《PROCESS OF PLANTS/CROPS MAKING THEIR

FOOD AND THE IMPORTANCE TO STUDY THE

MECHANISM FOR PLANT PHYSIOLOGISTS 》课

程论文

学年学期：第二学期
姓名与学号 ：OBLITAS GONZALEZ JOSE
ALBERTO 3190300150
年级与专业 :机械工程
任课教师 ：Imran Haider Shamsi
开课学院: 农业与生物技术学院
提交日期 ：2020/6/23

PROCESS OF PLANTS/CROPS MAKING THEIR FOOD AND THE

 IMPORTANCE TO STUDY THE MECHANISM FOR PLANT
PHYSIOLOGISTS

Abstract ：This work explains the processes involved in plant nutrition as

well as the importance for physiologists of knowing the functioning and
development of plants. The plant nutrition process is divided into several
stages: through the photosynthesis of plants, respiration and their ability
to absorb nutrients through the roots, they receive everything they need.
Plants obtain oxygen and carbon through the respiration process. Hydrogen
is obtained from the water that its roots absorb and the rest of the
mineral micronutrients are also obtained by absorption from the roots, that
is to say, from the soil or soil.
The raw sap: Plants take water and mineral salts from the soil at the roots
thanks to absorbent hairs. The mixture of water and mineral salts forms the
raw sap, which circulates through the root and stem through very fine tubes
called woody vessels, until it reaches the leaves.
Carbon dioxide: It is a gas from the atmosphere that penetrates the leaves
through very fine openings called stomata.
Photosynthesis: It is the process that plants carry out to make their food
and expel oxygen. It is done on the leaves and green parts of the plant.
The elaborated sap: The water and mineral salts in the raw sap combine with
carbon dioxide and, with the help of energy from sunlight, transform into
the processed sap, which is the food of the plant.
Chloroplasts: Plants capture energy from sunlight through a substance
called chlorophyll, which is green in color and is found inside organelles
called chloroplasts.
Key Words: Photosynthesis, process of Plants, physiologists.

In recent times, the presence of plants has been reconsidered for

their ability to reduce the harmful gases that industries and automobiles
release into the atmosphere. That is why leafy forests are a kind of
"lungs" for Earth. Hence the importance of plant physiology and therefore
professionals who are dedicated to the study of plants, their structure and
processes in general, and to use such knowledge for the benefit of mankind.
Plants are autotrophic organisms, that is to say, they are able to make
their own food from very simple substances such as water, mineral salts,
carbon dioxide and sunlight. They do not need to feed on other living
things. During the development of this essay, it will be known, how exactly
does the plant nutrition process work? How do plants feed and what do they
need to get the energy to live?

1 NUTRITION PROCESSES IN PLANTS

Plants are sessile organisms. They cannot chase prey, nor migrate from
one place to another in search of food, that is why during the evolution of
plants, by separating from other multicellular eukaryotes, fungi and
animals, they acquired a unique way of obtaining the food they need to
survive, reproduce and disperse. Unlike fungi and animals, plants are
autotrophic organisms. This means that they are capable of synthesizing
organic matter from inorganic matter. The plant feeding process comprises
several stages: first they must take substances from the soil such as water
and mineral salts, and others from the air such as carbon dioxide and solar
energy. These substances must then be transformed into food through the
photosynthesis process. Once transformed into food, it must be distributed
throughout the plant, so the plant can use it both to grow and to obtain
energy to continue living. The last stage of this process is to remove the
waste substances generated during nutrition.
1.1 Stages of Nutrition in Plants
- Absorption and transport of water and mineral salts from the root to the
xylem
-Transport of water and mineral salts through the xylem
-Leaf Gas Exchange
-Photosynthesis
-Transport of organic matter through the phloem
-Cellular Respiration
1.1.1 Absorption and transport of water and mineral salts from
the root to the xylem
 The soil is made up of small particles of rock and organic matter that
house spaces filled with air and water. Plants extract water and mineral
salts from the soil. These nutrients are absorbed through specialized
cells, called root hairs(also known as absorbent hairs), which are found at
the root.
Root hairs are specialized epidermal cells that undergo evagination
during the differentiation process, which aims to increase the absorption
surface.
Then the nutrients have to go through the different tissues of the
root until they reach the xylem that will then lead them to the
photosynthetic apparatus of the plant.

