General Chemistry 2 FINAL POSITION

After A has rolled down the hill, the potential

energy lost by A has been converted to
random motions of the components of the
- is the study of energy or heat flow hill (frictional heating) and to the increase in
that accompanies a chemical the potential energy of B.
reaction and/or physical
transformations.
- a branch of thermodynamics that
deals with the interconversion of
energy 2 forms: heat and work.

The Nature of Energy

ENERGY
• Capacity to do work or to produce heat
• Law of conservation of energy –
energy can be converted from one form
to another but can be neither created
nor destroyed.
• The total energy content of the universe
is constant
POTENTIAL ENERGY
- energy due to position of composition
• Heat involves the transfer of energy
between two objects due to a
temperature difference.
• Work – force acting over a distance.
• Energy is a state function; work and
heat are not
• State Function – property that does not
depend in any way on the system’s past
or future (only depends on present
state)

KINETIC ENERGY ENERGY IN TRANSIT

- energy due to motion of the object
and depends on the mass of the
object and its velocity.
• is a form of energy transfer between
INITIAL POSITION
two objects as a result of their
In the initial position, ball A has a higher difference in temperature.
potential energy than ball B.
“Energy flows from a hotter object to a
cooler one until thermal equilibrium is
reached.”
 • is the part of the universe being
studied or to which attention is
focused.
• include everything else in the universe.
The system is the part of the universe in which
we focus our attention (the reaction).
The surroundings are anything that is not the
system (the beaker, our hands, a solvent, a
thermometer, etc.)
CHEMICAL ENERGY
• System – part of the universe on which
we wish to focus attention.
• Surroundings – include everything else
in the universe.
Endothermic Reaction:
• heat flow is into a system
• absorb energy from the surroundings
Exothermic Reaction:
• energy flows out of the system
• energy gained by the surroundings
must be equal to the energy lost by
the system.
Simple steps maybe followed in
determining whether a process is an
exothermic or an endothermic process.
First, the system and the surrounding
must be identified.
Then, consider the direction of the flow
of heat
Finally, determine if heat is released is
released or absorbed.
 Consider the melting of butter at room c) Water boils in a kettle being heated on
temperature. The butter is the system, and a stove.
the air is the surrounding. To melt the
- Endothermic because the water is
butter, its temperature must increase;
absorbing energy from the material that the
therefore, heat must flow from the air to
kettle is made of.
the butter. The process is endothermic.

Generally, an endothermic process d) Water vapor condenses on a cold

favors an increase in temperature. On the
other hand, an exothermic process favors
a decrease in temperature.
Is the freezing of water an endothermic or
exothermic process? Explain.
The freezing process is exothermic
because the water molecules have to lose
energy to the surroundings in order for them
to change from a liquid state (high internal
kinetic energy) to a solid taste (lower kinetic
energy).
Classify each process as exothermic or
endothermic. Explain. The system is
underlined in each example.
pipe.
- Exothermic because the water vapor is
releasing energy to the pipe and cooling off
to the point at which vapor molecules
change to a liquid state.
e) Ice cream melts.
- Endothermic because the ice cream is
absorbing energy from the surrounding and
the ice is changing into liquid state.
Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas react
violently to form water. Explain.
- Because water is lower in energy
than the mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen gases.

a) Your hand gets cold when you touch

ice.
- Exothermic because your hand loses
thermal energy to the ice. Heat energy
always flow from the hot to the cold object.

b) The ice gets warmer when you touch

it.
- Endothermic because the ice is absorbing
energy from your hand.
 FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
- states that heat is a form of energy,
and thermodynamic processes are
therefore subject to the principle of
conservation of energy. This means
that heat energy cannot be created
nor destroyed.
• Sign reflects the system’s point of view.
Thermodynamics ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS:
• The study of energy and its - w is negative
interconversions is called
thermodynamics. EXOTHERMIC PROCESS:
• Law of conservation of energy is often - w is positive
called the first law of thermodynamics.

Internal Energy There are two possible types of

transformation that a system may undergo:
• Thermodynamic quantities consist of
two parts: a. A physical change, i.e. a change in
- Number gives the magnitude of the physical state that involves release or
change. absorption of energy.
- Sign indicates the direction of the b. A chemical change, i.e. a chemical
flow. reaction that is accompanied by a
• Internal energy E of a system is the sum gain or loss of energy.
of the kinetic and potential energies of
all the “particles” in the system.
The change in energy, ∆𝐸 is defined as
To change the internal energy of a the change in the total energy of the system
system: as it transforms from one state to another.
The equation is written as:
∆𝑬 = 𝒒 + 𝒘
• q represents heat ∆𝑬 = 𝑬𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 − 𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍
• w represents work
If ∆𝑬 is positive, it means that the system
• Sign reflects the system’s point of view. has absorbed energy from the
surroundings. If ∆𝑬 is negative, it means
ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS:
that the system has released or given up
- q is positive
energy to the surroundings
EXOTHERMIC PROCESS:
- q is negative
 HEAT SYSTEM FORMULA GIVEN:

q = - 100 J (negative because the

∆𝑬 = 𝒒 + 𝒘 system released the heat)

w = + 50 J (positive because work is

(+W) = work is done in the system
done in the system)
(gains energy)

(-W) = system does the work REQUIRED: ∆𝐸

(uses/transfer energy)
EQUATION: ∆𝑬 =𝒒 +𝒘
(+q) = system absorbs heat
SOLUTION AND ANSWER:
(-q) = system releases heat
∆𝐸 = (−100) + (50)

