization and institution overlapped → created confusion
○ meant that Hitler was the only fixed point in the system
● “Working towards the Fuhrer”
○ did not want to create a whole new system
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 ○ ministers would make a judgement from Hitler’s statement as to what policies he
wanted them to follow
○ created rivalry which encouraged workers to work harder and prevented opposition
● Hitler created bodies of government to suit his own purpose
○ eg: Ministry of Propaganda → Goebbels

Opposition

Opposition Left (SPD, Right (Schwarze Youth (White Rose,

Group Communist Kapelle, Kreisau Edelweiss Pirates, Church
Party) Circle) Swingjugend)

Type Passive Active Passive Passive

Methods Did not formally

challenge the Nazi
Party.
Organized July Church and state were
Greatly Distributed leaflets in
Bomb Plot (1944). in accord to fight the
suppressed as universities, social
Attempted to kill godless Communism.
they could not nonconformists, were
Hitler and Church cooperated so
organize a proper arrested and
overthrow the that they could still
opposition executed publicly
government. have influence over
policies
Confessional churches
were created

Extent of Success: managed to

Success spread Anti-Nazi
No extent as they Small extent as propaganda Small extent: had
were crushed too they were loosely some grip over
hard to form any connected and Failure: did not policies, disbanded T4
opposition lacked support accomplish anything euthanasia program
as they were
executed

Nazi Ideology
● Lebensraum
● Anti - Semitism
● Superior Aryan Race
● Anti - Marxism
● Anti - feminism
● Anti - democracy
● Social Darwinism
● Blut und Boden
● Fuhrerprinzip

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12
Was the role of ideology important in Nazi Germany?
YES
● Played a key role in rise to power
attracting and inspiring people
○ Gleichschaltung
○ belief in survival of the fittest
was seen through all policies
● Ideology helped justify actions
● Hitler Youth embodied Nazi Ideology
NO
● Anti-Semitic policies displayed no
pattern
○ persecution was low key until
1935
● Anti-feminism was abandoned in war
years
● No longer any socialism after 1930s
● Blut und Boden was seen in propaganda
● No revolution like that that was
promised in the 1920s took place
● Ideology was pragmatic
○ changed to suit Hitler
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1.2.3 Domestic policies and their impact

Economic Aims

→ To create a strong industrial economy to provide sinews for war

Person Aims Methods Effects

Schacht ● Financial and ● Organization of industry ● Reduced

economic ○ big bankers, unemployment
growth industrialists ● Currency was
● End ○ promoted trade stabilized
unemployment ● New Plan 1934 ● Guns vs butter
● Expansion of ○ DAF debate
rearmament ○ RAD
● Rearmament
○ Fuhrer
Memorandum

Goering ● Autarky ● Used synthetic ● Unemployment

● labor force into substitutes fell (6m to 100k)
control ● Replaced rubber and oil ● Hitler’s popularity
● import controls was increased
● Increased war ● Autarky was
production impossible in the
20th century

Speer ● Tackle ● Improved transport and ● As war

problems with freight progressed, Nazi
liasant ○ movements were war economy fell
coordinators controlled ● Doubled German
● Increase ● Slave labour armament
production and production
industrial ● Increased
output industrial output
from 1941 to 1943

Propaganda
● Promoted the idea of a German nation united under the Nazi Party
○ repetition was key to inculcating ideas
○ Hitler was the new Messiah
● Aims
○ Fuhrer Principle
○ Promote German nation
○ Promote Hitler in the most positive light
○ Encourage price in Aryan race
● Berlin Olympics 1936
○ Hitler attended everyday
○ great sporting success for Germany

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 ● Press
○ Goebbels brought newspapers under control
○ Eher Verlag
○ DNB
○ Editor’s Law
○ The newspaper was a highly influential weapon
● Arts
○ guard against Jewish corruption
○ defined culture by what it was against
○ censorship
● Radio
○ Reich Radio company
○ Number of Germans with a radio went from 20% to 70%
○ ban on all foreign broadcasts (especially during war)

Education
● Main medium to promote Nazi ideas
● School system was brought under control
● Curriculum
○ race and ideology
○ subjects reflected Nazi superiority
■ Eugenics
● Dispute with Churches
○ exclusion of religious instruction
○ church was scared that Nazis were undermining their beliefs
○ Concordat 1933
● Hitler Youth
○ Aim was to train young men into Nazi values
○ great emphasis on physical activities
● BDM - sister movement to Hitler Youth
○ Aim was to make youth truly part of the volk
○ though membership was voluntary, peer pressure inspired people to join
■ 90% of youth joined
○ 1939 - membership was made compulsory in preparation for war

Working Class
● German Labour Front was the single largest organization that affected German people
○ Aim was to regulate german workforce along military lines
○ destroyed trade unions
○ came under state control and lost independence
○ 12 years - 25 million workers
○ mechanism of oppression
● Kraft durch Freude
○ leisure for masses
○ provided holidays for workers and family
○ tourism
○ 10 million germans were involved
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 ● Welfare program
○ provided insurance and education
● War time - KDF was destroyed and GLF was made dictatorial

Women
● Hitler's plans for economy did not include the advancement of women → anti-feminism
○ separated women from society to keep them under control
● Hitler was concerned that the birth rate was dropping
○ 3Ks
○ fewer women allowed in universities
○ no women allowed in civil service
○ abortion was made illegal
● Impact of War
○ abrupt change in policy
■ conscription into army
■ reintroduced women in the workplace
○ war destroyed social conventions

Treatment of minorities
● Aims
○ Hitler believed that undesirables were expendable
○ wanted to exterminate defectives to create a pure and strong volk
● Methods
○ 1933 - Law for the Prevention of diseased offspring
○ By 1939 350000 were sterilized
○ Defectives were subject to euthanasia
■ set up killing centers (70000 deaths)
● Opposition
○ Some doctors protested by refusing to cooperate in the program
■ Dr. Friedrich Holzel
■ other doctors found ways of saving patients
○ Religious protests about euthanasia
■ Bernhard Lichtenberg
■ Van Galen
● Effects
○ 1941 - T4 was suspended and euthanasia program ended

Anti-Semitism into Genocide

● Jews made up 1% of German population
○ no evidence that Jewish persecution was planned from the beginning
● Cumulative Radicalization
● Major Stages
○ 1933 - organized violence and Jews barred from jobs
○ 1935 - Nuremberg Race Laws
○ 1938 - Jews businesses shut down, mass migration organized
○ 1939 - Kristallnacht
○ 1942 - Final Solution - Holocaust

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1.3 Mao and the CCP (1949-1976)

1.3.1 Rise to Power

*Refer to China 1921-49 for more information*

● CCP Party began in 1921

○ during Warlord era CCP became a party
■ Mao joins the CCP
● Northern Expedition 1926-1928
○ Mao organized United Front
■ strong believer in cooperation
■ defeated warlords
● JiangXi Soviet 1928-34
○ Mao developed his ideology → peasant revolution
○ 2 month purge of party @ Futian Incident (1930)
■ showed Mao’s determination and ruthlessness and willingness to take
decisions
● Long March 1934-35
○ Rise in CCP popularity → propaganda movement
○ Achieved remarkable supremacy
■ changed ideology (from pitch battles to guerilla tactics)
■ Zunyi meeting 1935
● Xi'an Incident 1936
○ Communist at Yan'an gained further power
○ further purge of party
○ Mutiny - Chiang Kaishek was captured
■ Communist claimed they were Nationalist → put need of China over their own
● Rectification of Conduct Campaign 1942-44
○ Established obedience and control
■ further power for Mao
○ Established ideology
● Civil War 1946-49
○ CCP defeated GMD
○ Maoism was established → People’s Republic of China

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1.3.2 Establishment of an authoritarian state

Structure of Government:
● Political Approach - people were to act in total conformity to the dictates of the new govt
● Structure of PRC
○ 6 regions led by 4 officials
■ chairman
■ party secretary
■ military commander (PLA)
■ political commissar (PLA)
● Structure of government
○ CCP claimed people had authority
○ Reality → Politburo controlled PRC
○ Order of Authority (Mao, Politburo, PLA, Regional Leaders, Workers)

Ideology:
● Marxist Revolution
○ progress would come through class struggle
● Importance of Peasants
○ Peasant masses could overthrow capitalism and create a socialist society
● Two-stage Revolution
○ First revolution could incorporate bourgeoisie (private ownership may continue)
○ Second revolution would bring about collectivisation and nationalisation of property
● Mass Mobilisation
○ “Learn from the people”
○ Campaigns should be people campaigns and not imposed from above
■ People would support campaigns voluntarily and work in the best interest of
China
● Continuous Revolution
○ Revolution should not cease once CCP achieved power
○ Constant process of renewal to avoid complacency and corruption
● Self-criticism
○ Officials should undergo regular criticism to prevent becoming self-satisfied
○ Through self-criticism individuals would see the wisdom of mass campaigns and
rectify false thoughts
● Ruthless Determination
○ Willpower and determination would provide change if everyone showed total
commitment
○ Violence was a necessary element of revolution
● Primacy of “Mao Zedong Thought”
○ Mao was always right and people could find a solution to their problems if they
studied his thought sufficiently

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Military and Anti-Movements:
● Government enforced control over all areas of China (incl. Tibet, Xinjiang and Guangdong)
○ “reunification campaign” → carried out by PLA
■ sent in order to improve local conditions
■ Main purpose was to impose Martial Law and repress opposition
○ joined Korean War in 1950
■ “Resist USA, Aid Korea”
● Anti-Movements → created atmosphere of fear and uncertainty
○ targeted bourgeois class that was accused of crimes such as waste, corruption and
tax evasion
○ anti-landlord campaign
■ property of landlords was confiscated and redistributed
● nearly 1 million were killed in early 1950s
■ created a nation of informers
○ 3 Anti’s:
■ Waste
■ Corruption
■ “Too much red tape” (too difficult to access government)
○ 5 Anti’s
■ Bribery
■ Spying
■ Tax Evasion
■ Fraud
■ Theft

100 Flowers Campaign 1957

● Aims
○ Ensure that CCP does not deviate from revolutionary path
■ Follow principles of ideology - self-criticism
● Methods
○ Ask members of PRC to debate great issues facing China
■ invitation to criticize government and party policies
■ “Let 100 flowers bloom, let 100 schools of thought contend”
● Effects
○ Some attacks on Mao
■ he was called “arbitrary and reckless”
○ Mao declared himself appalled by criticism
○ “Rightist” were arrested
○ Campaign ended abruptly - lots of historical debate as to the true motivation behind
the campaign

19
Economic Policies
● Aims
○ Develop China as an industrial power
○ Break the USSR grip and catch up with the West
○ Produce surplus grain
● Methods
○ Great Leap Forward 1958-62
■ peasants would produce surplus
■ workers would create modern industrial economy
○ “Leap” meant China would bypass certain stages in industrialization
○ Mao rejected modern technology in favour of mass effort (see ideology - mass
mobilization)
○ Backyard furnaces were built in order to produce steel
○ Agricultural Collectivization
● Effects
○ Mass famine (3 years - largest famine in history) - crop yield fell
■ 99.9% of produce was useless
■ 70000 communes were built with half a billion peasants
■ individual peasants were no longer allowed to make individual profit
○ Collectivization was a disaster → disrupted the way of life
■ peasants were unable to adapt to the new system
■ had no understanding of how to farm on a large scale → uneducated
● mainly focused on steel so agriculture was greatly ignored
○ Rigged production figures → propaganda campaign to make collectivization appear
successful.
○ Everyone was scared to offend Mao → lack of opposition
■ Lushan Conference 1959
● met to modernize targets yet failed to address famine issue as leaders
did not want to admit there was an issue
○ Peasants who protested were put into labour camps
■ 40 million starved to death

Cultural Revolution 1966-76

● Reasons for initiating the Revolution
○ Mao was worried he was losing control over China
○ Paranoid of internal opposition
■ Believed that even those with great loyalty could turn against him
○ He was getting old (73 yo) and he wanted to die knowing he left a permanent mark on
China
○ International Rivalry
■ did not want China to end up like the USSR → more revisionism
○ Ideology
■ wanted a continuous revolution
■ wanted more nationalism → rid of all Soviet influence
○ Bureaucracy
■ Believed the CCP lost their revolutionary fervour
■ started to purge to eliminate all reactionaries

