absorbed when the low energy ice melts into high
energy water.
ROLE OF CHEMISTRY
- Chemistry and energy play very important roles in
science and in the world around us.
- Although most of our energy comes from the sun,
much of the energy we use on a daily basis is rooted
in chemical reactions and in energy transformations.
- The gasoline in our cars, electricity in our house,
batteries we depend on, and the food in our diets all
provide substances for chemical reactions to provide
energy or are produced from chemical reactions
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
- We know that all matter contains energy. When
matter undergoes a change, whether it is physical or
chemical, the energy it contains also changes.
RECALL:
• A physical change is any change in a
substance's form that does not change its
chemical composition. Physical changes are
reversible.
• A chemical change results from a chemical
reaction wherein atoms of a substance are
rearranged, and the bonds between the atoms
are broken or formed resulting in the
production of a new substance.
- A chemical change occurs when a candle burns. The
higher energy reactants, the wax and oxygen in air,
form carbon dioxide gas and water which are lower
energy products. The difference in energy is released
as heat and light.
- When the heat released by the candle melts a piece
of ice, there is a physical change. Some of the heat is
• Nitrogen and oxygen gases in the atmosphere
absorb energy from the very high temperature
in the vicinity of a lightning bolt to form a
higher energy nitric oxide which very readily
reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide.
This substance is used to produce rocket fuels
and explosives.
• Higher energy water vapor releases energy as
it condenses to lower energy liquid water that
falls as rain.
ENERGY
- Energy is the quantitative property that must be
transferred to an object. As energy is transferred or
flows from one object to another, either the object is
heated or work is done on it.
1. Heat is the flow of energy from a warmer object
to a cooler one because of a difference in their
temperatures.
2. Work is the transfer of energy which is
accompanied by a force moving a mass against
some kind of resistance. In chemical processes,
the most common type of work is the pressure-
volume work.
- In the photo, heat flows from the coffee of higher
temperature to the surroundings of lower
temperature until their temperatures are equal.

- Energy is transferred from the man to the weight as

he does work on it by lifting it up.

PV-WORK
ENERGY UNITS
- When a gas expands it can do work. If an inflated
balloon is released before it is tied off, the gas inside - The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
the balloon expands into the larger volume of the room.
As the volume of the gas inside the balloon decreases,
its pressure increases causing the balloon to move.

OLDER UNITS OF ENERGY ARE THE:

1. calorie which is defined as the amount of energy
required to heat 1 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5°C.
• 1 cal = 4.184 J

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

- When a gasoline is burned in an engine, the
combustion process produces carbon dioxide and
water. These gases do PV-work as they expand against
the piston in the cylinder. This PV-work is then
transmitted through the drive train to move the car.
2. Btu or British thermal unit is defined as the amount
of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of
water by 1°F.
• 1 Btu = 1055 J
3. Calorie is the energy unit used for food.
• 1 Cal = 1000 cal

THERMOCHEMISTRY
- Heat plays a central role in chemistry. Some chemical
reactions release large amounts of heat, such as the
combustion of oil or natural gas in a furnace. Other
reactions require a supply of heat to occur. The • On the right, when the hotplate is turned off,
measurement and prediction of such heat effects are the heat flows from the system to the
the subject matter of thermochemistry. surroundings causing a decrease in the
temperature of the system.
- Thermochemistry is the branch of thermodynamics
which deals with energy changes that occur during
chemical reactions and changes of state. It is the
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC
study of energy changes accompanying chemical and
REACTIONS
physical reactions.
- Matter undergoing chemical and physical changes
System and Surroundings
can release or absorb heat.
- As discussed earlier, heat (Q) is one of the forms in
- When heat is released:
which energy can be transferred between one or more
systems and the surroundings. 1. it flows from system to the surroundings,
2. the process is exothermic and
• A system refers to the substance, body,
3. Q is negative.
reacting mixture or even region of space upon
which we focus attention
• The surroundings are everything that lies
outside the boundaries of the system - When heat is absorbed:

- When we study a chemical reaction, we consider the
system to be the reactants and products. The
surroundings are the vessel (beaker, test tube, flask) in
which the reaction takes place plus the air or other
material in thermal contact with the reaction system
1. it flows from the surroundings to the system,
2. the process is endothermic and
3. Q is positive.

- In an endothermic reaction, energy is transferred

from the surroundings to the system.

In the figure:
- the system is the water inside the beaker and the
surroundings is the hotplate, beaker and air.
• On the left, as the hotplate is turned on, heat
flows from the surroundings to the system
causing an increase in the temperature of the
system.
 - An example of this is the condensation of water
vapor .

- An example of this is the melting of ice.

HEAT CAPACITY
- The heat capacity, C, of a substance is defined as the
amount of heat, Q, it releases or absorbs as it
undergoes a temperature change, ∆T, of 1K. This means
that the greater the heat capacity of a substance, the
more heat must be added to it to cause a given
increase in temperature.
- It can also be defined as the ratio of the heat, Q,
absorbed to the resulting change in temperature, ∆T.

- In an exothermic reaction, energy is transferred from

the system to the surroundings.
- Heat capacity is always positive, but both Q and ∆T
may either be positive or negative.
- It is determined by both (a) the type of substance
and (b) the amount of substance that absorbs or
releases heat.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OR SPECIFIC

HEAT
- The specific heat, c, is defined as the amount of heat
a one gram substance absorbs or releases to cause a
temperature change of 1K or 1°C.

