CHE428

Dr. Hamada Mohamed Gad

2020 - 2021

Chapter I Fuel Technology

Chapter II Physical Properties of Fuels

Chapter III Hydrocarbons and Classifications

Chapter IV Chemical Reaction and Combustion

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 CHE428

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Chapter IV Chemical Reaction and Combustion

Introduction
Combustion and Flame
Combustion Applications
Combustion of Solid Fuel
Combustion of Liquid Fuel
Combustion of Gaseous Fuel
Chemical Reaction Equations
Enthalpy and Enthalpy of Formation
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Caloric Heat Value Measurement
Gas Analysis Measurement
Boilers and Combustion Chambers
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 Introduction
• Combustion is an old technology, which at present provides
about 90% of our worldwide energy support.

What is meant by Combustion?

• Combustion or burning is a complex
sequence of exothermic chemical
reactions between a fuel and an
oxidant accompanied by the
production of heat or both heat and
light in the form of either a glow or
flames.

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What is meant by flame?

A flame is the product of a highly exothermic reaction (for example,
combustion, a self-sustaining oxidation reaction).

Flame is the region in which

the fuel oxidizes with air or
oxygen.

In other words, Flame is the

visible (light- emitting) part of
a fire.

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 All combustion requires three elements: fuel, an oxidizer and a source
of heat. When these three elements are combined in the appropriate
environment, combustion will occur. If any of the elements is removed,
combustion stops.
combustion triangle
1. An oxidizer (oxygen in the surrounding air)
2. Fuel (provided by the volatile material present in the hazardous
location)
3. Energy (thermal or electrical) sufficient to cause ignition in the
presence of the other two elements.

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Types of Combustion
Internal Combustion
{S.I.E.} Engines
Gasoline Engine
Combustion S.I.E. & C.I.E.
{C.I.E.} Diesel Engine

Intermittent Combustion

Continuous Combustion

Most of applications
Gas Burner, Boiler Burners,
Furnaces, Candles, Fires, ….

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Types of Combustion
Internal Combustion Engines
Combustion S.I.E. & C.I.E.

Intermittent Combustion

Continuous Combustion

Most of applications
Gas Burner, Boiler Burners,
Furnaces, Candles, Fires, ….

HEAT

HEAT POWER
ENGINE

COMBUSTION

Some Heat
must be
Rejected

AIR FUEL
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 FLAME

PREMIXED FLAME DIFFUSION FLAME

Air and Fuel mix before Air and Fuel enter the
entering the combustor combustor separately
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[Air + Fuel] Mixture Combustor

Premixed Flame

Air
Fuel Combustor
Air

Diffusion Flame
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 Diffusion Flame Premixed Flame
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Comparison between
Premixed and Diffusion Flames
Premixed Flame Diffusion Flame

Air and fuel mix

Air and fuel mixes
Definition before entering
inside combustor
combustor

Color Blue and blue red Dark Orange

Sound Low High
Temperature Higher lower
Length Short Long
Size Small Large
Application Homes Industry
Fuel Gases Gases and liquids
Stabilizer Bluff-Body Air swirler
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 Comparison between
Premixed and Diffusion Flames
Premixed Flame Diffusion Flame

Air and fuel mix

Air and fuel mixes
Definition before entering
inside combustor
combustor

Color Blue and blue red Dark Orange

Sound Low High
Temperature Higher lower
Length Short Long
Size Small Large
Application Homes Industry
Fuel Gases Gases and liquids
Stabilizer Bluff-Body Air swirler
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Combustion Applications:

The uses of combustion and flame phenomena can be

categorized under different heats. In the following sections,
several combustion applications will be discussed.

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 (i) In heating devices:

Heating devices for vapour production (steam, etc.); in

metallurgy, and in industry generally, utilize the combustion of
gases, wood, coal, and liquid fuels. Control of the combustion
process to obtain optimal efficiency is ensured by proper ratio
and distribution of the fuel and the oxidant in the furnace,
stove, kiln, etc., by choice of conditions for heat transport
from the combustion products to the heated bodies, and by
appropriate aerodynamics of gas flows in the furnace.
Radiation contributes to a certain extent to heat exchange.
Combustion in furnaces being a very complicated process,
only general ideas can be given by the combustion theory, so
that the optimal conditions and the furnace design are usually
decided empirically.
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 (ii) In explosives:
The combustion and detonation of explosives are widely used
in all sorts of work with mechanical action or explosion as the
eventual goals. Practical applications of explosives are based
on the theory of their combustion and detonation. The
combustion of condensed explosives occurs mostly in the gas
phase because of their evaporation, sublimation, or
decomposition and can be treated in terms of the theory of gas
combustion, which provides for the burning velocity, its
dependence on temperature and pressure, and the parameters
determining the combustion regime and the nature of
explosives. Control of combustion and detonation in their
practical applications is made possible by use of the theory,
together with the results of experimental investigations on
combustion and detonation. 21
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(iii) In internal-combustion engines:

These comprise various engines, gas turbines, turbojets, and

ramjets. The Otto engine operates with a mixture compressed
in a cylinder by a piston. Shortly before the piston reaches the
top the mixture is ignited with a spark, and the flame
propagates at a normal velocity into the unburned mixture,
increasing the pressure and moving the piston. There is a
maximum of compression for any mixture composition and
any engine design. Detonation occurs beyond this maximum
because of the appearance of centers where self-ignition takes
place before the flame front. Loss of power is one result of
detonation; compounds hindering self-ignition are used to
prevent it.
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 The diesel engine operates with a fuel spray injected into the
engine cylinder as liquid droplets that mix with air by
turbulent diffusion and evaporate. At normal operations of the
engine the temperature of compressed air is sufficiently high
for self-ignition of the fuel.

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In gas turbines, compressed air enters the combustion chamber

where it mixes with the fuel. The expanding combustion
products impart their energy to the turbine blades. Two kinds
of jet engines are used in aircraft: the turbojet and the ramjet.
The turbine of a turbojet engine is used to operate the
compressor. Thrust comes from the repulsion of products
flowing out of a nozzle. In a ramjet engine, air is compressed
and slowed down in the diffuser without any compressor or
turbine device.

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 (iv) In rocket propulsion:

The products of combustion of gaseous, liquid, or solid

propellants in rockets are ejected from the combustion
chamber through the (de Laval) nozzle at a high velocity.
Knowledge of the kinetics of chemical processes in the nozzle
is essential to determine the thrust required. The thrust
decreases with the increasing mean molecular weight of the
combustion products. Mixtures of low molecular weight and
high heat of combustion, therefore, are used for rockets.

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(v) In chemical reactions:

Flames are used in various ways to produce chemical

reactions. The bead test in analytical chemistry is one
example. The reducing power of a flame that has insufficient
oxygen is utilized in limited ways. The soot produced by some
flames is commercially useful, and the manufacture of coke
and charcoal is dependent on the judicious control of
combustion and flame.

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 Combustion of
Solid Fuels

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Coal gasification:
Coal gasification is the process of producing syngas–a mixture
consisting primarily of methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O)–from
coal and water, air and/or oxygen.