Energy can be exchanged between a ∆𝑬 = −𝟓𝟎 𝑱

system and its surroundings in the form of
either heat or work. Therefore, the first law
of thermodynamics is mathematically
expressed as:
∆𝑬 = 𝒒 + 𝒘
Where:
ΔE = is the total change in the internal
energy
q = is the heat exchanged between
system and the surrounding
w = is the work exchanged between
system and surroundings.
SAMPLE
PROBLEM:
When a system gives off 100 J of heat
and the surrounding does 50 J of work on
the system, what is the change in internal
energy of the system, ∆𝐸?
The system changes from state 1 to
state 2 and its internal energy change is -
188 J. During the change, the system does
12 J of work on its surroundings. Does the
system absorb heat from the surrounding?
How many joules are absorbed or release
by the system?
GIVEN:
q = - 188 J (negative because the
system released the heat)
w = - 12 J (negative because the system
does the work)
REQUIRED: ∆𝐸
EQUATION: ∆𝑬 =𝒒 +𝒘
∆𝑬 = 𝒒 − 𝒘
SOLUTION AND ANSWER:

∆𝐸 = (−188) − (−12)

∆𝑬 = −𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝑱
A gas releases 78 J of heat as 84 J of work
was done to compress it. What is the total
heat of the system? What is the process
involved?
GIVEN:
Calculate ΔE and indicate whether the
energy of the system has increased or
decreased in the following cases.
1. A system absorbs 145 J of heat and
does 167 J of work.

GIVEN:
q = - 78 J (negative because the system
released the heat) q = +145 J (positive because the system
absorbs the heat)
w = 84 J (positive because work is done
in the system) w = - 167 J (negative because system
does the work)
REQUIRED: ∆𝐸
REQUIRED: ∆E
EQUATION: ∆𝑬 =𝒒 +𝒘
EQUATION: ∆𝑬 =𝒒 +𝒘
SOLUTION AND ANSWER:
SOLUTION AND ANSWER:
∆𝐸 = (−78) + (84)
∆𝐸 = 145 + (−167)
∆𝑬 = 𝟔 𝑱
∆𝑬 = −𝟐𝟐 𝑱
A gas absorbs 94 J of heat as it does 65 J
of work by expanding. What is the total heat 2. A system releases 128 J of heat
of the system? while the surroundings does 143 J of work
on it.
GIVEN:
GIVEN:
q = + 94 J (positive because the system
absorbs the heat) q = - 128 J (negative because the
system released the heat)
w = - 65 J (negative because the system
does the work) w = + 143 J (positive because
surroundings does the work)
REQUIRED: ∆𝐸
REQUIRED: ∆E
EQUATION: ∆𝑬 =𝒒 +𝒘
EQUATION: ∆𝑬 =𝒒 +𝒘
SOLUTION AND ANSWER:
SOLUTION AND ANSWER:
∆𝐸 = (94) + (−65)
∆𝐸 = (−128) + 143
∆𝑬 = 𝟐𝟗 𝑱
∆𝑬 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑱
WORK
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑷 × 𝑨 × ∆𝒉 = 𝑷∆𝑽
• P is pressure
• A is area
• ∆ℎ is the piston moving a distance
• ∆𝑉 is the change in volume
• For an expanding gas, ΔV is a positive
quantity because the volume is
increasing. Thus ΔV and w must have
opposite signs:
w = –PΔV
• To convert between L·atm and Joules,
use 1 L·atm = 101.3 J.
EXERCISE!
Which of the following performs more
work?
a) A gas expanding against a pressure
of 2 atm from 1.0 L to 4.0 L.
b) A gas expanding against a pressure
of 3 atm from 1.0 L to 3.0 L.
They perform the same amount of work.
CHANGE IN ENTALPHY
State Function
∆𝐻 = 𝑞 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
Consider the combustion of propane:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
ΔH = –2221 kJ
Assume that all of the heat comes from the
combustion of propane. Calculate ΔH in
which 5.00 g of propane is burned in
excess oxygen at constant pressure.
–252 kJ
Calorimetry
Science of measuring heat
Specific heat capacity:
The energy required to raise the
temperature of done gram of a substance
by one degree Celsius.
Molar heat capacity:
The energy required to raise the
temperature of one mole of substance by
one degree Celsius.
If two reactants at the same
temperature are mixed and the
resulting solution gets warmer, this
means the reaction taking place is
exothermic
An endothermic reaction cools the
solution.
A Coffee- Cup
Calorimeter made of
Two Styrofoam Cups
Energy released (heat) = m xs x ∆𝑻
m = mass of solution (g)
s = specific heat capacity (J/°Cg)
∆𝑇 = change in temperature (°C)
A 100.0 g sample of water at 90°C is
added to a 100.0 g sample of water at
10°C.
The final temperature of the water is:
a) Between 50°C and 90°C
b) 50°C
c) Between 10°C and 50°C
A 100.0 g sample of water at 90.°C is
added to a 500.0 g sample of water at
10.°C.
The final temperature of the water is:
a) Between 50°C and 90°C
b) 50°C
c) Between 10°C and 50°C
Calculate the final temperature of the water.
23°C
You have a Styrofoam cup with 50.0 g of
water at 10°C. You add a 50.0 g iron ball at
90. °C to the water. (sH2O = 4.18 J/°C·g and
sFe = 0.45 J/°C·g)
The final temperature of the water is:
a) Between 50°C and 90°C
b) 50°C
c) Between 10°C and 50°C
Calculate the final temperature of the water.
18°C
Enthalpies of Formation
STANDARD ENTALPHY OF FORMATION (∆𝐻𝑓 °)
Change in enthalpy that accompanies
the formation of one mole of a
compound from its elements with all
substances in their standard states.
CONVENTIONAL DEFINITIONS OF STANDARD STATES
For a Compound
• For a gas, pressure is exactly
1 atm.
• For a solution, concentration is
exactly 1 M.
• Pure substance (liquid or solid)
For an Element
• The form [N2(g), K(s)] in which
it exists at 1 atm and 25oC.
PROBLEM- SOLVING STRATEGY: ENTHALPY
CALCULATIONS
When a reaction is reversed, the
magnitude of ∆𝐻 remains the same,
but its sign changes.
 When the balanced equation for a
reaction is multiplied by an integer, the
value of ∆𝐻 for that reaction must be 𝑭𝒆𝟐 𝑶𝟑 + 𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝟐𝑭𝒆(𝑶𝑯)𝟑
multiplied by the same integer. ∆𝐻 = ?
The change in enthalpy for a given
reaction can be calculated from the
𝑭𝒆𝟐 𝑶𝟑 = 𝟖𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑱 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 = −𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝑱
enthalpies of formation of the reactants
and products. 𝑭𝒆(𝑶𝑯)𝟑 = 𝟕𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑱 𝑯𝟐 = 𝟖𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑱
Elements in their standard states are not
included in the ∆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 calculations Solution and Answer:
°
because ∆𝐻𝑓 for an element in its ∆𝑯 = 𝑯𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 − 𝑯𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔
standard state is zero.