20
 ○ Resentment
■ Mao’s reputation was damaged after the failure of the Great Leap Forward
■ used Cultural Revolution as a pretext for attacking Liu and Deng
● Use of Propaganda
○ Lin Biao → projected image of Mao as saviour of the nation
■ Mao’s picture and quotes were everywhere → cult of personality
● Even though most people did not understand his ideology, they still
believed his was right
● People would wake up early and bow down to Mao’s photo.
■ Mao did not often speak in public → population saw it as a great honor to be
able to witness his speeches live.
○ Little Red Book (1964) → contained selections of his speeches
○ Attack on Revisionism → official announcement that CCP was infected by revisionism
■ PLA had to root out anti-socialists weeds → created PANIC
○ August Rally 1966
■ destroy revisionism (4 Olds → thoughts, habits, customs, culture)
■ young became the instrument of the Cultural Revolution
■ Red Guards → young people terror squads
● free to attack and destroy property → replace intellectuals with true
revolutionaries
● public attacks → 40000 killed
○ Mass Events
■ Swimming in the Yangtze river
● wanted to show everyone that he was still in command
● Impact on China
○ Political
■ Liu and Deng were removed from government
● Liu was subject to “struggle sessions”, Deng was sent to a corrective
labour camp showed that even highest ranking officials could be
purged
■ Central Cultural Revolution Group was made → included Gang of Four
● directed the revolution
■ Lin Biao Affair 1971
● People lost faith in the movement
● people began doubting Mao and the propaganda
○ Social
■ Revolution went too far → widespread destruction
● Social upheaval
● local civil wars raged in China
● Red Guards groups clashed with one another/families beat one
another
■ “Go up to the Mountains and down to the Villages” 1967-72
● youth was sent to the countryside to deepen understanding of
revolution (12 million people)
■ Laogai → 1000 labour camps were opened
● re-education through labour
● 25 million deaths
○ Economical
21
 ■ Industrial production was at a halt due to wars between workers
■ Slave labour increased → prisoners from labour camps
■ Schools and universities were closed
● Did not open in 1958 → Students saw it as a chance to break away
from harsh life at home
○ Moved to countryside to explore the country + go see Mao to
get revolutionary experience

1.3.3 Domestic policies and their impact

Laogai:
● Laogai stands for "reform through labor”
○ recognized as the slogan of the Chinese criminal justice
○ used as a place during Mao’s regime to store his political enemies
○ served as a means of re-education for those Mao believed were against his ideas
■ used to enforce conformity and obedience in China
○ The chances of survival in the camps were incredibly slim
■ to obtain even the bare minimum ration of food, prisoners had to make full
confessions to crime
■ those who persisted in claiming their innocence over a crime are subjected to
interrogation, starvation, beatings and solitary confinements
■ diseases were incredibly common within the camps
● The camps were able to give the Chinese industry a continuous supply of slave labour
throughout its concentration camps
○ prisoners in the camp had to do heavy manual labour such as mining and working on
hazardous projects
■ thus the Chinese Industry was able to maximise its resources through these
massive labour projects without having to pay wages or salary for labour.

Health, Youth and Education:

● When the CCP came to power in 1949, most peasants were barely literate or completely
illiterate
○ literacy rate was 20%
● By the middle of 1950, a national system of primary education has been set up and led to a
great increase in literacy rate
● There was a language reform
○ PRC adopted a new reform of the Chinese language in 1955, which was the new form
of written Mandarin (Pinyin style) to overcome the problem of different pronunciation
across China
■ This also helped the people in the PRC as there was no alphabets in the
previous language
● By the end of 1976, the literacy increased to 70%, which was a huge propaganda victory for
Mao
● However there were also downsides to education especially during the Cultural Revolution
○ 130 million of China’s young people stopped attending schools and universities
between 1966 to 1970, losing their chance of learning forever

22
 ○ Education was undermined, and students went around beating up their teachers and
rejecting all forms of traditional learning
○ Mao thought that education is worthless, and believed that it was better to train loyal
party members, who can lead China and continue the revolution after his death

● PRC’s plans to providing health care were also only partially successful
○ PRC had tried since 1949 to recruit and encourage doctors to move from the cities to
the countries, but this was largely a failure.
○ They would only stay in the rurals for few weeks, as they was hardly no chance of
receiving decent incomes.
○ Rural areas suffered from the increasing spread of schistosomiasis
■ Schistosomiasis came to be something of an iconic symbol for the lack of
healthcare in China.

● China has leading technology

○ 1949 - the Chinese Academy of Sciences was one of the world's leading research
institutions in life sciences and medicine.
○ China had estimated that there were about 40,000 physicians trained in Western and
Soviet medicine in the country, serving a population of 540 million people.
■ Those doctors were reluctant to go to the rural areas, where 80% of the
Chinese people lived.
■ Therefore, medicines and advanced medication were only available for the
rich people living in the cities.
○ The "bourgeois" policies of "self-interested" physicians who only treated rare and
difficult diseases were denounced as "disregarding the masses."

● Barefoot doctors
○ 1965, with his launch of the Cultural Revolution, Mao expanded the idea of health for
the masses beyond infectious disease.
○ He ordered, "In health and medical work, put the stress on rural areas."
○ Barefoot doctors were peasants - men and women who already had general
education - who had been trained to examine ill or injured people. They were
instructed in anatomy, bacteriology, diagnosing disease, acupuncture, prescribing
traditional and Western medicines, birth control and maternal and infant care.
○ The barefoot doctors continued their farming work in the commune fields, working
alongside the other peasants.
■ They did not take much money when treating, which made peasants being
able to access basic health care easy.
■ They provided basic health care: first aid, immunizations against diseases such
as diphtheria, whooping cough and measles, and health education.
■ They taught hygiene as basic as washing hands before eating and after using
latrines. Illnesses beyond their training, the barefoot doctors referred on to
physicians at commune health centers.
○ There were an estimated 1 million barefoot doctors in China.

23
Culture:
● Culture is not a separate part of society. It defines a nation’s character, and was the life of the
people (the masses), rather than refined tastes.
● Culture always reflected the ideology and way of life determined by the ruling class - it was a
method of consolidation of power, through which rulers would impose their control.
● Therefore, it was to be an extension of politics (propaganda).
● As feudal China maintained feudal culture (structured hierarchical system and traditional
customs), so too should proletarian China uphold proletarian culture (modern, progressive,
revolutionary, socialist, etc). People were meant to come together with the arts and relate to
each other and the government.
● Ruthless determination was required to eliminate bourgeois influence in culture - violence.
This fit in to his ideology (permanent revolution, ruthless determination).
● He wanted them to work with the government to only produce propaganda about the
proletariat triumphing against class enemies. He didn’t want them to create art that was just
art - it had to have a Maoist message to it.
● The arts were a supplement to Mao’s ideological campaigns, like the ‘Resist America, Aid
Korea’ one, where Mao required the support of the people to help the war effort (mass
mobilisation). Propaganda posters were made by artists to make people conform to Mao’s
demands for the state.
● Intense censorship was used to carry out Mao’s orders.
● Jian Qing took over the arts in the Cultural Revolution, and she made it a priority to allow only
art pieces that she had personally approved to be published. The criteria she had was very
strict, and as a result, many artists gave up their professions or left China. Art had to be in line
with modern Chinese beliefs. Art effectively came to a standstill.
● Agit-prop (agitation propaganda) which was an amalgamation of political ideas streamlined
through ‘entertainment’
● She wrote her Eight Model Operas, which were musical dramatic works that told stories of
proletarian heroes overthrowing their class enemies. They replaced the traditional Peking
(Beijing) opera). Party members and public were forced to watch these regularly, even though
they all had the same message, and had been seen before several times by the same people.
This spread the messages about the proletarian ‘paradise’.
● Western music was banned, and replaced by songs about Mao, which people danced to, as a
sort of prayer. They spread messages about Mao’s greatness and primacy. Most musicians no
longer played music, and many were subject to self-criticism and re-education in the laogai
labour camps.
● Art was no longer a form of entertainment - only of indoctrination.
● Art was not about creation of new culture anymore, rather the destruction of the old one
● Artists were too scared to oppose, so either conformed to Jiang’s excruciatingly bland
propaganda, or quit.

24
Religion:
● Mao expressed strong antipathy towards religion and declared it was poison. He even went as
far as comparing the Christian missionaries in China to the Nazis in Europe.
○ Mao regarded religion as a threat as he believed that the Chinese population could
only worship him and no one else.
○ He feared that religion would combine with politics to create a separatist movement
backed by countries bordering the region.
○ As in theory the workers were in power, Mao believed there was no need for religion.
● As soon as Mao came in power in 1949, he started state attacks on religion.
○ All Christian churches were forcibly closed and their property was either seized or
destroyed.
○ 6000 monasteries were destroyed in Tibet.
● Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity were denounced as worthless. Mao forbade religion
to be openly practiced.
● Priests were prohibited from wearing distinctive dressed.
○ If they were found wearing distinctive clothes, bystanders were forced by the Red
Army to strip them off the clergy.
● Ancestor worship was also forbidden from being practiced.
● Mao also started attacks on Chinese customs and traditions.
○ Formal expression of belief were outlawed and customs and rituals were proscribed.
○ Traditions were replaced by political meetings and discussions organized by the party.
● When Collectivization started in 1950, Mao used it as an experiment to destroy the
time-honored pattern of rural life; peasants were to accept Maoism as their new faith.
● Mao also used purges to destroy religion. Many of those who ‘dared’ practice religion
publically, were placed in the laogais where they were then attacked by dogs, had their body
burnt with cigarettes, whipped and had electric batons slammed on their genitals.
○ Over 1 million people were placed in these camps. Those who practiced religion were
also labelled “national separatists”.
● Propaganda became extremely important in Mao’s rule over China. Propaganda was Mao’s
main weapon used to spread a country-wide condemnation of religion. Under Mao’s rule,
China became a slogan-ridden society.
○ Propaganda was the main mean of enforcing conformity and solidarity. The
government spread propaganda by putting wall posters depicting Mao as a God
everywhere around the cities. Loudspeakers also kept a running condemnation of
religion.
○ The government also created slogans, which were often repeated during the daily
routine, proclaiming the virtues of Maoism.
○ Mao also followed the idea of “agit-prop”; the imposition of political ideas through
propaganda. He would have Red Guards act out shows all over the country depicting
the ‘horrors’ of religion and the greatness of Maoism.
● Though Mao did not agree at all with the idea of religion, he came to understand that there
were some advantages for the PRC to permit some forms of public worship to continue. This
would give the peasants an appearance of toleration.
○ The decision to allow some religion was also a result of the fact that religion was so
deep rooted into Chinese tradition that it would have been really unrealistic to
eradicate it all.
25
 ○ In fact some churches were kept open so long that they did not “endanger the
security of the state”. These churches were called patriotic churches.
○ The clergy has to swear total loyalty to Mao and have open support to the Communist
regime.
○ The allowance of patriotic churches created conflict between the PRC and the
Vatican which refused to accept the validity of these churches.