Historically, coal was gasified using early technology to produce coal

gas (also known as "town gas"), which is a combustible gas
traditionally used for municipal lighting and heating before the
advent of industrial-scale production of natural gas.

In current practice, large-scale instances of coal gasification are

primarily for electricity generation, such as in integrated gasification
combined cycle power plants, for production of chemical feedstocks,
or for production of synthetic natural gas. The hydrogen obtained
from coal gasification can be used for various purposes such as
making ammonia, powering a hydrogen economy, or upgrading
fossil fuels. 34
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 Coal gasification:

Alternatively, coal-derived syngas can be converted into

transportation fuels such as gasoline and diesel through additional
treatment via the Fischer-Tropsch process or into methanol which
itself can be used as transportation fuel or fuel additive, or which
can be converted into gasoline by the methanol to gasoline process.
Methane from coal gasification can be converted into LNG for use as
a fuel in the transport sector.

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Coal gasification

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 Coal gasification

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Coal gasification

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 Coal gasification

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Coal gasification

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 Coal gasification

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Benefits of Solid Fuels:

Solid fuels, compared to liquid fuels or gaseous fuels, are

more readily available. Coal, in particular, is utilized in
the generation of 38.1% of the world’s electricity because
it is less expensive and more powerful than its liquid and
gas counterparts. In homes, wood can be used for heating
and cooking and depending on one's location, it can be
much cheaper than other fuels.

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 Advantages of Solid Fuels Over the Liquid Fuels:

- In case of liquid fuels, there is a danger of explosion.

- Liquids fuels are costlier as compared to solid fuels.
- Sometimes liquid fuels give unpleasant odours during burning.
- Liquid fuels require special types of burners for burning.
- Liquid fuels pose problems in cold climates since the oil stored in
the tanks is to be heated in order to avoid the stoppage of oil flow.

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Disadvantages of Solid Fuels:

In an industrial situation, especially in the maritime
industry, solid fuels become increasingly difficult to work
with. Compared to liquid and gas fuels, solid fuels require
a much larger area to store because both liquids and gases
will expand and contract more easily with pressure and
temperature variations, making them more easily
compressible. The solid fuel also tends to have a higher
nitrate and sulfate emission rate. From 2009 to 2013,
nearly 36% of the United States CO2 emissions were due to
the burning of solid fuels

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 Combustion of
Liquid Fuels

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Liquid Fuels Spray:

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Advantages of Liquid Fuels Over the Solid Fuels:

- The handling of liquid fuels is easier and they require less storage
space.
- The combustion of liquid fuels is uniform.
- The solid fuels have higher percentage of moisture and
consequently they burn with great difficulty. However, liquid fuels
can be burnt with a fair degree of ease and attain high temperature
very quickly compared to solid fuels.
- The waste product of solid fuels is a large quantity of ash and its
disposal becomes a problem. However, liquid fuels leave no or very
little ash after burning.
- The firing of liquid fuels can be easily controlled. This permits to
meet the variation in load demand easily.

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 Disadvantages of Liquid Fuels:

- They are costly as compared to solid fuels

- They require special type of burners

- In cold climate the oil stored in tanks is to be heated in

order to avoid the stoppage of flow.

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Combustion of
Gaseous Fuels

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Advantages of Gaseous Fuels:

- Economy in fuel and extra efficiency of engine.

- This is compressible, and therefore, storage will be easier.

- A large amount less air is required for complete combustion.

- Less starting troubles and freezing problems are remove.

- A gaseous fuel can simply carried through pipes.

- Engine can be run with lean mixture.

- Cleanliness is high.

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 Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels:

- Purification cost is elevated; capital and running cost is too high.

- Storage capacity per unit energy is reasonably extremely large.

- High cost and size and weight of engine are reasonably large.

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Chemical
Reaction
Equations
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 Complete
Combustion

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Most of fossil fuel is HYDROCARBONS, i.e., contains Hydrogen

and Carbon having the general formulae

CH

Combustion of CH In Air or in Oxygen,

For Complete Combustion

And all the Carbon burns to CO2 And

All the Hydrogen burns to H2O

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 Properties of Air
Volume Mass
O2 21% 23.3%
N2 79% 76.7%
100% 100%
Cp = 1005 J/kg K

Cv = 718 J/kg K

R = Cp - Cv R = 287 J/kg K

K = 1.4 K = Cp/Cv

Air Molecular Weight, Mair = 28.97

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Theoretical air fuel ratio

is the minimum air required to
burn one kilogram of the fuel
completely.

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 Reactants Products

Complete combustion
1 CH + (+/4) ( O2 + 79/21N2 )

 CO2 + /2 H2O + (+/4) 79/21 N 2

Carbon Balance

Hydrogen Balance

Oxygen Balance

Nitrogen Balance
Complete combustion
1 CH + (+/4)( O2 + 79/21N2 )

 CO2 + /2 H2O + (+/4) 79/21 N 2

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Complete combustion
1 CH + (+/4)( O2 + 79/21N2 )

 CO2 + /2 H2O + (+/4) 79/21 N 2

ma/ mf) th=[(+ /4)* 32*100/23.3 ]/[*12+ *1]

ma/ mf) theoretical Mass of Air

ma/ mf) Mass of O2

stoichiometric
Mass = N*M
ma/ mf) correct
Number of moles of
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O2
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 Molecular Weight of some substance

Hydrogen, H2 = 2
Hydrogen, H = 1
Oxygen, O2 = 32
Carbon, C = 12
Nitrogen, N2 = 28
CO = 1*12 + 1x16 = 28

CO2 = 1*12 + 2x32 = 44

CH4 = 1*12 + 4x1 = 16

C2H6 = 2*12 + 6x1 = 30
C3H8 = 3*12 + 8x1 = 44
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Example: Combustion of CH4

1 CH4 +(1+4/4) ( O2 + 79/21N2 )

1 CO2 + 4/2 H2O + (1+4/4) 79/21N2

ma/ mf) th= [2* 32*100/23.3 ]/[1*12+4 *1]

ma/ mf) th= 17.17

Example: Combustion of C3H8

1 C3H8 +(5)( O2 + 79/21N2 ) 3CO2 +4H2O+(5)79/21N2

ma/ mf) th=5* 32*100/23.3 ]/[3*12+8 *1]

ma/ mf) th= 15.61 72

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 Excess Air Factor
And
Equivalence Ratio

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Excess Air Factor, 

=

ma / mf )act / ma / mf )th

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 Theoretical air fuel ratio is the minimum air required
to burn one Kilogram of the fuel completely.