1.1.2 Transport of water and mineral salts through the xylem

Mineral salts and water are part of the raw sap, which has to travel
long distances along the xylem until it reaches the leaves, where
photosynthesis takes place.
The movement of crude sap can be explained either because there is a
sucking force that, from above, "pulls" water and mineral salts (cohesion-
tension theory) or because a positive pressure is produced that pushes it
to ascend from below (root pressure theory).
The cohesion-tension theory explains that the force that raises the
raw sap by the xylem originates from the tension that originates the
transpiration of water and the cohesion that exists between its molecules.
Transpiration is the loss of water, in the form of steam, through the
stomata of the leaves, caused by the action of solar energy. The loss of
water molecules causes a water deficit that generates a suction force that
raises the raw sap. Furthermore, the maintenance of a continuous column of
water occurs because, due to hydrogen bridges, there is great cohesion
between the water molecules. And the mineral salts dissolved in the water
are passively transported upwards.
The root pressure theory holds that the accumulation of water in the
root tissues creates a pressure on the xylem that pushes the brute sage to
ascend vertically. Evidence of the existence of root pressure is the
accumulation of water droplets at the apex and leaf margins. Although this
theory would not apply to very tall trees, whose nutrients will have to be
raised several meters above the ground, and also it would not apply when
soil moisture drops.
1.1.3 Leaf Gas Exchange
Although plants do not have a respiratory system like animals, they do
have structures specialized in gas exchange, located on their surface:
stomata and lenticels.
Stomata are specialized structures of the epidermis formed by two
cells, the occlusive cells, which delimit a space between them, and the
ostiolus. They are located throughout the aerial part of the plant, but
they abound on the underside of the leaves and on the young stems. These
cells contain chloroplasts and their plant wall is thickened in the area
surrounding the ostiol, which is essential for their function.
After entering the ostiol, the carbon dioxide(necessary for
photosynthesis), diffuses through the intercellular spaces of the plant
tissues, enters the cells, and finally the chloroplasts. The oxygen that is
produced during photosynthesis exits through the ostiolus and performs the
reverse path. Not all of the carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis comes
from the atmosphere. One part is generated during cellular respiration.
Likewise, the oxygen used in respiration has a double origin:
photosynthesis and the atmosphere.
Lenticels are small protuberances found on the epidermis of stems and
branches of woody plants. Its cells have a rounded shape and are widely
separated from each other to facilitate gas exchange, leaving large
intercellular spaces.

1.1.4 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process used by plants through which they
produce chemical energy from solar light energy. By this energy from the
sun, plants convert water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air
into glucose, an essential nutrient that provides them with energy and
enables the manufacture of cellulose.
Photosynthesis is the most important chemical process on Earth,
through which organic substances are synthesized from solar light energy.
All the plants, algae and cyanobacteria that carry out photosynthesis are
considered photoautotrophic organisms. The energy source of these is
sunlight and their main source of hydrogen is water, producing as a waste,
in most cases oxygen, vital for life on earth.
Photosynthesis is the basic form of nutrition of the Plantae kingdom,
it takes place in chloroplasts where specialized proteins called
"Photosynthetic Reaction Centers" are found, which absorb sunlight and have
a pigment called chlorophyll. This intervenes in the photosynthetic process
and gives the plants a characteristic green color.

The equation of the photosynthesis process is:

CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + PHOTONS → GLUCOSE + OXYGEN

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C6 H 12 O6 + 6O₂

1.1.4.1 Photosynthesis Stages

The photosynthesis process is divided into two stages, light-dependent
and light-independent reactions.
Light-dependent reactions
It is carried out in the "granums of the chloroplasts"; the energy
from the sun is captured by the chlorophyll, causing the release of
electrons from this molecule. Some of these electrons act by dissociating
the water molecules absorbed by the plant through the corresponding organs.
Water molecules break down into their two components: one oxygen atom and
two hydrogen atoms: this process of breaking the water molecule is called
"hydrolysis".
The oxygen atom, which the plant does not use, pairs with another and
forms oxygen gas molecules that are released through the stomata of the
leaves into the atmosphere, allowing all living beings to breathe.
The hydrogen atoms resulting from this dissociation, which will be
used later in the dark stage, go on to integrate the molecule of a coenzyme
capable of "transferring hydrogens", called "NADP", transforming it into
"hydrogenated NADP" (NADPH).
The energy of the remaining electrons is stored in the adenosine
nucleotide, a highly energetic compound that has the property of storing
energy but also transferring it quickly, allowing another chemical
reaction. This compound is formed when an "ADP" molecule binds to a
molecule called a "phosphate group", forming ATP.
Light-independent reactions:
It is carried out in the chloroplast matrix. In that place and as a
product of previous chemical reactions, there is a compound of five carbon
atoms (pentose), called "ribulose diphosphate".
This molecule is joined by the carbon dioxide absorbed by the stomata,
transforming it into a highly unstable six-carbon compound, since it is
then split into two molecules of three carbon atoms, called
"phosphoglyceric acid" which is the first product organic of photosynthesis
and whose importance lies in the fact that, depending on the chemical
recombination it performs, it can be transformed into: vegetable proteins,
lipids, vitamins or replace the ribulose diphosphate consumed so far.
But the most frequent recombination is the one that allows each
molecule of phosphoglyceric acid to unite with a hydrogen atom that is
transferred to it by NADPH. In this way two new trioses called
phosphoglyceraldehyde originate, which finally join together to form a
stable hexose called glucose. For this union to take place, it is necessary
to provide chemical energy that provides the ATP formed in the first stage.
Glucose is soluble in water, which is why it can be easily transported
to all the organs of the plant and it can store or form disaccharides such
as "sucrose" or monosaccharides such as "fructose" and even polymerize,
causing starch.