● The Cultural Revolution came in 1966, after a period of dormancy on Mao’s part when it came
to economic and domestic policies.
○ During this period of time, Mao grew increasingly paranoid and feared that opposition
to his rule could come from anywhere.
○ He wanted to leave a permanent mark on China and he believed he could only do
that if any form of opposition was destroyed and he achieved a complete totalitarian
rule.
● Hence he increased the attacks on the Four Olds (which included religion) through the means
of the Red Guards. All the clergy that previously survived the attacks was imprisoned and
executed.
○ Confucianism was denounced as representing all that was worst in China’s past.
○ “Confucius and Co” because a standard term of abuse
● One of Mao’s fears was that religion might encourage breakaway tendendencies in the PRC’s
provinces.
○ In fact from the very beginning in 1949, the PRC let it be known that it would not grant
independence to any of these provinces.
● In 1950, Mao sent the PLA in Xinjiang, Guangdong and Tibet to enforce his authority as he
believed that the strength, and hence survival, of the PRC demanded total unity and
acceptance of central control.
○ This was because Tibetan Buddhism inspired Tibetan nationalism in its resistance to
Chinese occupation.
○ Mao feared that religion and nationalism would prove an equally dangerous mix in
Tibet’s northern neighbour Xinjian.
■ The majority of its population was in fact Muslim.
■ The fact that Xinjiang border with Pakistan, Turkistan and Kazakhstan (all
Muslim countries) further increased Mao’s fears. Mao feared religion would
combine with politics to create a separatist movement in Xinjiang backed by
these border countries.
○ To prevent this, the PRC condemned all independent organizations in China’s border
regions as “handful of national separatists” with “reactionary feudal ideas” who were in
league with “hostile foreign forces” and whose aim was to weaken the Chinese nation.
■ Mao tried to dilute the Muslin element by sending large numbers of Han
Chinese to settle in the region. This however was only partially successful. In
fact when Mao died in 1976, muslims were still a large minority of the Xinjiang
population
Women:
● Mao grew up in a patriarchal society (male-dominated) in Imperial China where the teachings
of Confucius said that to harmonious a society must follow rules of the san gan which is
defined as:
○ Loyalty of ministers and officials to the emperor
○ Respect of children for their parents
26
 ○ Obedience of wives to husbands
■ This meant that women couldn't hold any position of power
■ Sons were valued more than daughters
● Women did not have equal rights and say on who they want to marry.
○ When Mao was fourteen years old, he was betrothed Luo Yigu who was then
eighteen years old.
○ Although Mao went through with the wedding ceremony, he was unhappy about the
arranged marriage and refused to live with Luo.
○ Mao's early experience of marriage could have affected his views on women, leading
him to criticize arranged marriages.
● The first act of PRC – introduce new marriage laws in 1950 where concubinage was
forbidden, arranged marriages discontinued, women forced to marry are entitled to divorce
their partners, all marriages had to be officially recorded and registered.
○ Laws allowed women to own and sell land and property.
○ Women were now officially considered the equals of men under Mao's China as they
were called on to do the work of men.
○ Between, 1949 and 1976, proportion of women in workforce increased from 8% to 32%.
● However, Mao's party still operated as a male-dominated system.
○ There was an infrequency with women being granted government and party posts
(e.g. Only 13% of CCP were women)
○ Also, during the Cultural Revolution the ownership of private property was now a
crime against the communist society, contradicting the law of allowing women to own
property previously.
○ However, Mao had prepared for the 'liberation' of women as early as 1944 and the
Communists was determined to carry this policy out by undermining the family with
the introduction of communes.
● Collectivization also had an impact on women
○ Advantages
■ Women could join the workforce with men
■ ‘Women hold up half the sky’ – women’s work was usually appreciated and
seen as equal to men.
■ Housework and childcare became a communal/social effort.
■ Communal dining halls fed families (women no longer had to cook every
night and find food).
■ Women more independent and free (no longer restricted of working at home,
but could also do real work in the fields.
■ Great Leap Forward: opportunity for more independence of women and
liberation of former duties.
■ Amount of women in workforce increased from 8% to 32% between 1949-76.
○ Disadvantages
■ Used as a tool to achieve national objectives
■ Women’s emancipation was not always Mao’s priority (women’s rights often
sacrificed for other government goals).
■ Great Leap Forward: abolished former laws passed in the 1950s, which
granted women the right to own and sell land and property in their own name.
■ People required of living in communes (less privacy, less individuality).
■ Often labor was too heavy and physical for women.

27
 ■ Although did work in communes and fields, still had to take care of domestic
work afterwards (exhaustion and extra-work not valued).
■ Women had to deal with entrenched values and attitudes of women being
inferior to men.
■ Many women were unhappy of working in factories and of losing their role as
mothers and caretakers (destruction of traditional Chinese family).
■ Role of mother and raising the family/caring for the household was no longer
valued.
■ Many men did not appreciate women gaining same training as them and
higher pay (wanted to remain dominant).
■ Even if women did more jobs, men usually received more work points.
■ Women’s health deteriorated (especially in peasant women) due to the hard
work and famine.
■ Women were beaten when they miscarried because they were forced to work
in in the late stage of pregnancy.
● Collectivization basically destroyed the idea of a traditional Chinese family
○ Mao stated that “It is necessary to destroy the peasant family; women going to the
factories and joining the army are part of the big destruction of the family”.
○ Ancestor worship was prohibited and this affected the historical and emotional
attachments of the families.
○ Even though they wanted freedom, not many women were happy that their role as
mothers and raisers of families was now seen as unnecessary.
○ In many communes, women and men lived separately and were only allowed to see
each other for conjugal visits
○ The enforced social change was too sudden and women felt detached from their
traditional ways
● The Korean War (1950-1953) also had a great impact on women in China
○ The war effort provided a justification for the increasing repression imposed by the
government (both social and political)
○ Dame after about a year of the creation of the PRC as a nation — they had to readjust
their plans to the needs of the struggling country.
○ Before the PRC could be fully established, they had to prove itself in the war.
○ It helped the CCP consolidate its hold on China and also showed that the PRC had
taken on the role of the defender of international Communism!
○ However, there were many war casualties, and it deepened both enmities with the
USA and economic strain.
○ It also subordinated the PRC’s domestic needs to the demands of the war and led to
increased suppression.

28
Topic 5: The Cold War
2.1 The Origins of the Cold War
What is the Cold War?
→ Period of hostility and high tension due to ideological conflicts between the USA and the USSR
which emerged following the defeat of Nazi Germany.

Factors which lead to mutual suspicion:

● Bolshevik Revolution in 1917
○ establishment of the first Communist state
○ ideas threatened the basis of Western Society
● Intervention of the West in the Russian Civil War 1918-22 supporting the whites in their
attempt to overthrow the Bolshevik government.
● the USSR did not receive diplomatic recognition nor join the League of Nations until the
1930s.
● Appeasement of Hitler and the Nazis in the 1930s by the West was partly motivated by fear of
Communism
● Non-Aggression Pact allowed Hitler to attack the West
○ increased suspicion

Reasons for the USA and USSR to emerge as superpowers in 1945:

● Military Reasons
○ defeating Germany made the USA the number one navy force and the USSR the
number one land force
○ France and Britain became second rank powers
○ USSR became the main regional power
● Economic Reasons
○ USA economy was strengthened by the war → committed to open trade
○ USA used strength to return economic stability in Europe
○ USSR became a strong neighbour in Eastern Europe
● Political Reasons
○ democracy and collaboration triumphed in WW2
○ Communism gained widespread respect
○ Role of the Red Army defeating the Nazi gave Stalin leverage
○ Communism could fill the vacuum in Eastern Europe

29
Wartime Conferences Agreements:
Tehran 1943 Yalta Feb 1945 Potsdam 1945

Germany ● main objective was ● ACC agreed to ● each zone would

unconditional splitting into 4 demilitarize
surrender of zones differently
Germany ● Germany would ● USSR was to receive
● wanted a weak have to pay $20 25% from West →
Germany billion (50% would food in exchange
● Operation Overlord go to the USSR)
was a priority

Poland ● USSR was to keep ● USSR-Poland -

all territory that was border → Curzon
seized in 1939 Line
● Percentage ● Poles would gain
Agreement territory from
Germany

Eastern ● Soviet Annexation ● Free elections -

Europe of the Baltic States,
parts of Finland
and Romania
● No physical/official
solution

Japan - ● Soviet Union to take -

South Sakhalin and
Kurile Islands
● USSR to join the
war

United Nations ● Established ● USSR to join UN ● Treaty of San

replacement for ● 5 permanent Francisco 1945 -
the League members of made UN official
security council +
veto power

Key Developments 1946-47:

● Salami Tactics - USSR
○ Soviets supervised the organization of governments in the Eastern European states
establishing a broad alliance of anti-fascists
○ Each of the parties was sliced off one after the other
○ Communist core was left
● Poland
○ Free elections did not occur until 1947
○ before elections there was murder, censorship and intimidation
○ Polish Peasant Party → 246 candidates were disqualified, 149 were arrested
○ one million votes were taken off the official register
● Iran
○ USSR left 30000 troops in the North → encouraged a communist uprising

30
 ○ UN forced USSR to pull out
● Greece and Turkey
○ anti-imperialist rebellions → Churchill felt betrayed
● Italy and France
○ Communist parties increased in membership
○ West feared that these countries could be weak-links in anti-communist western
europe

Kennan's Long Telegram 1946:

● Key idea: USSR system was buoyed by the threat of a hostile world outside its borders and
that the USSR was fanatically and implacably hostile to the west. Strong resistance was
encouraged
● USSR view of the world was one of insecurity
● Soviets wanted to advanced Stalinist ideology
● Soviet regime was cruel and repressive
● Telegram helped harden attitudes in the US → key role in the development of containment

Iron Curtain Speech:

● By 1946, Soviet dominated Communist governments were set up in Poland, Hungary,
Romania and Bulgaria.
○ despite agreement of free elections at Yalta
● Red Army was also present in countries liberated from Germany by the Russians
● Soviet reaction to the speech was one of outrage
○ Churchill was compared to Hitler
○ Soviets withdrew from the IMF
○ Stepped up intensity on anti-Western propaganda
○ Initiated a new 5-year plan of self-strengthening

Truman Doctrine (1947):

● “USA had the obligation to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by
armed minorities or by outside pressures”
● Radical change in US policy (from isolationism)
● Doctrine was in response to the unstable conditions in Turkey and in particular Greece
○ US sent money to Europe in the hope of aiding recovery
● USSR saw this as evidence of determination of the US to expand its sphere of influence

Marshall Plan:
● Marshall believed that the economies of Western Europe needed immediate help from the
USA
● Economic extension of the Truman Doctrine
● USA invited the USSR to join the Marshall Plan and claimed that this aid was not directed
against any country
● Aims:
○ revive European working economies so that the political and social stability could
ensue
○ safeguard the future of the US economy
● Soviets rejected Marshall Aid → USA had asked to see their financial records
○ Soviets felt the USA was establishing an European Empire
31
 ■ saw this as dollar imperialism
○ in response developed the Molotov Plan → creation of the COMECON 1949
■ linked Eastern bloc countries to Moscow → designed to stimulate and control
their economic development

Red Army Occupation of Eastern Europe 1945-47:

● Creation of a satellite empire
○ Soviet military power
○ Salami tactics
○ state policy + spy networks
○ control through COMECON
● By 1948, satellite states were economically and militarily under the control of the USSR
○ West felt that the USSR went back on their agreement at Yalta
Czechoslovak Coup Feb 1948:
● Czechoslovakia expressed interest in the Marshall Plan
○ pity from the West due to Munich Agreement in 1938
○ USSR forced CZK to vote against → threatened with an armed intervention
■ Truman used the coup to implement the Marshall Plan
Berlin Crisis 1948:
● Berlin was the only place where soldiers came in direct contact
● British wanted to revive the economy while the Soviets wanted to weaken Germany
○ contrast in aims
● Allies decided to join the regions → bizonia
○ USSR saw this as a threat
● Currency reform in the joined zones → new deutschmark
● USSR wanted the West out of Berlin
○ Blockade was an attempt to kick them out
● West reacted with the Berlin airlift → Operation pickles
○ 2k Tonnes of supplies per day
○ sent B29 Bombers
○ Counter-blockade of coal, steel and machines
● Blockade caused a lack of food for the winter, electricity only 4 hours a day
○ USSR failed to drive the West out of Berlin → Stalin called it quits
● Berlin Blockade triggered the creation of the German Democratic Republic
● East and West Germany were officially established
● NATO was formed → symbolized military division of Europe
● No solution for Germany → aims were not met

32
2.2 The Cold War Goes Global

US Foreign Policy 1949-50:

● With the establishment of NATO, the US was optimistic about containment in Europe
● NATO’s power rested in the atomic bomb
○ did not invest large sums of money into developing conventional forces in Western
Europe
■ the US had demobilized their fighting men
● 1949 - USSR developed their own nuclear bomb and China fell to Communism
○ bomb was tested successfully → much more quickly than the USA had anticipated