Excess Air Factor,  = ma / mf )act / ma / mf )th

 If  < 1.0  Rich Mixture or Insufficient Air

 If  = 1.0  Correct Mixture i.e., Complete

Combust.
 If  > 1.0  Lean ( Weak ) Mixture or
Insufficient Fuel

 For most Hydrocarbon fuels  ma / mf )th  15

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Excess Air Factor,  = {ma/mf )act} / {ma/mf)th}

If  < 1.0
Rich Mixture or Insufficient Air

If  = 1.0
Correct Mixture i.e., Complete Combustion

If  > 1.0
76 Lean ( Weak ) Mixture or Insufficient Fuel
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 If  < 1.0
Rich Mixture or Insufficient Air

Products are Incomplete Combustion

CO2 Carbon burns to
CO2
CO
&
H2O CO

N2
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If  = 1.0
Correct (theoretical)Mixture and

Complete Combustion
Products are
CO2 Carbon burns
to
CO2 Only
H2O

N2
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 If  > 1.0
Lean or Weak Mixture or Insufficient Fuel

Products are COMPLETE

COMBUSTION
CO2

H2O

O2 Excess Oxygen, O2

N2
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Equivalence Ratio, 
=

{mf/ma )act} / {mf/ma)th}

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 Equivalence Ratio,  = {mf/ma )act} / {mf/ma)th}

If  > 1.0
Rich Mixture or Insufficient Air

If  = 1.0
Correct Mixture i.e., Complete Combustion

If  < 1.0
Lean ( Weak ) Mixture or Insufficient Fuel
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If  > 1.0
Rich Mixture or Insufficient Air

Products are
CO2 Carbon burns to
CO2
CO
&
H2O CO

N2
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 If  = 1.0
Correct (theoretical)Mixture and

Products are Complete Combustion

CO2 Carbon burns

to
CO2 Only
H2O

N2
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If  < 1.0
Lean or Weak Mixture or Insufficient Fuel

Complete Combustion
Products are
CO2

H2O

O2 Excess Oxygen, O2

N2
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 If  > 1.0
Lean or Weak Mixture or Insufficient Fuel

1 CH +  (+/4) ( O2 + 79/21N2 )

 CO2 + /2 H2O + {-1} (+/4) O2 +  (+/4) 79/21N2

Air Burns Carbon to CO2

And
Excess Air
(O2 + N2) 85

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If  > 1.0
Rich Mixture or Insufficient Air

 CH + (+/4) ( O2 + 79/21N2 )

aCO2 + bCO + d H2O + (+/4) 79/21N2

a & b & d are calculated from balance

All Carbon Burns to CO2

And

CO
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 Example: A liquid fuel mixture containing 75 per cent C8H18 and 25 per
cent C7H16 is burned with 8% excess air. Calculate the fuel air ratio of
the mixture combustion.

For C8H18

For C7H16

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Example: A gaseous fuel having a composition by volume of 60% CH4,

25% Ethane C2H4, 5% of Nitrogen and 10% Oxygen is burned in 10%
excess air. Calculate the fuel air ratio of the fuel mixture combustion.

By balance:
For C:
For H2 :
For O2 :

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 If  > 1.0
Rich Mixture or Insufficient Air with CO and H2 in Products

CH + (+/4) ( O2 + 79/21N2 )

(1-Ψ)  CO2 + ΨCO + Ψ/2 H2 + (/2 - Ψ/2) H2O + (+/4)  79/21N2

Oxygen balance for calculating the value of (Ψ):

  (   / 4)  (1   )   / 2   / 4   / 4
 (   / 4)       / 2   / 4   / 4
 (   / 4)  (   / 4)   (   / 2   / 4)
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 (   / 4)  (   / 4)   (   / 2   / 4)

 (   / 4)  (   / 4)  3 / 4

4
 (1   )(   / 4)
3

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 Example:
Gasoline having a formula of C8H17 is burned in an engine at a fuel
air ratio of 0.08. Write down the reaction equation and calculate the
heat liberated per kg of the mixture and the fraction of supplied heat
lost to unburned products.
QC = 10550 kcal/kg of fuel
QH2 = 28500 kcal/kg
QCO = 2410 kcal/kg

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For complete combustion:

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C8 H17  12.25(O2  N 2 )  8CO2  8.5H 2O  12.25  N 2
21 21
8  12  17  1
F / A)th   0.067
12.25  32  100 / 23.3

A / F ) act 1 / 0.08
   0.84
A / F ) th 1 / 0.067
For actual combustion:
CH + (+/4) ( O2 + 79/21N2 )

(1-Ψ)  CO2 + ΨCO + Ψ/2 H2 + (/2 - Ψ/2) H2O + (+/4)  79/21N2

4
 (1  0.84)(8  17 / 4)  0.33
3 8
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 For actual combustion:
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C8 H17  10.29(O2  N 2 )  5.36CO2  2.64CO  1.32 H 2  7.18H 2O  38.71N 2
21

The heat liberated = 781.5-116.78-49.3 = 615.42 kcal/kg

The fraction of supplied heat lost to unburned products =
(116.78 + 49.3)/781.5 = 21.25 %
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Example:

50 kg of fuel containing C8H18, C7H16, C2H5OH (20 %, 50 %, 30 %)

by weight is burned with 20 % excess air. Write down the reaction
equation for the products of combustion. Find the fuel air ratio and
the volume of the products of combustion in m3 to m3 fuel used.

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 Examples:

Calculate the volume of air required for complete combustion of

methane per kg and per kmol of fuel. The air is supplied at 0.98 bar
and 25 °C

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Examples:

A spark-ignition engine fuel has a composition of 84 % carbon and

16 % hydrogen by weight. The engine is supplied with a fuel having
equivalence ratio of 1.25. Assuming that all the hydrogen is burnt
and that the carbon burns to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
so that there is no free carbon left. Calculate the percentage analysis
of dry exhaust gases by volume and by weight.

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Enthalpy and Enthalpy of Formation

Normally in classical thermodynamics, the internal energy and enthalpy
of a pure substance (of invariable chemical composition) are defined
with respect to some relatively arbitrary datum. Where combustion
occurs, it is necessary to define the datum more closely.

Consider for example the situation where carbon and oxygen, supplied at
25 °C and 1 bar, figure shown, are burned at constant pressure to form
carbon dioxide, and assume that the energy librated is transferred to the
surroundings such that the burned gas is also at 25 °C.

1 kmole C at 1 bar and 25 °C.

Combustion 1 kmole CO2 at
1 bar and 25 °C.
1 kmole O2 at 1 bar and 25 °C. Chamber

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 The first law of thermodynamics, in the form of steady flow energy
equation (in the absence of work, kinetic, and potential energy terms)
may be applied to the burner in order to determine the magnitude of the
heat transfer:

1 kmole C at 1 bar and 25 °C.

Combustion 1 kmole CO2 at
1 bar and 25 °C.
1 kmole O2 at 1 bar and 25 °C. Chamber

Where n is the number of kmoles of substance, H is the enthalpy per

kmole of substance, suffices r and p refer to reactants and products,
respectively.
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Now if the usual temperature datum for gaseous enthalpies are to be

adopted (i.e. H = 0 at 25 °C), then the enthalpies for both reactants and
products would be zero.

The above equation would then suggest a zero heat transfer. This is
clearly not so, experiment shows that for every kmole of carbon
consumed there would be a heat transfer of -393,522 kJ.