1.1.4.2 Parts of the plant cell involved in photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts
These organelles are unique to plants and algae. The main function of
chloroplasts is to carry out photosynthesis, since they contain chlorophyll
and other enzymes necessary to carry out the process.
Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and converts and stores it to
NADPH and ATP molecules releasing oxygen from the water.
They then use these energy-supplying molecules to make organic molecules,
starting with Carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin Cycle.
Cellular membrane
It allows water, gas and molecules to enter and exit the cell.
Vacuole
Plant cells contain a large central vacuole filled with water and
covered by a membrane called a tonoplast. Its function is to control the
movement of molecules between the cytosol and the sap.
Cell wall
It is made of cellulose that protects the contents of the cell and
gives it strength and rigidity. Additionally, it contains communication
channels with adjacent cells.
Cytoplasm
It contains the enzymes and proteins that the cell needs to carry out
photosynthesis.
Cell nucleus.
It is where the DNA of the enzymes and proteins used during
photosynthesis are housed.
1.1.5 Transport of organic matter through the phloem
The products that have been synthesized in the leaves during
photosynthesis are called processed sap, a mixture of sugars (mainly
sucrose), amino acids, salts and water.
The transportation of the elaborated sap from the production areas
(Leaves) to the consumption areas (stems, roots, fruits and seeds) is
carried out by the phloem.
The movement of the elaborated sap through the phloem (which circulates
at a much higher rate than would be expected if only the force of gravity
acted) is explained by the pressure flow hypothesis. This hypothesis is
based on the differences in water pressure between the production and
consumption areas.