Energy Sources ∆𝑯 = 𝟐(𝟕𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑱) − [(𝟖𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑱 +

Coal Conversion
𝟑 (−𝟏𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝑱)]
Hydrogen as a Fuel ∆𝑯 = 𝟏𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑱 − 𝟖𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑱 + (−𝟒𝟔𝟓)
Other Energy Alternatives ∆𝑯 = 𝟏, 𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑱 − 𝟒𝟎𝟐 𝒌𝑱
Oil Shale ∆𝑯 = 𝟏, 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝒌𝑱
Ethanol
Methanol
Seed Oil

Enthalpy of Reaction

∆𝑯 = 𝑯𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 − 𝑯𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝟑𝑯𝟐 + 𝟐𝑪𝑶
∆𝐻 = ?
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟔 = 𝟓𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑱 𝑯𝟐 = −𝟐𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑱
𝑶𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑱 𝑪𝑶 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑱

Solution and Answer:

∆𝑯 = 𝑯𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 − 𝑯𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

∆𝑯 = [( 𝟑 × −𝟐𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑱) + ( 𝟐 𝒙 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑱)]

− (𝟓𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑱 + 𝟗𝟎𝟗 𝒌𝑱)
∆𝑯 = (−𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝑱 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑱) − 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑱
∆𝑯 = 𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝒌𝑱 − 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑱
∆𝑯 = −𝟕𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝑱
HESS’S LAW OF HEAT SUMMATION
By: Germain Henrich Hess
HISTORY:
▪ Germain Henrich Hess’s was born
on August 7, 1802 in Geneva,
Switzerland
▪ After practicing medicine for several
years in Russia has become
professor of chemistry in 1830.
▪ His studies of heat in chemical
reaction formed the foundation of
thermochemistry.
HESS’S LAW of SUMMATION states that
the heat absorbed or released during a
reaction is the same whether the reaction
occurs in one or several steps.
In going from a particular set of reactants to
a particular set of products, the change in
enthalpy is the same whether the reaction
takes place in one step or in a series of
steps.
RULES:
1. Make sure to rearrange the given
equations so that the reactants and
products are on the appropriate sides
of the arrows.
2. If you reverse equations, you must
also reverse the sign of DH.
3. If you multiply/divide equations to
obtain a correct coefficient, you must
also multiply/divide the DH by this
coefficient.
Consider the formation of gaseous
hydrogen iodide using solid iodine.
I2 + H2 ➟ 2HI
Step 1. Involves the sublimation of solid
iodine and step 2, involves the combination
of gaseous iodine with hydrogen to form
hydrogen iodide.
Step 1: I2 ➟ I2 ΔH = + 124.8 KJ
Step 2: I2 + H2➟2HI ΔH = -73.0 KJ
______________________________
Sum: I2 + H2➟2HI ΔH = + 51.8 KJ
The example above follows Hess’s law,
it states that, if a reaction occurs in two or
more steps, the enthalpy for the reaction is
the sum of the enthalpies of the individual
steps.
Another way to state Hess’s law is:
The enthalpy change for any chemical
reaction is independent of the intermediate
stages, provided the initial and final
conditions are the same for each route.
Consider another example using the
following reactions:
1. C + O2 ➟ CO2 ΔH = -393.51 kJ
2. H2 + ½ O2 ➟ H2O ΔH = - 285.83 kJ
3. CH4 + 2O2 ➟ CO2 + 2H2O
ΔH = - 890.37 kJ
Determine the enthalpy change for the
reaction
C + 2H2 ➟ CH4
Since C is needed as reactant,
reaction
1) can be used in its present form.
2) Multiply reaction by two because two
hydrogen is needed.
3) Reaction must be reversed because is
needed as a product. After the revisions,
the reactions are added and the
enthalpy change for the reaction is:

C + O2 ➟ CO2 ΔH = -393.51 kJ
2H2 + O2 ➟ 2H2O ΔH = - 571.66 kJ
CO2 + 2H2O ➟ CH4 + 2O2
ΔH = +890.37 kJ
__________________________________
Sum: C + 2H2 ➟ CH4 ΔH = -74.80 kJ

Determine the heat of reaction for the

reaction:
C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)

Use the following reactions:

What do you call to the study of energy
changes during a chemical reaction and/or
a change in phase?
- Thermochemistry
It is the sum of the internal energy of the
system plus the product of the pressure of
the gas in the system and its volume?
- Enthalpy
What law states that the heat absorbed or
released during a reaction is the same
whether the reaction occurs in one or
several steps?
- Hess’s Law
Who formulated the law in the above
question?
- Germain Henrich Hess

Enthalpies of formation of elements at

standard conditions are equal to zero

- True

What is the science of measuring heat?