The negative sign results from the adoption of the usual heat transfer
sign convention, with the heat transfer in fact occurring from the system
for this particular exothermic reaction. A positive sign would have
indicated an endothermic reaction; one which absorbs energy.

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 However, the heat transfer Q gives a measure of the enthalpy of the
compound product molecule (CO2) relative to that of the elements from
which it is formed (C, O2), at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of
25°C.

Thus if a datum of 1 bar and 25 °C is adopted for all elements, the magnitude of
the heat transfer per kmole of the compound product molecule may be defined
as the enthalpy of formation H of of that molecule from its elements at the
standard state conditions, i.e. for CO2, H of  393,522 kJ/kmole.

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The enthalpies of formation of a number of substances are given in Table 2.

Slide 114

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 Hence, in general, the enthalpy of any chemical substance at pressure P
and temperature T becomes:

Where H PT
o
/ 298
is the more familiar enthalpy of the substance measured
from the datum of 25 °C and 1 bar.

Hereafter, for convenience, the pressure suffices will be omitted as the

enthalpies are essentially independent of pressure for normal combustion
conditions, and the T suffix will be omitted from the term.

The values of H To / 298 may be found in tables of fluid properties or may

be calculated using appropriate specific heat data. In combustion work
the JANAF compilations are often used

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These data, derived for a pressure of 1 bar, use the notation in

place of . The superscript ° indicates that data are for the standard
pressure of 1 bar.

For inter-conversion between enthalpy and temperature, it is necessary in

most of the combustion modeling to provide the program with
polynomial coefficients which allow molar enthalpies, HP,Ti of the pure
components, i, to be expressed as functions of temperature.

where, ai,o, ai,l and ai,2are constants and given in Table 3. The values of
HP,Ti for different species, i, and at different temperatures (300 – 3000 K)
were taken using second order polynomial equation (above equation)
over 300 K temperature ranges.

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 Table 3: Value of constants ai,0, ai,1, and ai,2 used to calculate the specific enthalpy for different components, HP,Ti = ai,0 + ai,1 T + ai,2 T2
Species Coeff. 300 – 600 K 600 - 900 900 - 1200 1200 - 1500 1500 - 1800 1800 - 2100 2100 - 2400 2400 - 2700
a0 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08
H a1 2.08000224E+04 2.08000224E+04 2.08000225E+04 2.08000224E+04 2.08000226E+04 2.08000227E+04 2.08000244E+04 2.08000232E+04
a2 -1.07043074E-08 -4.98788916E-09 -5.72290161E-08 -1.72964546E-08 -6.11339370E-08 -8.13525529E-08 -4.52247051E-07 -1.67942431E-07
a0 2.42638975E+08 2.43042532E+08 2.43241578E+08 2.43227682E+08 2.43213925E+08 2.43348149E+08 2.43601094E+08 2.43846189E+08
O a1 2.31310159E+04 2.15508268E+04 2.10477105E+04 2.10681323E+04 2.10897414E+04 2.09369786E+04 2.06884077E+04 2.04775093E+04
a2 -1.93684289E+00 -3.75253889E-01 -5.66083371E-02 -6.37997525E-02 -7.21882151E-02 -2.86869838E-02 3.24258031E-02 7.78187142E-02
a0 -1.19074843E+08 -1.18784517E+08 -1.19138797E+08 -1.20255497E+08 -1.21746805E+08 -1.23125148E+08 -1.24118150E+08 -1.24751652E+08
CO a1 2.77530876E+04 2.65619161E+04 2.73678854E+04 2.93294241E+04 3.14161320E+04 3.30152737E+04 3.39983842E+04 3.45443364E+04
a2 2.11143296E+00 3.33810419E+00 2.87920477E+00 2.01580193E+00 1.28476416E+00 8.20473767E-01 5.76971344E-01 4.59281270E-01
a0 -8.41215785E+06 -8.45191397E+06 -9.63044323E+06 -1.09722721E+07 -1.15398444E+07 -1.14482726E+07 -1.14681833E+07 -1.20684285E+07
O2 a1 2.79290625E+04 2.96771916E+04 2.97883655E+04 3.21891516E+04 3.30048877E+04 3.29036661E+04 3.29180044E+04 3.34283795E+04
a2 4.00216465E+00 4.24434114E+00 2.56092717E+00 1.48471317E+00 1.19140109E+00 1.21933357E+00 1.21709190E+00 1.10854860E+00
a0 -8.29812911E+06 -8.68524335E+06 -7.94540381E+06 -7.05749859E+06 -7.12951482E+06 -8.19971133E+06 -9.52860058E+06 -1.05588885E+07
H2 a1 2.71593329E+04 2.88539296E+04 2.71123210E+04 2.55149733E+04 2.55890349E+04 2.68165432E+04 2.81274067E+04 2.90145623E+04
a2 2.34388734E+00 5.04608356E-01 1.53326050E+00 2.25307859E+00 2.23644865E+00 1.88412604E+00 1.56062042E+00 1.36953764E+00
a0 3.03517944E+07 3.11850844E+07 3.18048979E+07 3.18406947E+07 3.12927076E+07 3.03158361E+07 2.90596928E+07 2.76408912E+07
OH a1 3.12403759E+04 2.80205033E+04 2.64802483E+04 2.63937908E+04 2.71499551E+04 2.82747281E+04 2.95100187E+04 3.07267458E+04
a2 -1.96353115E+00 1.17885458E+00 2.13902202E+00 2.18758760E+00 1.92637871E+00 1.60228142E+00 1.29835829E+00 1.03735187E+00
a0 -4.03230243E+08 -4.05503928E+08 -4.08483718E+08 -4.11512707E+08 -4.14259995E+08 -4.16581324E+08 -4.18433637E+08 -4.19875521E+08
CO2 a1 2.60922057E+04 3.47353524E+04 4.19632451E+04 4.73511746E+04 5.12084346E+04 5.39008809E+04 5.57311040E+04 5.6971454E+04
a2 1.88716353E+01 1.05681278E+01 6.16578109E+00 3.76410765E+00 2.40818341E+00 1.62667211E+00 1.17424187E+00 9.07346009E-01
a0 -8.48870665E+06 -8.15039752E+06 -8.30119827E+06 -9.20740461E+06 -1.06561537E+07 -1.21905497E+07 -1.34149000E+07 -1.41919358E+07
N2 a1 2.79875657E+04 2.66386780E+04 2.69570647E+04 2.85411443E+04 3.05633675E+04 3.23406182E+04 3.35518151E+04 3.42222002E+04
a2 1.65394210E+00 3.00876631E+00 2.84321096E+00 2.14938166E+00 1.44265519E+00 9.27500442E-01 6.27739960E-01 4.83069796E-01
a0 -2.51670196E+08 -2.51073876E+08 -2.50905014E+08 -2.51786159E+08 -2.53868761E+08 -2.56869912E+08 -2.60294536E+08 -2.63681212E+08
H2O a1 3.13663182E+04 2.90462528E+04 2.85809153E+04 3.01026482E+04 3.29951226E+04 3.64564086E+04 3.98289095E+04 4.27371502E+04
a2 3.74585290E+00 6.02445106E+00 6.34115735E+00 5.68290412E+00 4.67710215E+00 3.67808667E+00 2.84717548E+00 2.22247437E+00
a0 1.12693261E+07 1.06339344E+07 8.99965379E+06 6.49250293E+06 3.67631905E+06 1.17217261E+06 -6.99570234E+05 -2.07767848E+06
HO2 a1 2.93162152E+04 3.16375730E+04 3.55427676E+04 3.99743820E+04 4.39203425E+04 4.68255942E+04 4.86770492E+04 4.98621896E+04
a2 1.04649014E+01 8.32313467E+00 5.97991214E+00 4.01690032E+00 2.63260532E+00 1.78911102E+00 1.33093322E+00 1.07599009E+00
a0 -2.16828479E+07 -2.17668051E+07 -2.35607937E+07 -2.64637350E+07 -2.94186159E+07 -3.20038732E+07 -3.44016103E+07 -3.67743036E+07
HCO a1 2.93231500E+04 2.93939824E+04 3.36464775E+04 3.87855362E+04 4.29321831E+04 4.59280302E+04 4.82910807E+04 5.03279170E+04
a2 9.01416145E+00 9.18065505E+00 6.65015451E+00 4.37034172E+00 2.91342403E+00 2.04462380E+00 1.46197040E+00 1.02459349E+00