The Red Scare + McCarthyism:

● anti-communism
○ “USSR had conspiracy to place communist sympathisers into key positions in
American life
○ accusation led to purges and show trials
○ 1950 → anti-red → developed anti-communist public opinion
■ saw China as completely subserved to the Moscow regime
● domestic impacts
○ development of american propaganda
■ Big Lie
○ Investigated Hollywood “Secret Actors Guild”
■ Hollywood 10 wouldn’t cooperate → imprisoned and black listed
○ USA feared that communism would undermine their freedom
○ Crusade against communism paved the way for the republicans
○ Rosenberg Trial → high point of hysteria
○ Communist treason stayed in American democracy for decades
● foreign policy impacts
○ initiated Crusade for Freedom
■ funded by the CIA
■ beginning of spy network and espionage

NSC-68 “Total Commitment”

● NSC-68 was a report produced by the US National Security Council
○ warned how all communist activity everywhere could lead to Moscow
○ warned of an indefinite period of tension and danger → monolithic communism
○ military spent $35-50 billion
○ encouraged giving money to any country perceived by the USA to be resisting
communism
○ economic and military aid
○ has been criticized as an excuse for US expansionism

33
Korean War 1950-53:
● Until 1945 the Japanese were in charge of Korea, following their loss, it was split into 2, North
Korea and South Korea.
● The entire region is politically unstable, resulting in war on the 25th of June 1950 between the
two sides.
○ USA was supporting the South Koreans with troops and overall expertise.
● All leaders had different motivations for getting involved in Korea
○ Kim Il Sung
■ wanted to unify Korea - asked for Soviet help
■ told Mao that Stalin supported the invasion
○ Mao
■ only agreed because he believed that Stalin supported Kim
■ hoped Stalin would support the invasion of Taiwan
■ feared an American invasion of China
○ Stalin
■ approved the North invasion
■ sent advisors to North Korea
■ opportunism due to the events in Japan - saw it as a safe gamble
○ Truman
■ policy of containment
■ fear of monolithic communism
■ pressured the UN to get involved to support the South
■ domino theory
● Countries were affected differently due to the events in Korea
○ USA
■ NSC-68 tripled the defense budget
■ Germany was rearmed and became part of NATO
■ Greece and Turkey became part of NATO
■ Condemned China as being an aggressor
■ Treaty of San Francisco was signed with Japan in 1952
■ Seventh Fleet was sent to Taiwan
■ Involvement in Vietnam and Philippines
○ Korea
■ All hope for reunification was lost
○ China
■ No longer relied on Soviet help
■ Became major superpower in the Asian region
○ USSR
■ Tensions with the West greatly increased
○ South East Asia
■ SEATO was formed - anti communist bloc

34
Containment in Asia:
● Japan
○ USA occupied Japan in 1945 - objective was to create a weak and pacifist country
■ demilitarized and introduced a new constitution
■ 1950 - introduced the Reverse Course because they needed a strong
anti-communist country (established a self defense force of 75000 men)
■ USA achieved their aim and Japan’s economy increased rapidly and there was
no threat of communism spreading
● Taiwan
○ When North Korea attacked South Korea, US 7th fleet was sent to Taiwan to keep
peace between the Nationalists and Communists
■ Taiwan was recognized as the only official Chinese state (given military and
economic aid)
○ 1953 - US withdrew troops to unleash Chiang Kaishek
○ Formosa Resolution - any and all military action would be taken in order to save
Taiwan (brinkmanship and massive retaliation)
○ Taiwan managed to maintain independence
● Vietnam
○ Domino effect - US failed to contain communism in Indochina
○ America’s biggest failure → indirectly fostered the growth of communist regimes in
Cambodia and Laos

New Leaders, New Ideas - increased tensions in the 1950s:

● Roll Back -liberation of countries currently held by the Soviets in Eastern Europe
● New Look - preventing the extension of Soviet Communism outside of the areas where it was
already established in the belief that without any opportunity to expand the Soviet system
would collapse on itself
● Brinkmanship - using threats of massive retaliation as an instrument of Containment. Involved
threatening nuclear war to intimidate the aggressor into backing down
● Coexistence - meant that capitalism and communism should accept the continuing existence
of one another rather than using force

Berlin Crisis 1958-61:

● East Germany and West Germany were incredibly different from an economic and political
standpoint
○ East Germany
■ forced collectivization and socialisation
■ hardship + bad living conditions
■ authoritarian state (stalinism)
■ riots 1953 - first major rebellion in the sphere of influence
■ no free elections
○ West Germany
■ great industrial output
■ received Marshall Aid
■ democracy
■ capitalism + political freedom

35
 ● 40000 people a day were fleeing to the West, Khrushchev pushed Kennedy to get out of
Berlin
● Kennedy did not get out of Berlin and increased military spending
● Khrushchev was forced to build a wall to stop people from crossing the border and fleeing
● Significance of Wall’s construction
○ Khrushchev - wall was a defeat (admission that communist propaganda failed)
○ Ulbricht - did not get peace treaty he wanted but consolidated communist control in
East Berlin
○ Citizens - horrifying experience as families were cut off from each other
○ Cold War - Germany issue was settled and USA was relieved that war was averted.
Moved Cold War focus away from Europe

Cuban Missile Crisis 1960-63:

● Historiography
○ Orthodox
■ Kennedy’s finest hour → avoided nuclear brinkmanship to preserve world
peace
■ Blockade exerted maximum pressure on the Soviet union while incurring the
minimum risk of war
■ Kennedy remained calm and did not attempt to humiliate Khrushchev - acted
statesmanlike
○ Revisionist
■ Kennedy unnecessarily raised the cuban episode to a crisis and thus
subjected the world to nuclear danger
■ Kennedy made the crisis public
■ Acted in self-interest
○ Post Revisionist
■ Kennedy did act in a statesmanlike way and was prepared to compromise
■ ExComm meetings showed him pushing for compromise
■ Cuba/Turkey trade off was a good call
● Effects on the Cold War
○ USA
■ Kennedy’s personal prestige increased
■ showed US into realizing the fragility of its own security
■ increased the US focus on building military strength
○ USSR
■ crisis humiliated Khrushchev
■ contributed to his eventual fall from power in 1964
○ Cuba
■ Castro remained in power
■ pursued foreign policy independent of Moscow
○ China
■ relationship with the USSR deteriorated
■ still developed nuclear weapons independently
○ International
■ world was made a safer (more secular) place
■ hotline was established between USSR and USA
■ Test-Ban Treaty 1964
36
 ■ Nuclear non-proliferation Treaty of 1968

Sino-Soviet Relations 1945-1982:

● Stalin and Mao 1945-53
○ Stalin felt that Mao’s interpretation of Marxism was not genuine and disagreed with
using peasants
○ feared each other as rivals in the communist world
○ did not want the Cold War to spread to Asia
○ Stalin underestimated the CCP and believed the GMD was the stronger party
○ Mao was convinced Stalin wanted a weak and divided China
○ Sino-Soviet Treaty of Alliance
○ Korean War - USSR demanded that China pay for all weapons and materials
● Khrushchev and Mao 1956-64
○ Secret Speech 1956 - Mao saw it as an attack on his own leadership
○ Crushing of the Hungarian uprising - Mao saw it as a failure by the USSR to contain
reactionary forces
○ Doctrine of Peaceful Coexistence with the West
○ Mao believed the USSR was dominated by Revisionists
○ Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
● Brezhnev and Mao 1968-82
○ Brezhnev followed Stalinist foreign policy
○ Mao condemned his use of force in CZK - 1968 Prague Spring
○ Sino-Soviet border war in 1969
○ Brezhnev criticized the Cultural Revolution
○ USSR refused to assist China in building nuclear weapons
○ SEA conflict - Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia

Detente 1970s:
● Why did the following want detente?
○ USA
■ wanted troops out of Vietnam (30k were killed by 1969)
■ political pressure at home and protests were developing
■ improve relations with USSR and get Chinese to negotiate
○ USSR
■ had poor relations with China so they did not want to have poor relations with
the USA as well
■ there was no formal treaty recognizing East Germany and they wanted one
○ China
■ did not want to be isolated by the West

● How did detente lead to an improvement in European relations?

○ East Germany was recognized as an actual state
○ Ostpolitik - open relations
○ Cracks were allowed in the German wall - separated families could see each other
○ USA allowed China to take a seat in the Security Council

37
● What were the main agreements made under detente?
○ Moscow Treaty 1970 - recognized borders of Germany and Polish-Western border
○ Moscow Summit 1972 - restrictions on offensive weapons (mutually agreed restraint)
○ Helsinki Treaty 1975 - issue of human rights
■ recognized European borders
■ encouraged cooperation in space race
○ SALT 1 1972 - ABM Treaty, Interim Treaty, Basic Principles Agreement
○ SALT 2 1979
○ Basic Treaty 1972 - West Germany now recognized East Germany

● Why did detente collapse?

○ Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979
■ USA was convinced the USSR only wanted to spread their influence
● The Americans began providing arms to the Afghan rebels whom
turned out to be radicals.
○ USA didn’t sign SALT 2, stopped electronic exports, forbade athletes from attending
the 1980 Moscow Olympics
○ Carter Doctrine - committed the US to intervention if the USSR threatened Western
interests in the Persian Gulf
○ Soviet involvement in Africa and Latin America
○ Yom Kippur War - USA believed the USSR knew about the Egyptian attack on Israel
before it happened
○ USA felt the USSR benefited from the Helsinki agreement on arms development

38
Paper 1 Topics: Communism in Crisis
1.1 China 1976-2000
Struggle for Power after Mao’s death:

Key Individuals Aims

Rightists ● Zhou Enlai - Prime Minister ● Supported economic reform

○ enlisted Deng
Xiaoping as an ally
● allowed peasants to form smaller
communes
● wanted China to become a strong
industrial power
● wanted more pragmatic methods to
avoid another GLF

Leftists ● Gang of Four (Jiang Qing, Yao ● replaced arts with productions which
Wenyuan, Zhang Chunqiao, celebrated communist revolution
Wang Hongwen) ● communes to become self-sufficient
○ controlled in grain
propaganda ● emphasis on manual labor rather
● Hua Guofeng than education
● argued that revolutionary ideology
was important (wanted to continue
with Cultural Revolution)

● Defeat of the Gang of Four 1976-81:

○ Hua Guofeng plotted to have the Gang of Four arrested
■ all members were called to an emergency meeting
■ statement was made made accusing Gang of Four of plotting to assassinate
Hua Guofeng
● Gang became isolated and lacked support from PLA
○ 1980 - Gang of Four Trial
■ allowed them to be forgotten and for rightists to consolidate power
■ trial provided the opportunity to criticize the horrors of the cultural revolution
■ emotional release and settling of accounts
■ political revenge for rightists - Deng gets revenge
■ provided the opportunity to question Mao and his ideology

39
Deng’s Four Modernizations 1978-85
● Deng wanted to modernize agriculture, industry, national defense and science and
technology
● He believed this would allow for the economic recovery of China

Policy Methods Results Successful?

Household ● peasants could take ● annual grain ● contracts

Responsibility out a contract and rent production increased
Scheme a plot increased until ● however after
● commune production 1984 1984 product
teams (decide what to ● agricultural decreased
grow and how much) value because
● farmers had total increased until farmers did not
control over 1984 want to invest
production process in land they
did not own

Sichuan ● more independence ● slow progress ● inflation rates

Experiment ● more freedom ● GDP increased increased
● increased productivity ● farmers grew ● govt had to
● increase freedom for richer restrain the
private businesses economy
● sell surplus goods ● increased
● market reforms to unemploymen
protect private t
investments ● not all
business
wanted to take
part of the
reform

Special ● promote open door ● Foreign Direct ● SEZs allowed

Economic policy Investment foreign
Zones ● Foreign Joint Venture grew for 10 thoughts and
● companies were years ideas
encouraged to set up ● Exports grew
factories rapidly
● capitalist zones were ● Chinese debt
created increased

● Were the Four Modernizations a success?