- Calorimetry

What is the amount of heat required to

raise its temperature by a given amount?

- Heat Capacity

It gives the specific heat capacity per unit

mass of a particular substance

- Specific Heat Capacity

What is the formula for specific heat

capacity?

- 𝒒 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻

What is the formula for molar enthalpy of a

substance?

𝒎𝒄∆𝑻
- ∆𝑯 =
𝒏
Enthalpy and Calorimetry
ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
1. Reaction which absorbs or requires
an amount of energy to proceed.
2. The total energy of the products are
higher than the total energy of the
reactants.
EXOTHERMIC REACTION
1. Reaction which releases an amount
of energy.
2. The total energy of the products are
lower than the total energy of the
reactants.
ENTALPHY
Less familiar property of a system
Defined as
𝑯 = 𝑬 + 𝑷𝑽
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENTALPHY
CHANGES
If a reaction is reversed, the sign of ΔH is
also reversed.
The magnitude of ΔH is directly proportional
to the quantities of reactants and products in
a reaction. If the coefficients in a balanced
reaction are multiplied by an integer, the
value of ΔH is multiplied by the same
integer.
ENTALPHY CHANGE, ∆H
• is defined as the quantity of heat
transferred to or away from the system
during a chemical reaction (physical
change)
NOTE: system must have constant
pressure and mole.

H = enthalpy,
P = pressure,
E = internal energy,
V = volumesys

STATE FUNCTIONS
• These are properties of the system that
are dependent ONLY on the state of the
system.
• They are not dependent on the WAY the
system came to be in that given state
(pathway)
• Expressed as capital letters e.g.
Enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs Free
Energy, entropy, temperature, pressure,
volume Take note that these changes occur
when P = constant.
Temperature (Tf – Ti), Experimentally, heat associated with
Pressure (Pf – Pi), chemical reactions are measured using
Volume (Vf – Vi) calorimetry
CALORIMETRY FOR MIXED SUBSTANCES
is the science of measuring the change in 𝒒 = 𝑪 × ∆𝑻
the temperature of the system when it
where
absorbs or releases energy as heat.
q = heat absorbed /released
1. Measures the temperature change of
a body (note: you should know its C = heat capacity (J/⁰C)
specific heat) ΔT = change in temperature
2. The temperature change happens
due to either absorption or release of
energy from the body. A 3.0 g copper was heated from 20°C to
80°C. How much energy was used to heat
Cu? (Specific heat capacity of Cu is 0.385
CONSTANT-PRESSURE J/g.°C)
CALORIMETRY
• used for measuring qp (heat at
GIVEN:
constant temperature) for solution
reactions Mass = 3.0 grams
• used for measuring ΔHrxn as well, at Tinitial = 20⁰C
constant pressure.
Tfinal = 80 ⁰C
NOTE: ΔHrxn ≠ qp
c = 0.385 J / g. ⁰C
CALORIMETRY EQUATIONS BASED SOLUTION:
ON
1. Heat transfer involving pure
1.Find the value of ΔT
substances (pure water only)
ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial
2. Heat transfer involving mixed system ΔT = 80 ⁰C – 20⁰C
(the whole calorimeter)
ΔT = 60 ⁰C
FOR PURE SUBSTANCES
2. Solve for q = mc ΔT
𝒒 = 𝒎 × 𝒄 × ∆𝑻
q = (3.0 g) (0.385 J /g ⁰C) (60⁰C)
where
q = heat absorbed /released
m=mass (g) Writing down each equation
c = specific heat capacity (J/g⁰C) 𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶 × ∆𝑇
ΔT = change in temperature 𝑞𝐻2𝑂 = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × ∆𝑇
𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∆𝐻°𝑟𝑥𝑛 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑅 or
 𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × ∆𝑇 Solving for qcal

When 5.35 kJ of heat is added to a

qcal = qrxn - qH2O
calorimeter containing 23.00 g of water the qcal = 5.35 kJ - 1.496 kJ
temperature rises from 14.00oC to 29.55oC.
Calculate the heat capacity of the qcal = 3.854 kJ
calorimeter in J/oC. The specific heat of
water is 4.184 J/g oC. RECALL AGAIN
Given Values are.. 𝒒 = 𝑪 × ∆𝑻
qrxn = 5.35 kJ where
mass water = 23.0 g q = heat absorbed /released
Ti = 14.00 ⁰ C C = heat capacity (J/⁰C)
Tf = 29.55 ⁰ C ΔT = change in temperature
c water = 4.184 J/g oC
Calculating the heat capacity
Solve for the change in temperature
qcal = 𝐶 × ∆𝑇
ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial
ΔT = 29.55 ⁰C – 14.00 ⁰C 𝒒𝒄𝒂𝒍
Rearranging, 𝑪 =
∆𝑻
ΔT = 15.55 ⁰C
C = 3.854 kJ / 15.55 ⁰C
Find qwater
qwater = mc ΔT
qwater = (23.0 g) (4.184 J/g oC) (15.55⁰C)
qwater =1496 J or 1.496 kJ The heat capacity of a cup is 108
0
J C. When the cup is filled with hot coffee,
the temperature of the cup increases from
24.30C to 71.80C. How much heat does the
cup gain?
GIVEN:
C = 108 J0C
Ti (initial temperature) = 24.30C
Tf (final temperature) = 71.80C
REQUIRED: q (heat absorbed)
EQUATION: SOLUTION AND ANSWER:
ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial 1