105
105

106
106

53
 Adiabatic Flame Temperature
The adiabatic flame temperature, Tad , is the maximum possible
temperature attained by the products of reaction when the reaction goes
to completion and all the heat release is used to heat up the products.

For such a system, the general expression for calculation of adiabatic

flame temperature is given by:

At constant pressure, thus δQ = dH and by assuming the heat generated

is used in heating the product only, i.e. δQ = 0.0, then,

The enthalpy in = the enthalpy out

i.e. or
107
107

The following example presents the calculation of the adiabatic flame

temperature for complete combustion of simple reaction of hydrogen and
oxygen.
As an illustration of the use of the following figure, consider the
adiabatic constant pressure complete combustion of hydrogen and
oxygen (at an initial temperature of 400 K and 1 bar) to form steam.
Since there is no heat loss from the system, the energy released in the
chemical reaction is absorbed by the product molecules; heating them
until they attain the adiabatic flame temperature, Tad, where the enthalpy
of the product just balances the enthalpy of the reactants plus the
enthalpy of formation of the product.

1 kmole H2 at 400 K
Constant Pressure 1 kmole H2O at Tad
Combustor
1/2 kmole O2 at 400 K

108
108

54
 By using the above reaction equation and apply that Hr = HP we obtain:

Using the data of Table 2 and Table 3 and substitute in the above
equation, then:
a b c

109
109

Table 3: Value of constants ai,0, ai,1, and ai,2 used to calculate the specific enthalpy for different components, HP,Ti = ai,0 + ai,1 T + ai,2 T2
Species Coeff. 300 – 600 K 600 - 900 900 - 1200 1200 - 1500 1500 - 1800 1800 - 2100 2100 - 2400 2400 - 2700
a0 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08 2.11933873E+08
H a1 2.08000224E+04 2.08000224E+04 2.08000225E+04 2.08000224E+04 2.08000226E+04 2.08000227E+04 2.08000244E+04 2.08000232E+04
a2 -1.07043074E-08 -4.98788916E-09 -5.72290161E-08 -1.72964546E-08 -6.11339370E-08 -8.13525529E-08 -4.52247051E-07 -1.67942431E-07
a0 2.42638975E+08 2.43042532E+08 2.43241578E+08 2.43227682E+08 2.43213925E+08 2.43348149E+08 2.43601094E+08 2.43846189E+08
O a1 2.31310159E+04 2.15508268E+04 2.10477105E+04 2.10681323E+04 2.10897414E+04 2.09369786E+04 2.06884077E+04 2.04775093E+04
a2 -1.93684289E+00 -3.75253889E-01 -5.66083371E-02 -6.37997525E-02 -7.21882151E-02 -2.86869838E-02 3.24258031E-02 7.78187142E-02
a0 -1.19074843E+08 -1.18784517E+08 -1.19138797E+08 -1.20255497E+08 -1.21746805E+08 -1.23125148E+08 -1.24118150E+08 -1.24751652E+08
CO a1 2.77530876E+04 2.65619161E+04 2.73678854E+04 2.93294241E+04 3.14161320E+04 3.30152737E+04 3.39983842E+04 3.45443364E+04
a2 2.11143296E+00 3.33810419E+00 2.87920477E+00 2.01580193E+00 1.28476416E+00 8.20473767E-01 5.76971344E-01 4.59281270E-01
a0 -8.41215785E+06 -8.45191397E+06 -9.63044323E+06 -1.09722721E+07 -1.15398444E+07 -1.14482726E+07 -1.14681833E+07 -1.20684285E+07
O2 a1 2.79290625E+04 2.96771916E+04 2.97883655E+04 3.21891516E+04 3.30048877E+04 3.29036661E+04 3.29180044E+04 3.34283795E+04
a2 4.00216465E+00 4.24434114E+00 2.56092717E+00 1.48471317E+00 1.19140109E+00 1.21933357E+00 1.21709190E+00 1.10854860E+00
a0 -8.29812911E+06 -8.68524335E+06 -7.94540381E+06 -7.05749859E+06 -7.12951482E+06 -8.19971133E+06 -9.52860058E+06 -1.05588885E+07
H2 a1 2.71593329E+04 2.88539296E+04 2.71123210E+04 2.55149733E+04 2.55890349E+04 2.68165432E+04 2.81274067E+04 2.90145623E+04
a2 2.34388734E+00 5.04608356E-01 1.53326050E+00 2.25307859E+00 2.23644865E+00 1.88412604E+00 1.56062042E+00 1.36953764E+00
a0 3.03517944E+07 3.11850844E+07 3.18048979E+07 3.18406947E+07 3.12927076E+07 3.03158361E+07 2.90596928E+07 2.76408912E+07
OH a1 3.12403759E+04 2.80205033E+04 2.64802483E+04 2.63937908E+04 2.71499551E+04 2.82747281E+04 2.95100187E+04 3.07267458E+04
a2 -1.96353115E+00 1.17885458E+00 2.13902202E+00 2.18758760E+00 1.92637871E+00 1.60228142E+00 1.29835829E+00 1.03735187E+00
a0 -4.03230243E+08 -4.05503928E+08 -4.08483718E+08 -4.11512707E+08 -4.14259995E+08 -4.16581324E+08 -4.18433637E+08 -4.19875521E+08
CO2 a1 2.60922057E+04 3.47353524E+04 4.19632451E+04 4.73511746E+04 5.12084346E+04 5.39008809E+04 5.57311040E+04 5.6971454E+04
a2 1.88716353E+01 1.05681278E+01 6.16578109E+00 3.76410765E+00 2.40818341E+00 1.62667211E+00 1.17424187E+00 9.07346009E-01
a0 -8.48870665E+06 -8.15039752E+06 -8.30119827E+06 -9.20740461E+06 -1.06561537E+07 -1.21905497E+07 -1.34149000E+07 -1.41919358E+07
N2 a1 2.79875657E+04 2.66386780E+04 2.69570647E+04 2.85411443E+04 3.05633675E+04 3.23406182E+04 3.35518151E+04 3.42222002E+04
a2 1.65394210E+00 3.00876631E+00 2.84321096E+00 2.14938166E+00 1.44265519E+00 9.27500442E-01 6.27739960E-01 4.83069796E-01
a0 -2.51670196E+08 -2.51073876E+08 -2.50905014E+08 -2.51786159E+08 -2.53868761E+08 -2.56869912E+08 -2.60294536E+08 -2.63681212E+08
H2O a1 3.13663182E+04 2.90462528E+04 2.85809153E+04 3.01026482E+04 3.29951226E+04 3.64564086E+04 3.98289095E+04 4.27371502E+04
a2 3.74585290E+00 6.02445106E+00 6.34115735E+00 5.68290412E+00 4.67710215E+00 3.67808667E+00 2.84717548E+00 2.22247437E+00
a0 1.12693261E+07 1.06339344E+07 8.99965379E+06 6.49250293E+06 3.67631905E+06 1.17217261E+06 -6.99570234E+05 -2.07767848E+06
HO2 a1 2.93162152E+04 3.16375730E+04 3.55427676E+04 3.99743820E+04 4.39203425E+04 4.68255942E+04 4.86770492E+04 4.98621896E+04
a2 1.04649014E+01 8.32313467E+00 5.97991214E+00 4.01690032E+00 2.63260532E+00 1.78911102E+00 1.33093322E+00 1.07599009E+00
a0 -2.16828479E+07 -2.17668051E+07 -2.35607937E+07 -2.64637350E+07 -2.94186159E+07 -3.20038732E+07 -3.44016103E+07 -3.67743036E+07
HCO a1 2.93231500E+04 2.93939824E+04 3.36464775E+04 3.87855362E+04 4.29321831E+04 4.59280302E+04 4.82910807E+04 5.03279170E+04
a2 9.01416145E+00 9.18065505E+00 6.65015451E+00 4.37034172E+00 2.91342403E+00 2.04462380E+00 1.46197040E+00 1.02459349E+00