1.1.6 Cellular Respiration

It consists of closing the stomata of the leaves as a preventive
measure against the possible loss of water, it occurs when the environment
is warm and dry. It is then when the oxygen generated in the photosynthetic
process begins to reach high concentrations.
When abundant carbon dioxide exists, the enzyme RuBisCO (through its
activity as carboxylase) introduces the chemical compound into the Calvin
cycle with great efficiency. But when the concentration of carbon dioxide
in the leaf is considerably lower compared to that of oxygen, the same
enzyme is in charge of catalyzing the reaction of RuBisCO with oxygen
(through its activity as oxygenase), instead of carbon dioxide. carbon.
This reaction is considered the first phase of the photorespiratory
process, in which carbohydrates are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in
the presence of light. Furthermore, this process involves a significant
loss of energy as neither NADH nor ATP is generated (this is the main
feature that differentiates it from mitochondrial respiration).
When a RuBisCO molecule reacts with an oxygen molecule, one molecule
of phosphoglyceric acid and one of phosphoglycolic acid originate, which
promptly hydrolyzes to glycolic acid. The latter leaves the chloroplasts to
subsequently enter the peroxisomes (organelles that house oxidative
enzymes), where it reacts with oxygen again to produce glyoxylic acid and
hydrogen peroxide (the action of the catalase enzyme will catalyze the
decomposition of this compound chemical in oxygen and water). However,
glyoxylic acid is converted to glycine, an amino acid that is transferred
to the mitochondria to form one molecule of serine from two of glyoxylic
acid (this process involves the release of one molecule of carbon dioxide).
Hatch-Slack Pathway or C4 Carbon Fixation
In vegetables typical of tropical climate zones, where photo-
respiration could generate a problem of considerable severity, a different
process is carried out to capture carbon dioxide. In these plants two
varieties of chloroplasts are distinguished: there are some that are found
in the internal cells, contiguous to the conductive vessels of the leaves,
and others that are in the cells of the peripheral chlorophyll parenchyma,
which is called mesophyll. It is in the latter type of chloroplast that
carbon dioxide fixation occurs. The acceptor molecule of this chemical
compound is phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP), and the enzyme that acts is
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, which is not affected by a high
concentration of oxygen.
From phosphoenolpyruvic acid and carbon dioxide, oxalacetic acid is
generated, consisting of four carbons (this is where the name C4 plants
comes from). The acid mentioned above is transformed into malic acid, and
this passes to the chloroplasts of the internal cells through plasmodesms.
There, carbon dioxide is released, which will be able to continue the
Calvin cycle. As a consequence, no alteration occurs in these plants as a
result of respiration.
CAM Plants
These acronyms mean, crassulacean acid metabolism. This name was
attributed to the plants belonging to this family, that is, to the
crassulaceae. However, several CAM plant species are currently known,
belonging to different families of succulent plants (Crassulaceae,
Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Aizoaceae are some examples).
Generally, CAM plants are vegetables originating from areas with
desert or sub-desert climatic conditions, which are subject to intense
lighting, high temperatures and permanent water deficit. Many peculiarities
of these plants can be enumerated, such as that the photosynthetic tissue
is homogeneous, and the absence of a differentiated pod and palisade
chlorénchyme is also noticeable.
CAM plants are adapted to extreme aridity conditions, so it is logical
that their stomata open at night, to avoid as much as possible the loss of
water through transpiration, fixing carbon dioxide in the dark by a
reaction of carboxylation of PEP (phosphoenolpyruvic acid) catalyzed by the
enzyme PEP-carboxylase in the cytosol. As a result, the formation of
oxalacetate and malate occurs, which is stored in the vacuole, resulting in
nocturnal acidification of the leaf. The malate stored in the vacuole is
released during the day while the stomata remain closed, being taken to the
chloroplast. Once in this organelle, the malate is decarboxylated by the
NADP-dependent malic enzyme and the carbon dioxide that is given off is
fixed in the Calvin cycle. Pyruvic acid is converted back to sugars, to
finally become starch. Carbon fixation and reduction in CAM plants have
higher energy requirements than in C3 and C4 plants in terms of ATP. Its
photosynthetic yield per unit of time is lower and its growth is slower. As
a consequence of the adaptation of these plants to their extreme habitats,
the mechanisms that regulate the balance between transpiration and
photosynthesis are strongly directed towards minimizing water losses, thus
ensuring survival in the desert environment, although at the cost of less
productivity.
2 THE IMPORTANCE TO STUDY THE MECHANISM FOR PLANT
PHYSIOLOGISTS
The field of plant physiology includes the study of all internal plant
activities of those chemical and physical processes associated with life
that occur in plants.
The study of phytochemistry (plant chemistry) falls within the domain
of plant physiology. To function and survive, plants produce a wide range
of chemical compounds not found in other organisms. Photosynthesis requires
a wide variety of pigments, enzymes, and other compounds to function.
Because they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically
from herbivores, pathogens, and competition from other plants. They do this
by producing toxins and bad taste, odor, or chemicals. Other compounds
defend plants against disease, allow survival during drought, and prepare
plants for dormancy, while other compounds are used to attract pollinators
or herbivores to spread mature seeds.
Physiologists must study the processes of Plants well, since knowledge
of plants and their operation is becoming increasingly important for
humanity. Green plants are not only the ultimate source of all food, but
supply raw materials to numerous industries. All this makes the human being
want to obtain more and better products, that is to say, agriculture is
increasingly in the hands of specialists, and they must have knowledge of
the processes that take place in plants and also of the effects of means on
these processes, that is to say, a practical application of the principles
of Plant Physiology is needed.
 The application of fundamental investigations of Plant Physiology have
led to improve the methods of propagation, cultivation, collection, as well
as conservation of many plant products. The control of pests and diseases
of plants has had a great help in Plant Physiology. For all these reasons,
any advance that is achieved in this science, directly or indirectly
contributes to the advancement of agriculture.
The study of physiology consists of knowing better the processes of
growth and development of the plant. This is obtained through basic
research that is later transferred to agriculture to attend to one of the
most important aspects, the increase of human population.

References：

[1] MHEDUCATION. El proceso de Nutrición en las Plantas.

https://www.mheducation.es/bcv/guide/capitulo/8448180895.pdf

[2] ECOLOGIA VERDE (April 2020). Nutrición de las Plantas: Proceso.

https://www.ecologiaverde.com/nutricion-de-las-plantas-proceso-2667.html

[3] HIDDEN NATURE (February 2019). Fisiología Vegetal. https://www.hidden-

nature.com/dodociencia/universitario/grado-biologia/fisiologia-vegetal/

[4] SLIDESHARE. (July 2008) Cellular and Plant Transport.

https://www.slideshare.net/seasprite/presentation-07-cellular-and-plant-transport