𝒒 = 𝑪 × ∆𝑻 ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial
ΔT = 23.54 0C – 90.80 0C
SOLUTION AND ANSWER:
ΔT = - 67.26 0C
1
2
ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial 𝒒
ΔT = 71.8 0C – 24.3 0C
𝑪=
𝒎∆𝑻
ΔT = 47.5 0C −𝟖𝟔𝟓 𝑱
𝑪=
2 (𝟒𝟎. 𝟓 𝒈)(−𝟔𝟕. 𝟐𝟔 °𝑪)
−𝟖𝟔𝟓 𝑱
𝒒 = 𝑪 × ∆𝑻 𝑪=
− 𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟒. 𝟎𝟑
q = (108 J0C) × (47.5 0C)
q = 5130 J 𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟖 𝑱𝒈−𝟏 °𝑪−𝟏

A 40.5 g sample of alloy (a mixture

of metals) is heated to 90.80 0C and the
placed in water, where it cools to 23.54 0C.
The amount of heat lost by the alloy is 865
J. What is the specific heat of the alloy?
GIVEN:
m = 40.5 g
q (heat lost) = - 865 J
Ti (initial temperature) = 90.800C
Tf (final temperature) = 23.540C
REQUIRED: C (specific heat capacity)
EQUATION:
ΔT = Tfinal – Tinitial
𝒒
𝑪=
𝒎∆𝑻
 Chemical Kinetics
Chemical kinetics refers to the study of
the rates and mechanisms of chemical
reactions.
Chemical kinetics plays an important role
in explaining chemical reactions vital to life.
• Chemical reactions abound in the
geology of Earth, in the atmosphere and
oceans, and in a vast array of
complicated processes that occur in all
living systems.

The Collision Theory

The collision theory explains how a
chemical reaction takes place.
According to this theory, two conditions
must be satisfied for a chemical reaction to
occur:
1. particles of reactants must collide Rate of chemical reaction is the speed at
with one another which a reaction proceeds.

2. colliding particles must have

sufficient energy. Consider the decomposition reaction
below:
Factors Affecting the Rate of
2N2O5 ➟ 4NO2 + O2
Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reaction
• a process in which one or more
substances, the reactants, are
converted to one or more different
substances, the products. Substances
are either chemical elements or
compounds.
• rearranges the constituent atoms of the
reactants to create different substances
as products.
• an integral part of technology, of culture,
and indeed of life itself. Burning fuels,
smelting iron, making glass and pottery, Rate of Formation = Rate of
brewing beer, and making wine and Decomposition
cheese are among many examples of
activities incorporating chemical
reactions that have been known and
used for thousands of years.
If the rate of decomposition of N2O5 in the
reaction 2N2O5 ➟ 4NO2 + O2 at a particular
instant is 4.2 x 10 -7 mol/L-s. What is the
rate of appearance of a) NO2 and b) O2 at
the instant?
a.) Rate of decomposition of N2O5 =
4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑂2
4.2 × 10−7 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 − 𝑠 ×
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑂5
Factors Affecting the Rate of
-7
= 8.4 x 10 mol/L-s Chemical Reactions
b.) Rate of decomposition of N2O5 =
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
4.2 × 10−7 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 − 𝑠 ×
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 𝑂5

= 2.1 x 10-7 mol/L-s

Examine the reaction below:

2CrO4 + 2H ➟ Cr2O7 + H2O

If the rate of decomposition of the chromate
ion is 0.25 mol/L-s , what is the rate of
formation of the dichromate ions in the
reaction?
Rate of decomposition of Cr2O4 =
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7
0.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿 − 𝑠 (𝐶𝑟𝑂4 ) ×
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑂4

= 0.125 mol Cr2O7

 HOW DOES CHEMICAL NATURE OF WHAT IS THE REACTANT AFFECTED BY AN
REACTANTS AFFECT THE RATE OF A ENZYME IN A CHEMICAL REACTION?
REACTION? • substrate
• During chemical reactions, chemical
• any substance upon which an
bonds are broken and new bonds are
enzyme acts.
formed. The nature (or type) of these
chemical bonds and how readily they
are broken and formed - plays a
critical role in the rate of a reaction.
When the reaction involves primarily
the exchange of electrons reactions
tend to be very rapid.

PHASE AND SURFACE AREA EFFECTS Concentration Effects

• The larger the surface area, the

faster the rate of reaction.

HOW WILL INCREASING THE

CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS AFFECT
THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION?
• Mixing sucrose with dilute sulfuric acid in
• A pile of flour is only scorched by a a beaker (a, right) produces a simple
flame (right), but when the same flour solution. Mixing the same amount of
is sprayed into the flame, it will
sucrose with concentrated sulfuric acid
increase the reaction rate or leave it
(a, left) results in a dramatic reaction (b)
the same, depending on whether the
that eventually produces a column of
particular reactant added is one that black porous graphite (c) and an intense
is limiting the reaction rate before the
smell of burning sugar.
addition.
HOW DOES THE CONCENTRATION
HOW DOES DECREASING THE OF REACTANTS AFFECT THE RATE
CONCENTRATION OF THE REACTANTS OF A REACTION?
AFFECT THE RATE OF A CHEMICAL
REACTION? • Increasing the concentration increases
the molecules' collision frequency.
• Decreasing the concentrations of all • Increasing the concentration of the
the reactants will almost always reactants increases the rate of the
decrease the rate of the reaction. reaction.
Decreasing the concentration of only
reactants not involved in the rate
determining step will not change the
reaction rate at all.
Temperature
• sensation of warmth or coldness felt
from contact with it.
• hotness and coldness of an object.
• degree of sensible heat or cold.
• expressed in terms of a specific
scale.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
• An increase in temperature usually
increases the rate of reaction. As heat is
added, the average kinetic and internal
energies of reacting molecules increase
so the rate of reaction increases too.
Catalyst
• a substance that participates in a
chemical reaction and increases the
reaction rate without undergoing a
net chemical change itself.
CATALYST EFFECTS
• A solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
decomposes in water so slowly that the
change is not noticeable (left). Iodide ion
acts as a catalyst for the decomposition
of H2O2, producing oxygen gas. The
solution turns brown because of the
reaction of H2O2 with I−, which
generates small amounts of I3− (center).
The enzyme catalase is about 3 billion
times more effective than Iodide as a
catalyst. Even in the presence of very
small amounts of enzyme, the
decomposition is vigorous (right).
Enzyme Kinetics
Collision Theory
Collision theory is a theory that was
proposed independently by Max Trautz in
1916 and William Lewis in 1918.
The collision theory states that when
suitable particles of the reactant hit each
other, only a certain fraction of the
collisions cause any noticeable or
significant chemical change; these
successful changes are called successful
collisions.
The successful collisions must have
enough energy, also known as activation
energy, at the moment of impact to break
the pre-existing bonds and form all new
bonds. This results in the products of the
reaction.
Increasing the concentration of the reactant
particles or raising the temperature - which
brings about more collisions and hence
more successful collisions - therefore
increases the rate of a reaction.
When a catalyst is involved in the collision
between the reactant molecules, less
energy is required for the chemical change
to take place, and hence more collisions
have sufficient energy for reaction to occur.
The reaction rate therefore increases.