Slide 114 110

110

55
 The numerical method to determine Tad involve the following sequence
of calculation:

1- Assume a value for Tad to calculate the value of

2- Substituting by the value of in the following equation and

repeat the above step until satisfaction (i.e. a = b + c).

a b c

3- Calculation over a wide range of Tad show linear interpolation to be

entirely accepted, and then Tad can be obtained at dH = 0.0.
111
111

From the above calculations, the value of

and thus by interpolation in (higher temperature range) Table 3 and the
following equation, then Tad = 4985 K.

112
112

56
 113
Example:
Mixtures of fuel and air react at constant pressure in a steady flow
process at 1 atm and 25 °C. Calculate the adiabatic flame temperature for
a stoichiometric mixture of the gaseous methane.
The stoichiometric combustion equation for reaction of gaseous
methane-air mixture is given by:

The general enthalpy expression for calculation of adiabatic flame

temperature is given by:

and

113

By assuming Tad = 2300 K and using the data in Tables 2 and 3, thus;

From Table 2

For CO2 at Tad = 2300 K: a0 -4.18433637E+08

a1 5.57311040E+04
From Table 3 a2 1.17424187E+00

a0 -2.60294536E+08
a1 3.98289095E+04
For H2O at Tad = 2300 K: a2 2.84717548E+00

114
114

57
 For N2 at Tad = 2300 K: a0 -1.34149000E+07
a1 3.35518151E+04
a2 6.27739960E-01

The difference Hr – Hp = 12015 kJ (at Tad = 2300 K)

115
115

By assuming Tad = 2330 K and using the data in Tables 2 and 3, thus;

For CO2 at Tad = 2330 K: a0 -4.18433637E+08

a1 5.57311040E+04
a2 1.17424187E+00

For H2O at Tad = 2330 K: a0 -2.60294536E+08

a1 3.98289095E+04
a2 2.84717548E+00

a0 -1.34149000E+07
For N2 at Tad = 2330 K:
a1 3.35518151E+04
a2 6.27739960E-01

116
116

58
 The difference Hr – Hp = -1227 kJ (at Tad = 2330 K)

117
117

By plotting the two values of T against the difference Hr – Hp , the

corresponding temperature for Hr – Hp = 0 is found to be Tad = 2327 K.

118
118

59
 By interpolation:

The adiabatic temperature is found to be Tad = 2327.2 K.

119
119

120
120

60
 Calorific or heating value of a fuel is one of the most
important properties of a fuel that needs to be
measured before the fuel can be considered for a
specific application.

The fuel may be in the liquid, gaseous or solid form.

The measurement of heating value is normally by

calorimetry. While a continuous flow calorimeter is
useful for the measurement of heating values of liquid
and gaseous fuels, a bomb calorimeter is used for the
measurement of heating value of a solid fuel.
121

121

1- Junker Calorimeter
It is used for the measurement of heating values of gaseous or liquid fuels

122
122

61
 1- The fuel is burned inside it

2- The heat released from the fuel burnt is go to the

cooling water

3- The mass of the water passing through the

apparatus as a function of time is determined with
.
the bucket and scale on the right mw
4- The temperature of the incoming water and that of
the overflow water is measured by the two
thermometers

5- By measuring the mass flow rate of fuel m.f

Water condensate in the Junker calorimeter

mw. C p (Tw 2  Tw1 )

Higher heating value ( H .H .V ) 
m.f
123
123

The condensate water flow rate is measured for

measuring the higher heating value mc.

 . 
Higher heating value ( H .H .V )  L.H .V   r * m c 
.  m 
 f 

Where (r) is the latent heat of condensation

124

124

62
 Flow schematic of calorimeter

.
Cooling water ( mw )

Tw1

Tf
Fuel
Tp2 Products of

Air
Calorimeter combustion

Ta

Tw2 Tc

mc.
Condensate

125

125

2- Bomb Calorimeter
Non flow bomb calorimeter used for the measurement of heating values of
solid and liquid fuels

126
126

63
 127
127

Bomb calorimeter
Function: Non flow bomb calorimeter used for
heating value determinations in solid and liquid
fuels

Operation:
The sample of fuel which required to know the
heating value of it is put into steel bomb which
contain oxygen in high pressure

The steel bomb is put in container which

contain water

The temperature of water is measured as a

function in time after firing in the bomb

From thermal equilibrium equation we can

determine the heat released from combustion
process 128
128

64
 Bomb calorimeter

m f * H .V  (m * C.V )ignitioncoil  (mC p T ) water  (mEequ T )bomb

Eequ is the specific heat of the

bomb material

129
129

130
130

65
 131
131

132
132

66
 133
133

Bomb
calorimeter

134
134

67
 135
135

Combustion, Gas Emission & Pollution

GAS
COMBUSTION POLLUTION
EMISSIONS

CO
AIR
CO2
O2
N2
FUEL
H2O
NOX
SOX
HC
136
136

68
 Combustion products measurement

Orsat Apparatus

137
137

138

138

69
 Orsat Apparatus
Function: Analyze products of combustion
A reagent pipettes which are used
successively to absorb carbon
dioxide, Oxygen, and Carbon
monoxide
The gas sample is volumetrically
measured before starting the
products measured.
CO2 is absorbed so that the volume is decreased, then the gas sample is
returned back to the Burette to know the volume of CO2.
O2 is absorbed so the volume is decreased then the gas sample is returned
back to the Burette to know the volume of O2. and so on, it can be
determined the gas analysis.
139
139

Potassium hydroxide is used to absorb Carbon dioxide.