○ Arguments For
■ peasants benefitted from how hard they worked as individuals
■ HRS expanded rapidly and production increased
■ collectivization of agriculture was over
■ small workshops could be set up by individuals
■ SEZs attracted Foreign Direct Investment (more capitalism)
■ Wages and living conditions improved in SEZs
■ better quality goods were produced
○ Arguments Against
40
 ■ bribery and corruption scandals 1985
■ gap between the poor and rich grew massively
■ pressure built for internal migration
■ rapid economic growth put a strain on the infrastructure
■ production could not always keep up with demand → inflation
■ high levels of unemployment

Fifth Modernization - Democracy:

● Why was Deng willing to allow a democracy wall in Beijing?
○ echoed his call for reform within the party
○ wanted to display posters/criticism against the Left
○ criticism of the cultural revolution

● Why did Deng decide to close down the democracy wall?

○ no longer needed the support of the protestors
○ considered democracy and a multi-party system to be dangerous for China
○ wanted to assure there would be no arbitrary harassment of revisionists
○ people also started to criticize his party → feared criticism against himself

● Why did students protest in 1986?

○ wanted changes in the electoral system → supported Fang Lizhi
○ party tried to create an illusion of change but nothing actually happened
○ Deng was still paramount leader

Tiananmen Square Incident 1989:

● April - Hu Yaobang died
○ students who saw Hu as their strongest supporter marched to Tiananmen square
○ asked for the following reforms
■ pro-democracy policies to be restored
■ freedom of information and press
■ end corruption
■ investment in education
○ all demands were decided against
● May - hunger strike
○ Zhao Ziyang walked amongst the students and apologized
○ students were joined by workers and residents
● June - 600-1200 dead, 6000-100000 injured
● Impact of the Tiananmen Square Incident on China
○ domestic population was frightened by suppression of freedom of speech
○ Beijing Spring - demonstrations
○ clampdown of democracy movement
○ widespread arrests and executions
○ return to a rigid climate of censorship and repression
○ Party leaders saw it as a way to condemn the 4 modernizations
○ International condemnation of the events

41
42
1.2 USSR 1976-1989
Economic Stagnation:
● Causes
○ since 1929 USSR = command economy system
■ central control, terror, propaganda
■ Khrushchev took over after Stalin’s death → population growth decreased,
resources almost ran out, machinery became obsolete
○ workers wanted to be paid for time spent at work
○ low targets were set → did not try to increase production
○ decrease in birth rate meant a decrease in supply of workers
○ arms race took up a huge quantity of resources
○ oil crisis 1973 → affected global politics and global economy
● Effects
○ some increase in production in the 8th FYP
○ overall decline in coal production
○ abundance of oil → no one tried to increase production
○ collective farms were inefficient
○ maintaining machinery became incredibly difficult
○ difficult to transport and store food
○ some increase in living conditions and incentive

Political Stagnation:
● Causes
○ Khrushchev’s radical initiatives were reserved
○ Brezhnev personified a more passive and more conservative administration
○ When Khrushchev was removed, policies were introduced to restore the USSR to a
more stable and predictable leadership
○ More traditional political policies → liked by the politburo
● Effects
○ New Constitution 1977
■ constitution banned opposition
■ elections held every 5 years instead of 4
■ freedom of speech
■ right to personal property
○ Proletarian Revolution succeeded
○ USSR was now referred as the ‘socialist state of the world’

Afghanistan War 1979-89

● Why did the USSR get involved?

○ Soviet advisors were sent into Afghanistan to help establish a new Communist
government
○ Brezhnev Doctrine → but refused to send troops
○ USSR feared the possibility of a Chinese or US influence Afghanistan
■ sent 40000 troops in one month

43
 ○ Feared Iranian/Pakistani border raids
○ Feared that a civil war would result in an Islamic Republic similar to the one installed
in Iran → USSR wanted to contain the spread of Islamic fundamentalism
○ Believed that the USSR had to support a regime that was openly communist

● How did the USA respond?

○ Soviet invasion was described as the biggest threat to world peace since WW2
○ Carter Doctrine 1980
■ any attempt to take control of Persian Gulf would be responded to using any
means necessary
■ sanctions were applied
■ boycott of 1980 Olympics
■ used to justify US involvement

● Why was it referred to as the Soviet Union’s Vietnam?

○ USSR was drawn into a war after the assassination of a leader with the intention to
restore order and create a client state
○ Easier to enter than leave → dragged on for a long time
○ 13000 killed, 30000 injured
○ Drain on the economy

● What was the significance of the war on the USSR?

○ Soviets found it difficult to withdraw → needed US support
○ Geneva Accords 1988
■ Afghanistan and Pakistan would not interfere in each other’s affairs
■ all troops to leave by April 1989
○ Soviets tried to consolidate the regime before they lost
○ Civil War continued until 1991

44
Gorbachev’s Aims and Policies:
→ Key Aim: to reform the USSR by improving the Communist system
Glasnost
Definition ● openness/transparency
(freedom of speech)
Methods ● people could elect party
officials to the local Soviet
● introduced universal suffrage
Impacts ● calls for a multiparty systems to
be set up → people wanted
CHANGE
● increased nationalism →
republics wanted
independence (eg: Georgia)
Successful?
Perestroika
● reconstruction (of economy and
of soviet system)
● allow peasants to lease plots of
land
● reduce age of party
● propaganda to raise awareness
with problems with working
conditions
● peasants were not allowed to
lease land
● regions began to ask for
independence
● economic reform led to a
shortage of goods
● miners went on strikes and
demanded trade unions
● Nomenklatura (these were
people whom held positions in
the Soviet Union which helped to
run all aspects of their peoples
lives. They had to be approved by
the specific country’s government
as well.) was against it because
they did not want to lose their
privileges
45
Collapse of the Soviet Satellite States:
Gorbachev was popular but the policies he adopted were not very successful, the restructuring of the
economy (perestroika) was not going that quickly. It was not modernizing at the rate that people
wanted. By 1989, Gorbachev didn’t really know what was going on or what to do. His reforms had
released all of the urges for freedom in the communist countries. In Eastern Europe, leaders were
confused, Gorbachev was proposing ideas that when proposed by Czechoslovakia in 1968 resulted in
tanks being sent to Prague. In March 1989 Gorbachev stated that the Red Army would not help the
communist governments, and that they had to listen to their people. Now that there wasn’t any red
army backing, many countries had to accept that the people wanted democracy:

● East Germany
○ October 1989, Gorby tells east Germany that his new penis enlargement pills really
work and that he wasn’t scammed this time, but more importantly he said that Soviets
will not stop protests in Germany
○ On november 4th, 1 million people demonstrated for democracy and free elections in
east berlin.
○ On november 9th, the East German government announced that the border would be
opened to west germany.
○ East and west germany were formally reunited on October 3rd 1990.
● Czechoslovakia
○ Jan 1989, 800 demonstrators arrested in Prague
○ Nov 1989, thousands protest demanding reform, govt brings Civic Forum opposition
into coalition govt, ends Communist Party “leading role”
○ Dec 1989, Vaclav Havel, first non-communist Pres since 1948
○ 1990, Civic Forum (alliance of anti-communist groups) wins democratic election
● Poland
○ 1988, nationwide strikes
○ Jan 1989, Jaruzelski agrees to talk with Solidarity
○ Feb 1989, “Round Table” talks begin
○ Apr 1989, “Round Table Agreement”, Solidarity can run candidates in June election
○ June 1989, Solidarity wins democratic elections, peaceful transition of power from
Jaruzelski. Mazowiecki becomes first non-communist PM in Eastern Europe
● Hungary
○ 1988, Gorby accepts multi-party idea in Hungary
○ Jan 1989, parliament enacts freedom of assembly and association
○ Feb 1989, communist party approves creation of multi-party system
○ Mar 1989, 100,000 protesters in Bucharest demand soviet troops removal
○ May 1989, hungarian troops remove barbed wire from Austrian border
○ June 1989, Nagy and other leaders killed in 1956 given state funeral
○ Sep 1989, hungary opens Hungary-Austria border
○ 1990, democratic elections won by Democratic Forum, alliance of anti-communist
groups
● Romania
○ 16th december 1989, Secret police fire on demonstrators in Timisoara
○ 5 days later huge crowds in Bucharest boos Ceausescu who flees but is later
captured
○ 22-24th december, Army joins rebellion and fights the secret police
○ Ceausescu and wife are shot on 25 december
46
 ○ Democratic election won by the National Salvation Front in 1990

HL Optional Topics:
2.1 20th Century China
2.1.1 Warlords, Nationalists and Communists 1912-28

Rule of Yuan Shikai (1912 - 1916)

● Parliamentary party → work within the Republican constitution
○ Sun Yatsen could do little to restrict Yuan Shikai
● China’s foreign loan 1913
○ consortium → dollar diplomacy
○ loan of 100 million dollars → China had to pledge security
○ loan meant that the Chinese had less independence
■ Japan was proved superior to China
● Second Revolution 1913
○ Yuan was accused of compromising China
○ GMD organized armed resistance
○ Yatsen fled to Japan → started to reconstruct party
○ Yuan imposed a series of restrictions → left him with crippling debts
● Japan’s 21 Demands 1915
○ WW1 provided Japan the opportunity to strengthen over China
○ demands created outbursts among the Chinese → Yuan surrendered
■ weakened his position as president
● Emperor 1916
○ Yuan never had absolute power
○ rather than unite the nation he created more opposition
■ some regions declared independence

Warlord Era 1916-1927

● Key Features
○ Absence of strong central government
■ each warlord ruled their province individually
○ No warlords were willing to submit to authority
○ Iron fist - oppression, fear, terror
○ GMD vs. Beijing for political control
● Impact
○ Govt. was split between rival factions → no uniformity
○ Republic was beginning to fragment
■ difficult to maintain a strong army
○ Revolutionary parties and feelings emerged
■ CCP/GMD - both developed during warlord era
■ desire to unite China under 1 Republic

47
May Fourth Movement (1919-1925):
● May 4th - sustained feeling of resentment in China
● Causes
○ 1914 - allies urged China to declare war on Germany
■ Japan prevented this because it did not want China to improve national
standing
■ Japan made a secret deal with Britain → threatened China to become a vassal
state
○ 1917 - USA joined war and urged China to do the same
■ Chinese were betrayed in post-war settlements
■ start of a Sino-Japanese alliance
● Consequences
○ Western Allies saw Chinese as coolies
○ TOV - rights went to Japan rather than China
■ went against promise made to Duan Qirui
○ Large protests began in China → attacks and boycotts
■ e.g. Qingdao incident
○ Revolutionary ideas to justify resistance
■ unrest continued throughout the 1920s

Development of Revolutionary Parties (1921-1925):

● GMD → led by Sun Yat-sen
○ Intense patriotism emerged
○ Reorganized party in China with Japanese support
○ May the 4th Movement helped him gain support
■ party was funded by expatriate chinese
○ ‘Three Principles of the People’ - 1923
■ national sovereignty
■ democracy
■ people’s welfare
■ → gave a moral purpose to the revolution
○ constructed military base in Guangzhou
■ Whampoa Military Academy
● CCP - 1921
○ inspired by the Russian Revolution in 1917 - admired Lenin and Marxism
○ Marxist - Leninist theory offered China means of restoring greatness
○ Chinese intellectuals turned towards Marxism
■ challenged Confucianism
○ Marxist ideology stated that capitalism would have eventually been overthrown
○ Comintern sent agents to China

First United Front

● Arguments For
○ Yatsen saw common ground between the 2 ideologies
○ Cooperation assured USSR security buffer against Japan
■ political division in China suited the USSR
○ CCP was initially too small to act on its own
48
 ○ Comintern supported the idea and gave economic support
○ Same aims → destroy warlords and unify China
○ May the 30th incident showed CCP and GMD that the way forward was military action
● Arguments Against
○ Chen Duxiu considered GMD aims to be imprecise
■ disturbed that GMD members came from moneyed bourgeois elements
■ 90% of funding came from Shanghai only
○ Comintern did not have full understanding of the situation in China

Northern Expedition:
● Aims
○ Crush the Warlord and their supply lines
○ Undeclared aim of crushing the Communists
● Communist Role
○ Made vital contribution as they supplied troops
■ caused trouble - sabotages, strikes, boycotts
○ Mao Zedong - front organizer and strong believer in cooperation
○ 1926 - CCP began to be purged (White Terror)
■ Communists were fooled by Chiang Kaishek
■ Chiang removed Wang Jing Wei from office
○ CCP and GMD outnumbered warlord army (250000 men)
○ Locals under rule of warlords disliked them
■ willing to comply with United Front
● Results
○ 1928 - Chiang achieved his aims
■ destruction of warlords was partial - they remained a significant factor in
Chinese politics
○ Chiang never gained full control of China
■ intensified his determination of destroying Communism
○ CCP criticized GMD saying that Chiang Kaishek was just another warlord

2.1.2 Nationalist Triumph and Communist Survival 1927-36

The White Terror 1927

● Chiang Kaishek judged the Northern Expedition would ultimately be successful against
warlords and intensified his attack on the Communists.
● Shanghai witnessed growth of trade union movement.
● With support of industrialists and merchants eager to crush trade unions and those frightened
by growing anti-foreigner demonstrations, Chiang attacked Shanghai.
● Using information passed to them by triads and Green Gang, executed 5000 Communists.
● Similar killings carried out by Chiang’s armies in other cities.
● CCP outwitted (loyal to Comintern, not realizing Chiang’s intentions)

Autumn Harvest Rising 1927

A belated CCP attempt of resistance led by Mao Zedong in Hunan.