All based on COLLISION THEORY:
Collision theory: For a reaction to occur, the
atoms or molecules must collide with one
another with enough energy (activation
energy) and must collide in the right
orientation.
FACTORS:
1) Concentration of reactants
2) Temperature
3) Presence of a catalyst
4) Surface area
5) Agitation
6) Nature of reactants
Factor 1: Concentration
All based on COLLISION THEORY:
Collision theory: For a reaction to occur,
the atoms or molecules must collide with
one
another with enough energy (activation
energy) and must collide in the right
orientation.
FACTORS:
1) CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS
If you increase concentration (Molarity), the
rate of reaction increases.
Why? There are more molecules which
increases the number of collisions
altogether; however, there are better
chances that molecules will collide in the
right orientation.
2) TEMPERATURE
Temperature is an averaged kinetic energy
of molecules so if you increase temperature,
you increase kinetic energy. This means you
increase the number of collisions
Heat supplies the energy to allow the
reaction to proceed (i.e. overcoming the
activation energy barrier)
Think about: Why do we refrigerate milk?
3) PRESENCE OF A CATALYST
Catalyst assist a reaction and increase the
reaction rate without being consumed in the
reaction.
Adding a catalyst decreases the activation
energy which means more molecules will
have enough energy to react.
Think about: Catalytic converter, Enzymes
4) SURFACE AREA
Increased surface areas of
molecules/particles will increase the rate of
reaction. This
means to break into smaller particle sizes.
More places to react give better chances for
collisions in the right orientation. How to
increase surface area? Grind or crush a
mixture of reactants.
Ex: A crushed aspirin will enter your blood
stream faster than taking it whole.
5) AGITATION
Stirring or shaking a reaction will increase
the reaction rate.
By stirring or shaking, you are introducing
energy into the reaction and thus giving
molecules/particles more energy to react
(overcome activation energy barrier). Your
mechanical energy is converted to kinetic
energy.

6) NATURE OF REACTANTS
Reactants whose bonds are weaker have a
lower activation energy and thus a higher
rate of reaction.
All chemical reactions involve bond breaking
and bond making. Bond breaking occurs on
reactant side. Collisions between reactants
that require less kinetic energy are needed
to break weaker bonds (i.e. smaller
activation energy)
 A MATTER OF
SPONTANEITY
Spontaneous
Reaction
- is a process occurring on its own
without the help of any external
factors.
Spontaneity only tells whether a reaction
will occur or not but not the rate of
reaction
Non-Spontaneous
Reaction
- is a process occurring dependently or
with the help of an external factor.
- does not favor the formation of
products at the given set of
conditions,
- In order for a reaction to be non-
spontaneous, it must be
endothermic, accompanied by a
decrease in entropy, or both.
According to the Thomsen-Berthelot
Principle….
(Juliet Thomsen & Pierre-Eugene-Marcellin
Berthelot)
ALMOST ALL EXOTHERMIC CHEMICAL
PROCESSES ARE SPONTANEOUS
1) A spoon dipped in boiling water gets
hot.
2) Wood burns to ash after being set on
fire.
3) Water fall down the sink after
opening.
4) A hot soup becoming cold after
leaving it on a table.
5) A smell diffusing in a room.
6) Ice melting in lukewarm water.
7) Salt dissolving in water.
8) Iron rusting.
1) Water decomposes into hydrogen
and oxygen through electricity
conduction.
2) Flow of water up hill.
3) Flow of heat from cold body to hot
body
4) Dissolution of sand in water
5) Diffusion of gas from low pressure
to high pressure.
KEY POINTS CaCO3 CaO + CO2