A mixture of pyrogallic acid and solution of potassium

hydroxide is used to absorb Oxygen.

Cuprous chloride is used to absorb Carbon monoxide.

140

140

70
 Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatography is one of the most widely used methods
to determine the chemical make-up of a complex, volatile
mixture. In order to perform this technique a researcher uses a
gas chromatograph or GC.

141

141

Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatography - specifically gas-liquid chromatography - involves
a sample being vapourised and injected onto the head of the
chromatographic column. The sample is transported through the column
by the flow of inert, gaseous mobile phase. The column itself contains a
liquid stationary phase which is adsorbed onto the surface of an inert
solid.

142

142

71
 Instrumental components
Carrier gas
The carrier gas must be chemically inert. Commonly used gases include
nitrogen, helium, argon, and carbon dioxide. The choice of carrier gas is often
dependant upon the type of detector which is used. The carrier gas system also
contains a molecular sieve to remove water and other impurities.

Sample injection port

For optimum column efficiency, the sample should not be too large, and should
be introduced onto the column as a "plug" of vapour - slow injection of large
samples causes band broadening and loss of resolution. The most common
injection method is where a microsyringe is used to inject sample through a
rubber septum into a flash vapouriser port at the head of the column. The
temperature of the sample port is usually about 50°C higher than the boiling
point of the least volatile component of the sample. For packed columns,
sample size ranges from tenths of a microliter up to 20 microliters. Capillary
columns, on the other hand, need much less sample, typically around 10-3 mL.
For capillary GC, split/splitless injection is used.
143

143

The injector can be used in one of two modes; split or splitless. The injector
contains a heated chamber containing a glass liner into which the sample is
injected through the septum. The carrier gas enters the chamber and can leave
by three routes (when the injector is in split mode). The sample vapourises to
form a mixture of carrier gas, vapourised solvent and vapourised solutes. A
portion of this mixture passes onto the column, but most exits through the split
outlet. The septum purge outlet prevents septum bleed components from
entering the column.

Columns
There are two general types of column, packed and capillary (also known as
open tubular). Packed columns contain a finely divided, inert, solid support
material (commonly based on diatomaceous earth) coated with liquid stationary
phase. Most packed columns are 1.5 - 10m in length and have an internal
diameter of 2 - 4mm.

144

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72
 Examples:
Calculate the higher and lower heat values of Benzene by using the
Junker calorimeter where the latent heat of change of 1 kg vapor to
water at the atmospheric pressure is 2428 kJ/kg and:
Cooling water = 10 kg
Fuel consumption = 10 gram
Condensate water = 13.5 gram

The following readings for the inlet and outlet temperature (°C) are
taken during the measuring:

Inlet temperature 15.1 15.2 15.1 15.1 15 15.1

Outlet temperature 26.0 26.2 26.1 26.3 26.2 26.4

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Examples:
The heat value of a Propane gas is measured by using the Junker
calorimeter. The temperature difference rise of cooling water is 50
°C. The ratio of the fuel consumption to the cooling water flow rate
is 1/200. Estimate the higher and lower calorific values of Propane
fuel if the ratio of fuel consumption to the condensed water is 1/2.
The latent heat of change of 1 kg vapor to water at the atmospheric
pressure is 2428 kJ. During measuring, the products exit the
apparatus at temperature equal to the ambient temperature.

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 Examples:
An operator reports the following raw volume measurements on an
Orsat device in measuring the combustion products for Methane fuel
(CH4). Based on these data, calculate the air-fuel ratio and the excess
air factor:
Initial sample : 95 cm3
After CO2 : 83 cm3
After O2 : 79 cm3
After CO : 78 cm3

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Boilers and Combustion Chambers:

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 149

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 151

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Combustor Requirements:
A gas turbine combustor must satisfy a wide range of
requirements whose relative importance varies among engine
types. However, the basic requirements of all combustors may
be listed as follows:
1. High combustion efficiency (i.e., the fuel should be
completely burned so that all its chemical energy is
liberated as heat),
2. Reliable and smooth ignition, both on the ground (especially
at very low ambient temperatures) and, in the case of
aircraft engines, after a flameout at high altitude,
3. Wide stability limits (i.e., the flame should stay alight over
wide ranges of pressure, velocity, and air/fuel ratio),
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 4. Freedom from pressure pulsations and other manifestations
of combustion-induced instability,
5. Low pressure loss,
6. An outlet temperature distribution (pattern factor) that is
tailored to maximize the life of the turbine blades and
nozzle guide vanes,
7. Low emissions of smoke, unburned fuel, and gaseous
pollutant species,
8. Design for minimum cost and ease of maintenance,
9. Size and shape compatible with engine envelope and
10. Durability.
11. Multifuel capability
For aircraft engines the requirements of low size and weight
are clearly of paramount importance, whereas for industrial
engines more emphasis is placed on other items, such as long
operating life and multifuel capability. 153

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Combustor Types:

There are two basic types of combustor, namely tubular and

annular. Another type that is widely used is the tuboannular, or
can-annular, combustor, in which a number of equispaced
tubular liners are placed within an annular air casing.

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 (i) Tubular chambers

A tubular chamber is comprised of a cylindrical liner mounted

concentrically inside a cylindrical casing. Most of the early jet
engines featured tubular chambers, usually in numbers varying
from seven to sixteen per engine, and even today a single
tubular chamber may be preferred for a small gas turbine of
low power output. However, for the large majority of aircraft
applications, the tubular system is too long and heavy and
results in an engine of large frontal area and high drag.

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(i) Tubular chambers

Tubular (single can)

Tubular (multican)
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 Can type combustor
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(ii) Annular chambers:

In this type an annular liner is mounted concentrically inside
an annular casing. It is an ideal form of chamber, since its
“clean” aerodynamic layout results in a compact unit of lower
pressure loss than other chamber designs. Unfortunately, one
undesirable outcome of the annular system’s excellent
aerodynamic characteristics is that a slight variation in the
velocity profile of the inlet air can produce a significant
change in the temperature distribution of the outlet gases.

Another problem with large annular chambers stems from the

heavy buckling load on the outer liner. Distortion of the liner
disrupts the flow of cooling air and changes the outlet
temperature distribution.
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 Test-bed development of annular chambers presents serious
difficulties, owing to the very high cost of supplying air at the
levels of pressure and temperature and in the amounts required
to test large annular combustion chambers at full-load
conditions.