49
 ● Intended to be more than military action – determined assertion of CCP’s independence and
deliberate defiance of Moscow’s order that the United Front must be maintained.
● Mao signed statement condemning Chiang Kaishek for his betrayal of Sun Yatsen’s memory
and destruction of revolutionary alliance.
● To prepare for rising, Mao had hoped to use his peasant associations to gather a 10,000 army.
● Only gathered a third, not enough force to threaten Nationalists. CCP troops scattered and
had to flee to Jiangxi.

Summary of White Terror 1927

● Aims
○ To destroy Communists and end United Front.
● Methods
○ GMD collaboration with Shanghai underworld gangs to expose and isolate
Communists
○ Violent suppression (execution) of Communists
● Consequences
○ Failure of rising convinced Mao to use guerilla tactics and avoid pitched battles.
○ Near extinction of CCP
○ Effective end of United Front
○ Communist flight to Jiangxi.
○ Increase in GMD power.

Nationalist China: success or failure?

Success Failure

● gained international recognition ● Did not tackle economic and social

○ was internationally recognized
as a legitimate government
● Internal reforms
○ created system of govt + law
○ Shanghai Stock Market
○ modernized infrastructure
○ Nationalist Resources
Commission
○ developed education
issues
○ poverty, drug trade, famine
○ associated with criminal
association (Green Gang)
● China was not unified
● Manchuria 1931
● Capitalism (Western Values) stayed
● 3 principles failed
● New Life Movement failed
● Policies solely focused on rich
industrialists
● Chiang was too obsessed with
destroying Communists

The Jiangxi Soviet 1928-34

● Mao and fellow refugees established first Chinese Soviet in Jiangxi.
● Provided Mao with chance to develop his concept of revolution in China
● Due to China’s size and population distribution: Chinese revolution must be based on rural
peasants, not urban workers.
● Comintern advice would be ignored.

50
Mao Zedong’s Advantages
● His denunciation of the now discredited United Front added to political reputation (those that
had supported maintaining United Front lost popularity).
● Mao judged the White Terror confirmed his principles that GMD-CCP cooperation would
destroy Chinese Communist movement.
● Resolved that CCP must become a separate, independent force.
● Realized GMD concerned solely with establishing its own dominance.
● Revolution had to come from rural areas.

Mao Zedong’s View of Revolution

● Believed United Front had been based on false reading of China’s situation.
● Mao was in defiance of Comintern instructions of urban revolution
● Comintern policy ignored greater majority of China’s population: peasants
● 205 million agricultural workers vs. 3 million industrial workers
● Made peasants the dynamic of the Chinese revolution and his belief in revolutionary potential
of peasantry inspired organization of CCP organization in Jiangxi 1928-34
● Taught the Reds that there was no necessity to wait for growth of a proletariat, but that
genuine revolution would be achieved by peasants.

Mao Zedong’s Opposition

● Orthodox urban communists
● Li Lisan and Chen Duxui (continued to support Marxist belief in urban revolution)
● Failed to make Mao conform
● Mao recruited peasants into ranks of the party
● CCP was actually making gains in countryside rather than cities

The Futian Incident 1930

● Illustrated Mao’s ruthlessness
● Mao insisted on correctness of his interpretations and in fighting for his position within the
party
● Two month purge of rival unit within Jiangxi Red Army whose members he suspected of
either being GMD agents or supporters of Li Lisan.
● Torture and execution of nearly 3000 officers
● Secret police to expose ringleaders of revolt

MAOISTS: illustrated his ruthlessness, yet also willingness to take hard decisions and grip of realities
(without he could not have survived)

ANTI-MAOISTS: illustrated his uncompromising determination to eliminate rivals who blocked his
path to personal power.

Party Struggles at Jiangxi - ideological battle

Futian Incident didn’t end opposition to Mao
● Ongoing battle for authority in party
51
 ● Major challengers were Wang Ming and Bo Gu (Twenty-eight Bolsheviks)
● Criticized for same reasons as by Li Lisan line: criticized by pro-Moscow party elements for
ignoring Comintern instructions and acting independently and rural revolution.
● Accused Mao of defying will of party by not following Stalinist line (response: no matter how
eminent, foreign communists had not sufficient knowledge of China to dictate policies)
● Called upon peasants being too severely treated by landlords and rich peasants – accused of
being Rightist
● Mao Survived Criticism:
○ He was an outstanding general. CCP could not cope without his military skills.
○ Due to field research, he had unrivalled knowledge of Chinese knowledge –
dominated discussion on peasant policies.
○ By 1934 Nationalist threat to Jiangxi – physical survival became priority.

GMD’s Encirclement Campaigns 1929-34

● Nationalists constant attempts to crush Jiangxi base
○ German-trained forces attacked CCP on point of squeezing them to destruction
● Chiang Kaishek wanted to complete White Terror
● 1929 – adopted series of encirclement campaigns aimed at denying resources to Reds until
they broke.
● Campaigns were successful – by 1934 convinced Mao to leave Jiangxi base to survive.
● Set off on the Long March

The Long March 1934-5

● A year long march which ended as a legend
○ desperate attempt to avoid annihilation
● 1935 finally reached sanctuary in Yanan
○ A prodigious physical achievement
○ Overcame range of natural hazards
○ Resisted constant Nationalist attacks
○ Sheer survival of marchers seen as triumph
● Characteristics of Long March
○ Journey from Jiangxi to Yanan took one year (October 1934 – October 1935)
○ Covered a distance of 6,250 miles (New York to Los Angeles and back)
○ March crossed 11 provinces, 18 mountain ranges, 24 rivers and numerous desert areas
○ Marchers fought 15 battles and almost daily skirmishes against GMD forces
○ Occupied 60 towns and cities
○ Only 20,000 of the 100,000 marchers to Yanan survived
● Zunyi Meeting 1935
○ By the time they reached Yan'an, Mao had achieved remarkable supremacy in military
and political counsels of CCP
○ Crucial party gathering held at Zunyi
○ Mao successfully exposed the urban Reds as being out of touch with CCP’s real
needs
○ Claimed they brought the party it its present crisis by abandoning guerilla tactics (and
instead opting for pitched battles in urban areas)
○ In key vote majority supported Mao
○ Zunyi meeting and vote marked the end of the predominating influence of
pro-Moscow urban element in the CCP
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 ○ Dispute about route Red armies should follow: Zhang Guotao (Mao rival) wanted to go
west to take them closer to Russian protection.
○ Mao insisted to take Northern route – resulted to be best route
○ This vindication of Mao’s judgment increased his standing in CCP
○ Arrived as leading figure of CCP in Yanan
● Significance of Long March
○ Created legend of Communist heroism
○ Physical scale gave political significance (strength of Communists to survive march
and GMD attacks)
○ Concept of martyrdom for the cause became enshrined in Communist tradition
○ Comradeship, dedication and self-sacrifice became watchwords of party
○ March created brotherhood amongst survivors (strengthened Party)
○ Communists able to spread ideology to peasants (passed through 11 provinces, 60
towns)
○ Propaganda victory for CCP (distance travelled and struggles, yet able to survive)
○ Failure to destroy Red Army damaged GMD’s reputation
○ Mao’s rise to power in CCP as independent leader
○ End of pro-Moscow urban element’s dominance within CCP
○ Yanan provided base for growth of CCP

2.1.3 Mao Zedong and the Communists at Yanan 1936-45

The Communists at Yanan 1935-45

● Yanan attracted foreign Communist sympathizers
● Mao’s experiment in creating a new way of Chinese living
● Caves built to accommodate Communists
● Growing their own food (although not much, staved off the hunger)
● Reliable, if meager food supplies, schools and hospitals in Yanan provided its inhabitants with
a degree of security and welfare (which previously unimaginable)
● Collective confidence of communist achievements (Long March- reason their hardship had
not been in vain)
● Developed an agricultural economy to survive
● Yanan Communists grew and sold opium (raised CCP income up to 40%)

Mao’s Political Ideas

● Mao was able to give practical form to his belief that revolution must come from peasants
● Mao rejected the Comintern belief that CCP could only achieve a genuine proletarian
revolution by creating a bourgeoisie stage.
● Mao’s conviction that peasant revolution to would fulfill the dialectical imperative
● Mao’s definition of proletariat: those who were genuinely committed to revolution or suffered
oppression at the hands of class enemies.
● Mao was able to dominate pro-Moscow urban elements and to accept his ideology (due to
geographical distance from Yanan to Soviet influence)
● Able to establish unmatched authority and impose his ideas (Futian Incident, Zunyi Meeting)

The Xi'an Incident 1936

53
 ● Although Comintern continued to attempt to dictate how CCP should run, Yanan provided
Mao the opportunity to develop his independent political theories and program.
● Red Army went into countryside to impose Communism on local people
● Continued attacks by Nationalists
● Origins of Xian Incident
○ Japanese forces invaded Chinese provinces (clear sign they intended occupation)
○ Chiang Kaishek responded low-key and defensive
○ Believed China was too large a country to be occupied by Japanese
○ Believed protracted occupation would mean war and eventual defeat of Japan
● The drawback of Chiang’s strategy
○ Policy of avoiding direct conflict with Japan brought political dangers
○ Chiang’s supporters found it difficult to maintain loyalty
○ Chiang struggled in resisting internal opposition
○ 1935 damaged further damaged Chiang’s reputation when instead of confronting
Japanese who spread into six northern provinces and Manchuria, made an agreement
with Japan.e
○ Withdrew GMD forces and accepted occupied provinces and autonomous regions to
be administered by pro-Japanese officials
○ Resulted in protests and outrage (9 December Movement)
● Mutiny at Xi'an
○ Dissatisfaction with Chiang within GMD troops 1936 when marched to Xian to crush
Communists
○ Chiang was seized by his own troops and embarrassed by Zhang Xueling - convinced
by CCP
○ Chiang Kaishek was arrested, handed over to Zhou Enlai (Mao’s closest colleague)
○ Offered to spare his prisoner’s life if he promised to end his persecution of CCP and
lead a genuine resistance against the Japanese
○ Calculated risk by CCP to not kill Chiang Kaishek – propaganda victory for CCP
○ Had shown remarkable restraint in forgoing party advantage for sake of the nation
○ Communists could now claim to be genuine nationalists whose prime motivation was
their love of China as expressed in their willingness to fight under Chiang’s leadership
○ Undermined GMD’s claim to be sole representative of China
○ Communists gained temporary relief of Nationalist attacks which they used to
develop Yanan Soviet