• A spontaneous process is capable of 1 mol 1 mol + 1 mol

proceeding in a given reaction without 2 mol
needing to be driven by an outside
source of energy. SPONTANEOUS REACTION
• The laws of thermodynamics govern the (when the products’ mole/s are much
direction of a spontaneous process, higher than the reactants’ mole/s)
ensuring that if a sufficiently large
number of individual interactions are
involved, then the direction will always N2 + 3H2 2NH3
be in the direction of increased entropy.
1 mol + 3 mol 2 mol
• An endorgonic reaction (also called a
non-spontaneous reaction) is a chemical 4 mol
reaction in which the standard charge in
NON-SPONTANEOUS REACTION
free energy is positive and energy is
absorbed. (when the reactants’ mole/s are much
higher than the products’ mole/s)
• Endothermic processes can be pushed
or pulled by coupling them to highly
exergonic reactions.
∆𝑺° = 𝑺𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 − 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍
ΔS (+) = increase in randomness /entropy
ENTHALPY ΔS (-) = decrease in randomness/entropy
- The amount of heat absorbed or released
by a chemical reaction at constant ∆𝑺° = 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 − 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
atmospheric pressure.
ΔS (+) = spontaneous reaction
ENTROPY ΔS (-) = nonspontaneous reaction
- Measure of molecular randomness.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Chemical reactions that produce higher Solve for the Standard Entropy on the
number of product particles than that of formation of vapor
reactant particles are usually spontaneous.
The increase in the number of particles 𝑯𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈)
produced will result to a higher entropy. H2 = 130.6 J/mol.K
O2 = 205 J/mol.K
H2O = 188.7 J/mol.K
Balanced Equation:
𝟐𝑯𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈)
∆𝑺° = 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 − 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
∆𝑺° = (𝟐)(𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟕) − [(𝟐)(𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟔) + (𝟐𝟎𝟓)]
∆𝑺° = 𝟑𝟕𝟕. 𝟒 − (𝟐𝟔𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎𝟓)
∆𝑺° = 𝟑𝟕𝟕. 𝟒 − 𝟒𝟔𝟔. 𝟐
∆𝑺° = 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 − 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
∆𝑺° = [(𝟑)(−𝟓𝟑. 𝟏) + (𝟐)(−𝟐𝟐𝟐)] − (𝟐𝟒𝟏)
∆𝑺° = [(−𝟏𝟓𝟗. 𝟑) + (−𝟒𝟒𝟒)] − 𝟐𝟒𝟏
∆𝑺° = −𝟔𝟎𝟑. 𝟑 − 𝟐𝟒𝟏
∆𝑺° = −𝟖𝟒𝟒. 𝟑 𝑱/𝑲
(spontaneous, endothermic reaction)

∆𝑺° = −𝟖𝟖. 𝟖 𝑱/𝑲 Urea hydrolyzes slowly in the presence of

(non-spontaneous, endothermic reaction) water to produce ammonia and carbon
dioxide. Calculate for the standard entropy
REMEMBER: change of the system in JK-1 using the
given values
- spontaneous reaction if the products’
mole/s are much higher than the 𝑪𝑶(𝑵𝑯𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟑
reactants’ mole/s)
- exothermic reaction if the entropy is CO(NH2)2 = 173.8 S0(JK-1mol-1)
positive
H2O = 69.96 S0(JK-1mol-1)
- non-spontaneous reaction if the
reactants’ mole/s are much higher CO2 = 213.9 S0(JK-1mol-1)
than the products’ mole/s) NH3 = 192.5 S0(JK-1mol-1)
- endothermic reaction if the entropy is
negative
∆𝑺° = 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 − 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
∆𝑺° = [(𝟐𝟏𝟑. 𝟗) + (𝟐)(𝟏𝟗𝟐. 𝟓)] − (𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟖
Solve for the Standard Entropy on the
+ 𝟔𝟗. 𝟗𝟔)
formation of vapor
∆𝑺° = (𝟐𝟏𝟑. 𝟗 + 𝟑𝟖𝟓) − 𝟐𝟒𝟑. 𝟕𝟔
𝑪𝒂𝟑 (𝑷𝑶𝟒 )𝟐 → 𝑪𝒂 + 𝑷𝑶𝟒
∆𝑺° = 𝟓𝟗𝟖. 𝟗 − 𝟐𝟒𝟑. 𝟕𝟔
Ca3(PO4)2 = 241 J/mol.K
Ca = -53.1 J/mol.K ∆𝑺° = 𝟑𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟒
(spontaneous, exothermic reaction)
PO4 = -222 J/mol.K
Balanced Equation:
𝑪𝒂𝟑 (𝑷𝑶𝟒 )𝟐 → 𝟑𝑪𝒂 + 𝟐𝑷𝑶𝟒
 o Most reactions are reversible
STATE OF
EQUILIBRIUM
A and B react to make C and D,
likewise, C and D react to make A and B

describes how fast or slow a chemical REVERSIBLE CHEMICAL

reaction occurs.
REACTION
tells whether a reaction is spontaneous
or not.
….both of these disciplines tell one
thing…
The outcomes for all the reactions may
go to completion or may reach the state of
equilibrium
o this kind of reaction shows that a
product can go back to its original
form (reactant) after such process.
o it reaches a state of equilibrium
In some cases, most of the
reactions that were described as
irreversible are actually reversible,
the rate of reaction influences the
decision.

EQUILIBRIUM STATE
the state reached when the
concentrations of reactants and product
remain constant overtime.

Homogeneous Equilibria

Heterogeneous Equilibria
 𝟓𝟏. 𝟐
𝑲𝒄 =
𝟐. 𝟐𝟓
𝑲𝒄 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟔
pressure:

𝑲𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝑲𝒑 =
𝑲𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

(𝟏. 𝟏𝟖)(𝟐. 𝟑𝟔)𝟓

𝑲𝒑 =
(𝟎. 𝟗𝟖)𝟐

(𝟏. 𝟏𝟖)(𝟕𝟑. 𝟐𝟏)

𝑲𝒑 =
𝟎. 𝟗𝟔
𝟖𝟔. 𝟑𝟗
𝑲𝒑 =
𝟎. 𝟗𝟔
𝑲𝒑 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟗𝟗

SAMPLE PROBLEM What is the Kc of Fluorine gas (F2) under 122.7

K?
BrF5(g) ⇋ Br2(g) + F2(g)
Balanced Equation:

2BrF5(g) ⇋ Br2(g) + 5F2(g)

Balanced Equation:

2BrF5(g) ⇋ Br2(g) + 5F2(g) 𝑲𝒑

𝑲𝒄 =
(𝑹𝑻)∆𝒏
concentration:
𝟐. 𝟑𝟔 𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝑲𝒄𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑲𝒄 =
𝑲𝒄 = 𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝑲𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏 )(𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟕 𝑲)𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑲. 𝒎𝒐𝒍
(𝟏. 𝟔)(𝟐)𝟓
𝑲𝒄 = 2BrF5(g) ⇋ Br2(g) + 5F2(g)
(𝟏. 𝟓)𝟐
2 mol 1 mol 5 mol
(𝟏. 𝟔)(𝟑𝟐)
𝑲𝒄 =
𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 6 mol

6 – 2 = 4 moles (∆𝒏)
 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔 o it states that when stress is
𝑲𝒄 = introduced into a system in
𝟏𝟎, 𝟐𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟓
equilibrium, the system will adjust to
𝑲𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒐𝒓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟑 relieve the stress and regain
equilibrium.