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(ii) Annular chambers:

Annular

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 (iii) Tuboannular chambers:
In the tuboannular chamber, a group of cylindrical liners is
arranged inside a single annular casing. This type represents
an attempt to combine the compactness of the annular
chamber with the best features of the tubular system.
Compared with the annular design, the tuboannular chamber
has an important advantage in that much useful chamber
development can be carried out with very modest air supplies,
using just a small segment of the total chamber containing one
or more liners. The main problem with tuboannular chambers
is that of achieving a satisfactory and consistent airflow
pattern; in particular, the design of the diffuser can present
serious difficulties.

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(iii) Tuboannular chambers:

Tuboannular

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 Tuboannular chambers are still used extensively, although the
great majority of modern combustors for large engines are of
annular form. The relative merits of tubular, annular and
tuboannular combustion chambers are summarized in the
following table.

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Chamber Type Advantages Disadvantages

Tubular 1- Mechanically robust. 1- Bulky and heavy.
2- Fuel-flow and airflow patterns are easily 2- High pressure loss.
matched. 3- Requires interconnectors.
3- Rig testing necessitates only small fraction of 4- Incurs problem of light-round.
total engine air mass flow.
Annular 1- Minimum length and weight. 1- Serious buckling.
2- Minimum engine frontal area. problem on outer liner
3- Minimum pressure loss. 2-Rig testing necessitates full engine air mass.
4- Easy light-round. 3-Difficult to match fuel-flow and airflow
patterns.
4-Difficult to maintain stable outlet temperature
traverse.
Tuboannular 1-Mechanically robust. 1- Less compact than annular.
2- Fuel-flow and airflow patterns are easily 2- Requires connectors.
matched. 3- Incurs problem of light round.
3- Rig testing necessitates only small fraction of
total engine air mass flow.
4- Low pressure loss.
5-Shorter and lighter than tubular chambers.

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 Boiler Types:
There are two general types of boilers: fire-tube and water-tube. In
addition, boilers are classified as “high” or “low” pressure and as
“steam” boilers or “hot water” boilers.

By definition, high-pressure boilers are steam boilers that operate at a

pressure greater than 1 bar. An advantage of using higher pressure is a
reduction in physical size of the boiler and steam piping for the same
heat-carrying capacity. This is due to the increased density of the higher-
pressure steam. The advantage is particularly important if the boiler is
some distance away from the heat load. A low-pressure boiler is one that
is operated at a pressure lower than 1 bar. Almost all low-pressure boilers
are used for space heating. Low-pressure boiler systems are simpler since
pressure-reducing valves are seldom required and the water chemistry of
the boiler is simpler to maintain. Another boiler classification is the hot
water boiler. It is essentially a fuel-fired hot water heater in which
sensible heat is added to increase the temperature to some level below
the boiling point. 165

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(i) Fire-tube boilers:

Fire-tube boilers constitute the largest share of small to
medium sized industrial units. In fire-tube boilers the flue gas
products of combustion flow through boiler tubes surrounded
by water as shown in the figure. The flue gases are cooled as
they flow through the tubes, transferring their heat to the
water. Cooling of the flue gas is a function of, the heat
conductivity of the tube and its surfaces, the temperature
difference between the flue gases and the water in the boiler,
the heat transfer area, the time of contact between the flue
gases and the boiler tube surface, flame characteristics, and
other factors.

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 (i) Fire-tube boilers:

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(ii) Water-tube boilers:

The main difference between the water-tube boiler and the
fire-tube boiler is that in the former the water circulates
through the tubes instead of around them as shown in the
figure. The hot gases pass around the tubes. There are two
advantages for the water-tube boiler: (1) higher capacity may
be obtained by increasing the number of tubes independent of
shell or drum diameter, and (2) the shell or drum is not
exposed to the radiant heat of the fire. In fire-tube boilers, the
thick shells and other structural requirements become
prohibitive over 22 ton& of steam and over 20 bar. The large
capacities and pressures of the water-tube boiler have made
possible the modem, large utility-type steam generators.

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 (ii) Water-tube boilers:

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Air and gas flow in a water-tube boiler 170

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 Efficiency of Combustion System

In what follows the term “combustion system” will be used to

denote either a boiler of a furnace. The efficiency of a
combustion system is defined as the ratio of the energy gained
by the working medium to the total energy available from the
fuel. For boilers for example, the energy gained is enthalpy
difference between the feed water entering the boiler and the
steam leaving it.

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Suppression of energy losses from combustion systems below

certain limits could be extremely expensive. Existing losses are a
compromise between acceptable capital investment and bearable
running cost. Energy losses arise principally in five categories:

(i) Energy carried out of the stack by hot flue gases, excluding
water vapor (dry flue gas loss).
(ii) Energy carried out of the stack by hot water vapor, including
both sensible and latent heat.
(iii) Unburned fuel and products of incomplete combustion,
including solid combustibles in ash and carbon monoxide in
flue gas.
(iv) Heat loss from the combustion system structure through the
insulation (radiation and convection losses from the outside
surface).
(v) Heat carried away with the boiler blow-down (boilers only).
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 Improvements in combustion system efficiency result
primarily from reductions in energy losses in the combustion
gases. These are a result of ensuring that the boiler/furnace is
well insulated and of controlling blowdown (for boilers only,
with or without heat recovery from the blowdown).

Simplified Calculation of Combustion System Efficiency:

The easiest way to calculate the efficiency of a combustion
system is to use the following definition of the efficiency:

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The following figure facilitates the calculation of the above

mentioned losses, thus simplified the calculation of the
combustion system efficiency. This chart is based on typical
gross calorific values of the fuel concerned and on an ambient
temperature of 20 °C. In cases where the ambient temperature
is not 20 °C, an appropriate correction must be made.

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 175

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Example:
Fuel fired heavy fuel oil (Mazout)
Flue gas temperature 285 °C
Ambient temperature 30 °C
Oxygen content 4 % by volume, dry basis
Radiation/blowdown losses 6%

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 Fuel fired heavy fuel oil (Mazout)
Flue gas temperature 285 °C
Ambient temperature 30 °C
Oxygen content 4 % by volume, dry basis
Radiation/blowdown losses 6%

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The figure refers to heavy fuel

oil. Note it is based on gross
calorific value and on an
ambient temperature of 20 °C.
The calculation procedure is
shown in the figure, from which
we see the excess air is about
22 percent, the carbon dioxide
content of stack gas is 12.8
percent by volume, and the gas
loss is 17.2 percent. The
estimated boiler efficiency is
thus 100 – 17.2 – 6 = 76.8
percent.

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 Note that the flue gas temperature is taken as 275 °C, not 285
°C as actually measured. On the chart, the 275 °C line
represents a temperature difference relative to ambient of 255
°C.

Because the ambient temperature is actually 30 °C, the

temperature difference in our example is (285 – 30) or 255 °C,
the same as indicated by the 275 °C temperature line in the
chart.

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