The role of the Red Army

● Mao’s aims
○ Mao realised that the CCP had to assert itself as a military power
○ There was the fact that the CCP had to be able to fight
○ Also, and possibly more importantly, as shown by the long march, Red Army was an
excellent propaganda tool
○ He also realised that the Red Army had to be popular among the peasants. Mao had
realised that the Red Army had to contrast itself from the warlords and imperialists to
get peasant support
○ The idea of New Democracy communism based not on classes, but on national
principles (appeal due to Japanese in Manchuria) where we aimed to unite all classes
of society in the movement
● Methods
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 ○ Mao urged the Red Army to be follow a code of conduct. It included to help the
peasants when possible and not to hurt them when avoidable.
○ To encourage unity, land from landlords who collaborated with the Japanese was
seized.
○ Enforced a policy against the ridiculous rents peasants had to pay otherwise (this was
to reduce peasant exploitation)
○ These were often done with the help of a collaboration with the peasant associations
(this often made non-party members of society feel like they directly helped
themselves)
○ They also implemented education and literacy schemes to help peasants
● Effects
○ These policies lead to a massive increase in party membership, from 40,000 to
1,000,000
○ The expansion in membership supplied the Red Army volunteers
○ It was still very harsh and authoritarian. As Edgar Snow put it, it was an “indescribable
reign of terror”
○ While life under Mao at this stage was safe and secure to those who conformed, it
was terrible to those who chose to rebel

“Rectification of Conduct” Campaign (1942-1944)

● Aims and Ideas
○ Revolutionary Correctness: the idea that unless members of the party constantly
fought against “wrong thinking”, they would stray. Mao feared that the party would
transform into a bureaucratic elitist party
● Methods
○ Party members were encouraged to self criticise
○ Usage of Kang Sheng. He dressed in black and wore all black, primarily because it
probably made him look fucking bad-ass as fuck. He felt that up to 70% of the party
members had revisionist ideas. He made it his job to expose and punish them. Many
victims were tortured and arrested
○ Notable example is the treatment of Wang Shiwei. After refusing to withdraw his
critical work towards the party. He was put in prison for life, and was executed in 1947,
where his body was chopped into many small pieces and dumped in a river
● Effects
○ Kang Sheng had purged upto 1,000 CCP members.
○ Up to 60 communist officials committed suicide, rather than “self criticise”
○ The brutal treatment of Wang Shiwei scared many party official, who in turn started to
self criticise
○ Mao further rid opposition and consolidated power as leader
○ Mao destroyed the pro-Moscow section of the party (some significant within the
party)
○ Mao’s cult status was born in Yanan
○ The party had so closely followed Mao’s ideas that it took shape as a Maoist party
○ Mao’s election as Chairman of the Central Committee made his power and dominance
over the party official

Mao and the USSR during Yanan

● Reasons for Decline in support
55
 ○ Soviet help was falling for the CCP since they were straying far from Moscow and
Stalin’s brand of communism. Stalin’s aim had been to make the CCP conform to his
ideas of Marxist revolution
○ This justified how Mao had constantly worked to suppress and destroy the
pro-Moscow wing of the party
○ Mao’s success in resisting Moscow’s ideas made Stalin say things like “they are white
at heart, even though they wear red jackets”, suggesting that the CCP was only
communist in name
○ Self interest played its part. USSR felt that the GMD were much stronger than the CCP.
This was to create a buffer from the Japanese expansionism
● Dissolution of the Comintern 1943
○ In 1943, Stalin destroyed the comintern. This was to impress the USA by showing that
the USSR no longer exported revolution. This was actually just temporary since it was
brought back in 1947 (cominform)
○ It also served as a message that the USSR could no longer attempt to control the
communist ideas springing in China, which is how Mao saw it as.
○ It represented Chinese freedom from Russian ideas

2.1.4 The Japanese Occupation of China 1931-45

Origins of Sino-Japanese Hostility

● Why would Japan want to invade at all?
○ Japan had a growing population. High tariffs by the US meant that the Japanese didn’t
have the money needed to buy resources
○ There was genuine feeling that Japan could not survive as nation without imperialism,
shown by Tanaka Memorial (1927) “The very existence of our country is endangered”
and also shown in the formation of the Greater East Asian Co-prosperity Sphere
○ Great Depression meant that Japan couldn’t export (since nobody was willing or able
to buy exports)
● Why Manchuria?
○ Over 80% of all of Japan’s foreign investment was in China, a great chunk of it being in
Manchuria
○ China accounted for up to 25% of Japan’s trade’s and Manchuria was the primary
import-export region

Actual Occupation
● Justification: the Shenyang Incident
○ We know why Japan actually invaded, but they used the Shenyang Incident to justify
their actions
○ Members of the Guandong army devised a plot which went like
■ Blow up part of Shenyang railway
■ Blame Chinese saboteurs
■ “Punish them” and take control of Manchuria in the process
■ profit

56
 ○ The Guandong army, who were in agreement with the war party back in Tokyo,
actually did appeal to the government to authorise the punishment, but they didn’t
end up waiting and attacked anyway instead
○ Chiang Kai Shek actually appealed to the LoN for help, but, in typical LoN style, they
did nothing more than condemn
○ Japan completely ignored these condemnations and actually left the league in 1933
● Manchukuo
○ Japan showed that they had power over Manchuria by renaming it Manchukuo
○ They declared it an independent Chinese nation, with Pu Yi (the son of the emperor)
as the head, who was really just a puppet.
● Further Japanese Expansion
○ 1932, Japanese troops invaded Shanghai, but this time they met resistance. Cai
Tingkai led Shanghai troops into a counter-attack, which meant that the Japanese had
to come to terms with the Chinese, led to creation of a jointly run Shanghai
○ But, the “Jointly run” govt was really just Japanese dominated, and Chinese workers
became collaborators, hated by the Chinese people and despised by the Japanese
● The importance of the Manchurian Invasion
○ It proved to be the start of a conflict from 1931-1945
○ Shaped internal politics of China, and initially, seemed to actually unify China, against
a common enemy. But the unity was more a charade rather than genuine
○ Chiang Kai Shek was still obsessed with destroying the communists, rather than
actually doing anything about the Japanese (the guy was a fucking obsessive cunt)
○ Chiang believed that giving Japan space was the best policy, since Japan would never
be able to conquer a country as massive as China

Key Features of Japanese Occupation

● Large scale Japanese Occupation of China
○ made rapid advances down eastern seaboard
○ Chinese had a response of appeasement and resistance
● Double Seventh
○ minor clash at Marco Polo bridge
○ Japan demanded that the GMD yield even more authority
○ Sakai Ryu claimed that the “Chinese are bacteria infesting world civilization”
● Rape of Nanking 1937
○ December 1937 - city fell to Japanese
○ month long of murder and terror
■ 300000 dead
■ 20000 girls were raped
■ half the city was burned to ashes
● 100 Regiments Offensive 1940
○ United Front - but fought as separate armies
○ showed dedication for Anti-Japanese Resistance
● Japanese “3 alls”
○ kill all, burn all, loot all
○ regained territory that was lost in the 100 regiments offensive
● Chinese Collaboration
○ East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
● ‘New Government of China’
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 ○ Wang Jingwei

Significance of USA in war

● 7th December - Operation Tora Tora
○ Attack on Pearl Harbor
■ Aim was to disable American military - gamble failed
● China + USA
○ War became world war
○ Allies used China to defeat Japan
○ By 1945, USA invested $1bn in China
○ USA gave boost to Chiang Kai Shek as a leader
○ USA didn’t immediately recognize the importance of CCP
■ Alliance with Communist USSR showed that conflicting ideology should not
be a barrier to cooperation
● Chiang Kai shek strategy 1941
○ failed to recognized Japanese as an actual threat
○ Chinese fought Guerilla War
○ Ichigo Offensive 1944
○ GMD was unpopular - introduced forced conscription
■ USA disliked him - bad ally
● Impact of Japanese surrender
○ Bombing of Japan by USA in 1944 → Japanese surrender
■ after 15 years Japan was defeated → submitted to Red Army
○ Soviet-GMD friendship treaty

2.1.5 The Chinese Civil War 1946-49

Position at the start Tactics/Events Results

CCP ● Major support from ● Resistance at ● In 4 months, PLA

(PLA) population struggle for won 3 great
● Support from peasants Manchuria campaigns
● Chose to attack ● Lost 1 million men
Nationalist bases ● 1949 - People’s
● PLA used whatever Republic of China
resources they had
to attack Xuzhou
● Guerilla tactics were
used

GMD ● USA support (formally ● Failed struggle for ● Lost 3 million men
(NRA) backed the GMD) Manchuria ● Lost support of
○ lend-lease ● Captured Yanan but people
○ gave transport was a hollow victory ● NRA elite units
and troops ● Weakened by had been broken
● Greatly superior troops internal problems ● Lost USA support
and resources (poor liaison)

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STRENGTHS
● army larger and better
equipped than the communists
army
● had air force experienced in
conventional fighting - able to
take initiative
● controlled most territory and
population network - outbreak
of war
GMD ● kept a single party strength -
kept workers in check
● recognised by other powers as a
legitimate government
● $3 billion in aid from USA
● Chiang Kaishek was
hardworking, confident,
controlled military strategy
● Early advantages Yanan taken,
March 1947
● Soviet troops in Manchuria gave
PLA forces training
● Supported by peasantry who
feared revenge
● Used propaganda to win
support
● Had a good reputation at
CCP
controlling the struggle against
the Japanese
● Mao’s personality cult, inspired
confidence
● Carried out guerrilla warfare and
began conventional warfare in
1948
● Lost control of
northern and
central China
● On January 21st,
Chiang Kaishek
lost authority
WEAKNESSES
● Troops were conscripts with low morale
and poor training
● depended on local warlords - lost
supporters of local populations
● there was corruption, inefficiency,
minimal reform, inflation and rationing
● the USA was critical of Jiang’s style
● Chiang Kaishek could be stubborn,
inflexible, not good at delegation, poor
judge of character
● sent best troops before establishing
control
● lost control of Manchuria in 1948
● no retreats allowed
● generals were corrupt and incompetent
● communication lines long
● troops in cities supplied by air -
increasing surrenders without fighting
● fewer troops (800000 at the start of the
war)
● Early disadvantage - 19 bases at Yan’an
were at the outbreak of war
● Some areas where requested by Stalin
to be given to the Nationalists in
November 1945
● Dealt harshly with those who didn’t
conform
● Insisted on defending a pass between
China and Manchuria which failed
● Mao was not good at dealing with
foreign powers
59
● Were able to capture transport ● Initially inferior in equipment and
links to isolate GMD forces in numbers.
cities

60
2.2 Imperial Japan: Empire and Aftermath 1912-52

2.2.1 Taisho Japan 1912-26

● Taisho was a political movement following the chaotic Meiji period.
● Following the death of Meiji, new Taisho emperor was weak.
Japanese Political Power Prior to Taisho:
Emperor:
● in theory was the absolute monarch but others governed in his name
○ powers were not limited but he wielded no more power than other constitutional
monarchs
Genrō:
● group of advisors to the emperor - had no constitutional authority
○ direct access to emperor and prime minister
Prime Minister:
● power to chose the cabinet
Cabinet:
● set policies on administration - important matters of state
○ acted as chief executive organ
Army + Navy Minister:
● important influence in selecting the cabinet and forming policy
Privy Council:
● deliberated on important matters such as legislation and international treaties
○ also interpreted constitution → decisions were final
Diet:
● voted on legislation but mainly agreed with cabinet’s decisions
Electorate:
● voters → Japanese males, aged 25yrs +

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Domestic Tensions:

ECONOMIC SOCIAL POLITICAL

● Economy was growing ● Due to dual economy, ● Govt. sought to keep

dramatically people flocked to the dissatisfied workers from
● Japan established itself cities - believed that farm disrupting factory
as a major international = poverty operations by passing
power ● Migration caused laws that restricted
● Zaibatsu spurred competition for factory unions and strikes
economic growth jobs ● Relationship between
● As economy improved, ● Working conditions did zaubaitsu and govt.
the population increased not improve and life in caused widespread
● Creation of dual the countryside did not corruption
economy - clear split change - there were ● Prime minister slashed
between classes almost two completely the army budget -
● Dual economy affected different cultures minister of army
where people lived ● cities contained resigned and refused to
● Govt. focused on urban commercial, industrial, appoint a successor so
centres and discarded intellectual, financial and the pm also had to
rural areas cultural centres resign
● Economy did slow down ● countryside was deep ● Genrō appointed an
in 1925, just before the rooted in tradition authoritarian PM whom
Great Depression. ● Workers worked long was very unpopular -
hours for low pay mass protest emerged
● Unions began to emerge ○ Movement to protest
- 6300 workers on 497 constitutional govt.
strikes 1913
● Some unions became ● Genrō power was
militant (eg: Sodomei and reduced highlighting the
Yuaikai) power of the military -
● Rice Riots 1918 - protest the power went to the
against inflation, 1000 Diet
died and 25000 were ● Voting age changed in
arrested 1925 - 18+ due to the
● Freedom of Press and introduction of the
Speech. (up till the Peace manhood suffrage law
Preservation act in 1926 ● There were a number of
which limited the amount political assassinations
of free speech/press.) occurring.
● Human Rights and
democracy movements
emerge.
National Unity and Foreign Tensions:
● Japanese leaders believed that colonial expansion was necessary for economic growth →
japan had a growing population and a lack of resources
○ military claimed that colonies were a good buffer for safeguarding home islands
● Japan longed for Western acceptance and to be deemed as an equal → believed they were
superior to other Asian nations
● 1915 - Japan attempted to start a sphere of influence in China
○ 21 Demands → provoked Chinese hostility and disgusted the West

62
 ○ Japan believe they acted no different from the West (hypocrisy)
● Relationship with the West got worse in the 1920s due to the Anti-Japanese immigration Law
○ LON declined Japan’s racial equality law in TOV
○ Japan entered the war against Germany so they thought they should be treated
better
● Washington Naval Conference 1921-22
○ Japan’s navy was limited (US:UK:JP 10:10:6)
Significance of foreign tensions:
● labour unrest and political crisis were deep-rooted and caused widespread frustration
○ Diet power increased and Genro power decreased (govt. became more democratic)
● Electorate was expanded → universal manhood suffrage law
● Peace Preservation Act 1925
○ made it illegal to violate the kokutai - hindered democracy
○ loyalty to the kokutai came before freedom of speech
○ used as justification to suppress
● Western influence increased → western beliefs challenged traditional ideals
○ eg: women’s rights and notion of individualism
● Respect from US for Japan turned to distrust → would never regard Japan as an equal on the
international stage
● Widespread belief that the govt. was corrupt

2.2.2 Rise of Militarism 1926-37

Causes of the Rise of Militarism:

ECONOMIC SOCIAL

● people despised the zaibatsu →
believed it was unpatriotic and selfish
● cities = westernization, rural = traditional
values
○ 2 separate Japans
● mid 20s → economy showed signs of
strain
○ foreign trade and industrial
production had fallen
○ Great Earthquake 1923 →
hindered industrial progress
○ Bank Crisis 1927 → inflation
○ farmers fell into debt
○ famine struck → taxes were not
lowered
○ Great depression 1929 - further
○ slowed trade and production
● people felt the only way to restore order
was to return to traditional values
○ bond grew between military and
rural population
○ condemned politicians for the
insufferable conditions they had
to endure
● Reserve Officers Association
● Ultranationalism - believed that Japan’s
culture was superior to the West
○ duty was to the emperor
(guardians of the kokutai)
○ believed only the military could
achieve these aims
● Showa Restoration
○ restore the direct rule of the
emperor
○ remove corrupt govt. officials

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Manchurian Incident:
● Causes
○ economy was mired in depression → army pressured the govt to expand its control
over parts of China
○ argued that resources could revive the nation’s economy
○ controlled most of Manchuria but Chinese nationalists (Chiang Kaishek) threatened
this control → afraid that the GMD was going to unite China
○ Many Japanese felt they needed colonies to survive - Tanaka Memorial
● Significance
○ attack on Manchuria was ordered independently of the govt. in Tokyo
○ defied direct order of Japan’s policy of negotiation
○ prime minister and cabinet failed to stop it
○ army gained a lot of influence
■ caused enthusiastic support for a greater military role in the govt.
■ zaibatsu hopped on military bandwagon
○ 1932 - Manchukuo puppet state caused increased tensions with China and the USA
■ Japan left the LON as they felt they were being treated unfairly
○ Military dictated Japan’s foreign policy

Military’s power increase:

● 1932 - LON condemned Japan as an aggressor
● 1933 - Japan quit the LON - isolation from international community - war was inevitable
● Japanese people believed only the army could effectively lead the country, seen as being
able to take action
○ end of party govt. → cabinet was selected by the ability to get on with the war
minister
● 1936 - Ultra Nationalists attempted to seize control
○ 1400 rebel soldiers captured key govt. buildings
○ assassinated PM Inukai
○ demanded Showa Restoration
■ Tosei faction emerged as the dominant faction in the military
■ war minister had to be on active service
○ emperor was against them → failed
○ Tosei faction purged the Kodo faction
● Tosei revived a Meji era → but army was emboldened
○ army had a stronger voice in selecting the prime minister and cabinet
● Censorship and suppression of dangerous thoughts 1937-45
○ united the nation under the ideology of kokutai

Kokutai No Hongi:
● kokutai = national polity, national entity
○ used to be a vague term meaning the unity of the government, the emperor and the
people through shared values
○ book explaining what it meant to be Japanese
○ term was widely used in schools to promote ultra nationalist views of the military
■ if you disagreed, you were arrested under the Peace Preservation Law

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2.2.3 Japan at War 1937-45

Relations with China:

● 1937 - Start of Sino-Japanese War
○ both countries blamed each other for the rising conflict
○ Japanese invaded Chinese cities - thought victory would be easy but were wrong
(2nd United Front made it difficult)
■ Nanjing Massacre - hardened Chinese resistance
■ 200,000 POWs
■ Massacre was not as effective as planned so Japan’s takeover of metropolitan
and industrial areas failed
● Japan wanted to set up a new order in Asia → Principle of Asia for Asians
○ Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
○ idea was to set up a self-sufficient regional economy
○ Japan treated over countries as colonies - Empire

Relations with the US:

● US was initially reluctant to go to war with Japan
○ had no stomach to send soldiers to fight so far away
○ criticised Japanese aggressions as they were against the Open Door Policy but did
nothing about it → isolation policy
● 1940 - Japan allied with Nazis - Tripartite Pact
○ 1941 - Japan invaded Southern Indochina
○ US announced embargo on all exports and froze Japanese assets (problem for Japan
as 80% of their oil came from the US)
○ Japan felt frustrated because of a lack of natural resources available to them
■ therefore to get oil they had to attack Indonesia → tactical advantage would
be to attack the US in the first place

Japanese Successes Up to 1942:

● Japan believed that yielding to American demands would end their supremacy → Oct to Nov
readied their attack
○ planned for a lightning strike on Hawaii to be followed by attacks in SE
■ in 6 months, Japan controlled HK, Malaya, Spore, Burma, Dutch East Indies
■ European powers were distracted by the war with Germany so they did not
protect their colonies
■ The West underestimated Japan
○ plan worked perfectly → much damage to american bases
○ Macarthur made a mistake → US planes were destroyed
○ Japan crippled America's ability to counterattack, managed to seize rich resources
● Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbour infuriated the US → eventual cause of defeat

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Japan’s Defeat 1942-45:
● Major Battles
○ May ‘42 - Coral Sea → US broke Japanese code so they knew Japan’s plan to expand,
they halted Japan's push to South
○ June ‘42 - Midway → First important military defeat (turning point) → lost 4 aircrafts
and naval superiority
○ June - Aug ‘44 - Marianas → Bombing raids on Japan
○ April ‘45 - Okinawa → Largest battle and most casualties, US cut off japanese forces
farther south from their homelands
● Japan’s spiritual mobilization was no match for America’s technological and industrial
supremacy
○ from 1942 Japan was on the defense
○ US cut off Japan from their colonies → denied raw materials
○ attacked economy by relentlessly bombing cities
○ modern life collapsed → ultra nationalists refused to accept defeat
○ started negotiating with Allies
■ surrender unconditionally or face destruction
○ Japanese military lacked coordination → disagreed on strategy (army vs. navy)

2.2.4 American Occupation and Recovery 1945-1952

Japanese Occupation:
● began on 2/4/45 in Tokyo Bay
● Japan began to enrich the nation and strengthen the army
○ adopted western science and technology
○ struggled to rebuild the nation
○ lack of food and shelter
● US took charge
○ Japan feared USA would be destructive and brutal → due to propaganda
○ USA worried that there would be an uprising in Japan
○ USA was not brutal, Japan accepted America
■ Japan had little choice
■ lost war + low economy
■ humiliating loss lead the people to be more willing to be subject to ideas such
as democracy and pacifism imposed by the USA
○ Japan did not want to be controlled by foreign powers → did not want to lose the
emperor’s rule
● Main goals of occupation:
○ democratise and demilitarise Japan
■ broke up the Japanese army
○ revive the Japanese economy to make it a power in Asia → however should not over
class the USA
■ restored politics, economy and society

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Democratization:
● SCAP (Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers) put high priority on Japan
○ USA believed democratic principles and practices would wipe out ultranationalism
● 1947 - New Constitution govt.
○ Japan fought hard to keep rule of the emperor
■ no longer in power → simply a symbol of state that was responsible to the
people
○ Japan was originally instructed to make their own but failed so the USA drew up a
constitution in one week
○ Diet became the highest institution of the government
■ directly responsible to voters
○ constitution + SCAP officials issued and pressured Japanese government towards
democracy
○ USA decentralised the govt. and reduced the police force power
○ SCAP released all political prisoners
■ including socialists and communists → encouraged them to revive parties
○ all men and women were allowed to vote (above 20 years old)
○ church and state were separated

1947 Constitution:
● Emperor was no longer sacred and inviolable
○ became a symbol of state and unity to people
● Diet became the law making power → emperor lost power
● Article 9 - renounce war forever
○ no military force
● guaranteed Japanese citizens freedom and basic human rights
● allocated equal rights for men and women
○ however did not happen overnight → few women enjoyed equal treatment
● constitution sounded foreign/weird to the japanese people
○ however embraces rights and ideas

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Economic and Social Reforms:
Economic Social

Reforms ● land reform program - divide ● reformed school system (6/3/3/4

wealth year)
○ bought land from ● increased gender equality in
landowners and sold it education
to farmers ● women were given the right to vote
● attempt at dismantling the
zaibatsu
○ giant firms were forced
to break up
● occupation admin encouraged
workers to set up unions

Effects ● reforms were short lived ● higher level education increased

○ decided that economic ○ more accessible to
and industrial health population
was vital ● introduced more democratic content
○ some zaibatsu ● 67% of women voted, 37 won seats
members emerged ● population had a hard time dealing
stronger than ever with new ideas
● creation of middle class due to ● due to poverty people had to start
equality in income engaging in illegal activities (eg:
● working conditions improved; prostitution)
vacations, increased wages, ● Americanization caused negative
decrease hours, safeguards for social implications (japanese wanted
women and children material wealth, more consumer
goods)
Reverse Course:
● Why?
○ US-USSR relations deteriorated in Cold War
○ 1949 - Communist China
○ 1950 - Outbreak of war in Korea
○ American govt saw Japan to be crucial for Asian foreign policy
● Aims
○ build the nation to be a democratic stronghold against communism
○ make Japan an economic powerhouse
● How?
○ Red Purge - purge all communists from the government
○ US abandoned the encouragement of socialist parties → saw it as a threat to
democracy
○ encouraged the return of the zaibatsu
○ introduction of self-defense force - “every nation had the right to defend itself”
● So what?
○ San Francisco Peace Treaty 1952
■ Japan gave up all territories
■ restored independence to the nation
■ confirmed Japan was an ally to the West
○ US-Japan security treaty

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■ allowed US troops to remain in Japan

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