LAW OF MASS ACTION

o Developed by Calto Maximillan
Guldberg and his brother-in-law Peter
Waage

o When the rates of the forward and

reverse reactions become equal, the
concentrations of the reactants and
products remain constant overtime.

o The ratio between the concentration

of the reactants and products is
constant at equilibrium.

LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
o also called Chatelier's principle, is a
principle of chemistry used to predict
the effect of a change in conditions on
chemical equilibria.
 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) ⇋ 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
1.2 M 2.0M 3.0M 1.8M
[Kc= 2.5]

Homogenous Equilibria
𝑲𝒄𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝑸=
𝑲𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
A reversible reaction may proceed either
forward or reverse or in equilibrium. [𝟑. 𝟎]𝟒 [𝟏. 𝟖]𝟔
𝑸=
[𝟏. 𝟐]𝟐 [𝟐. 𝟎]𝟕

(𝟖𝟏) (𝟑𝟒. 𝟎𝟏)

𝑸=
(𝟏. 𝟒𝟒)(𝟏𝟐𝟖)

𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟒. 𝟖𝟏
𝑸=
𝟏𝟖𝟒. 𝟑𝟐

𝑸 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟓

Q>K favors the reverse reaction

2Mg(s) + O2(g) ⇋ 2MgO(g)

2.2 M 3.0M 2.8M
[Kc= 0.89]

Heterogenous Equilibria
𝑲𝒄𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝑸=
𝑲𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

[𝟐. 𝟖]𝟐
𝑸=
[𝟑. 𝟎]
𝟕. 𝟖𝟒
𝑸=
𝟑. 𝟎

𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟏

Q>K favors the reverse reaction

 A system will adjust to regain its
equilibrium if stress is applied to it.

The rate of reaction increases at higher

concentrations of the reactants.
(Rate Law of Chemical Kinetics)

Factors Influencing
Equilibrium

1) Amount of reactant and product

2) Change in temperature
3) Change in pressure
4) Catalyst
REVIEW What are Homogenous Equilibria?

Absorbing heat into the surrounding occurs - same states of matter for all the
during ______ values.

- Endothermic Reaction What are Heterogenous Equilibria?

Releasing heat into the surrounding occurs - mixed states of matter.

during ______ Sometimes, there are gas or solid,
liquid or solid and etc.
- Exothermic Reaction

A chemical reaction of equilibrium means

What is the ∆𝐻 value for an endothermic
the rate of the forward and reversed
reaction? Is it positive or negative?
reaction are ________
- Always positive
- equal

What is the ∆𝐻 value for an exothermic

reaction? Is it positive or negative?

- Always negative

Heat flows from ____ to _____ object

- warmer to cooler

What happens to the value of ∆𝐻 for a

thermal chemical reaction if the reaction is
reversed?

- same value but the sign is

opposite.
If positive then the value will be
negative while if negative the value
will be positive when reversed.

What are the two types of equilibrum?

- Homogenous Equilibria and

Heterogenous Equilibria
𝒒 = 𝒎 × 𝒄 × ∆𝑻 - If negative move the decimal to the
(𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐚𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐫𝐛𝐞𝐝/𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐝) left depending on how many the
value was raised to.
𝒒 EXAMPLE:
𝑪=
𝒎∆𝑻 5.35 x 10-5 = 0.0000535
(𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲)
Given the thermochemical equation:
𝒒 2H2O ➟ 2H2 + O2
𝒎= ∆𝑯 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑲𝑱
𝑪∆𝑻
(𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬) What is the ∆𝐻 for the reaction
𝒒
∆𝑻 = H2 + ½ O2 ➟ H2O
𝒎𝑪
(𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞) - divide ∆𝐻 = 120 𝐾𝐽 to two because
the equation was reduced in half

If there’s only one temperature given to find - then negative because the
specific heat use the equation directly: equation has been reversed
𝒒
𝑪= ∆𝑯 = −𝟔𝟎 𝑲𝑱
𝒎∆𝑻
For the reaction 2HI ⇋ H2 I2, the
+
but if there’s two temperature given appropriate form for the equilibrium
(initial and final temperature) use: constant is

vf - vi
𝑲𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝑲𝒆𝒒 =
𝑲𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Converting scientific notations to
decimals [𝑯𝟐 ] + [𝑰𝟐 ]
𝑸=
[𝑯𝑰]𝟐
- If positive move the decimal to the
right depending on how many the
H2 + 3H2 ⇋ 2NH3
value was raised to.
EXAMPLE: [𝑵𝑯𝟑 ]𝟐
𝑸=
[𝑵𝟐 ] + [𝑯𝟐 ]𝟑
5.35 x 105 = 535, 000.00
Write the equilibrium expression for the
reaction
2H2O ➟ 2H2 + O2

[𝑯𝟐 ]𝟐 + [𝑶𝟐 ]
𝑲𝒆𝒒 =
[𝑯𝟐 𝑶]𝟐

[𝑩] + [𝑪]
𝑲𝒆𝒒 =
[𝑨]