- Because the heat absorbed or released is
proportional to the number of grams of the substance,
the formula can also be written as It can also be
defined as the ratio of the heat, Q, absorbed to the
resulting change in temperature, ∆T.
- Specific heat depends only on the type of substance
absorbing or releasing heat,
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY TABLE
- The table below shows the different specific heat
capacity values of different substances measured at
constant pressure. The symbol used for this is Cp
Molar heat capacity or molar specific heat capacity is
the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 mole of a substance. It is expressed
in units of J/mol-K.
MAGNITUDE OF HEAT
- The magnitude of heat absorbed or released by a
substance depends mainly on three factors:
• amount of material – mass (m)
• type of material – specific heat (c)
• change in temperature = final temperature –
initial temperature (ΔT)
HEAT
- If we know the mass of a substance and its specific
heat, we can determine the amount of heat, Q,
absorbed or released by the substance by measuring
the change in temperature before and after the heat
is gained or lost.
• Q = (mass) x (specific heat) x (temperature
change)
• Q = mc∆T
• Q = mc (Tfinal-Tinitial)
- If a substance absorbs heat:
1. its temperature increases,
2. its final temperature is higher than its initial
temperature,
3. ΔT has a positive value
4. the value of Q is positive.
5. The process is endothermic.
- If a substance releases heat:
1. its temperature decreases,
2. its final temperature is lower than its initial
temperature,
3. ΔT has a negative value
4. the value of Q is negative.
 5. The process is exothermic.

EXAMPLE #1
- Heating a 24.0 g can made of copper raises its
temperature by 15.0°C. How much heat is absorbed by
the can?
- GIVEN:
- ANSWER: The final temperature of the 207-g block of
• m = 24.0 g Cu iron after receiving 1.50 kJ of heat is approximately
• c = 0.385 J/g°C 41.14°C.
• ΔT = 15.0°C
- REQUIRED: Q EXAMPLE #3

- SOLUTION: - An unknown substance weighs 37.5 g. When it

releases 5.49 kJ of heat, its temperature decreases
• Q = mcΔT from 42.0 °C to 7.0 °C. Determine the specific heat
• = 24.0g(0.385 J/g°C)(15.0°C) capacity of this substance and identify what
• Q = 138.6 J substance it is.
- ANSWER: The amount of heat absorbed by the copper - GIVEN:
can is 138.6 J.
• m = 37.5 g unknown substance
(It is important to note the word "by" in the phrase • Q = -5.49 kJ = -5, 490 J (this is negative since
"raises its temperature by 15.0°C". This word tells us heat is released)
that 15°C is the change in temperature.) • Ti = 42.0°C
• Tf = 7.0°C
EXAMPLE #2 - REQUIRED: identify the substance
- A block of iron weighing 207.0 g receives 1.50 kJ of - SOLUTION:
heat. If the initial temperature of the iron is 25°C, what
• To identify the substance, we must solve its
is its final temperature?
specific heat capacity.
- Given:
• m = 207 g Fe
• c = 0.449 J/g°C
• Ti = 25°C
• Q = 1.5 kJ
- REQUIRED: Tf
- SOLUTION: - ANSWER: Comparing the solved value of c to the
values on the specific heat capacity table, we can say
that the unknown substance is water.
- In the previous lesson, we discussed that when
substances at two different temperatures are placed
in contact with one another, energy flows between
them until they reach a common final temperature. If
the heat capacities of the two substances are give, we - REQUIRED: Tf
can compute for the final temperature reached.
- SOLUTION:
- Since energy is always conserved, whatever heat lost
by the hotter substance is the same amount of heat • heat lost by iron = heat gained by water
gained by the cooler substance provided none is lost
to the surroundings. This is given by:
- heat gained by cooler substance = heat lost by the
hotter substance
• Qcool substance = - Qhot substance
- Take note that the magnitude of the heat transferred
are equal. We put a negative sign on one side of the
equation since one substance loses heat and the other
one gains heat.
- Remember that the negative sign indicates that the
process is exothermic.

- ANSWER: The final temperature reached by both

substances is approximately 16.49°C.

EXAMPLE #2
- The final temperatures of the hotter and cooler
substance are equal at temperature, T. - A glass contains 250.0 g of warm water at 78.0 °C. A
piece of gold at 2.30 C is placed in the water. The final
temperature reached by both substances is 76.9 °C.
EXAMPLE #1 What was the mass of gold? cgold = 0.129 J/g °C
- A piece of iron mass of 72.4 g is heated to 100.0 °C - GIVEN:
and plunged into 100.0 g of water that is initially at
10.0 °C. Calculate the final temperature that is reached
by both substances assuming no heat is lost to the
surroundings.
- GIVEN:

- REQUIRED: mass of gold

- SOLUTION:
 • heat gained by gold = heat lost by water

ENDOTHERMIC REACTION IN
CALORIMETERS
- When an endothermic reaction occurs in a solution in
a calorimeter, the heat required is absorbed from the
- ANSWER: The mass of gold is approximately 119.56 g. solution, which decreases its temperature.
- The temperature change, along with the specific heat
and mass of the solution, can then be used to calculate
the amount of heat .
CALORIMETRY
- The science of the accurate measurement of amounts
of heat and the accompanying temperature changes
of an observed body when it releases or absorbs heat
is called calorimetry. It is used to measure the amounts
of heat transferred to or released from a substance
undergoing a physical or chemical process.
- This is carried out in calibrated devices called
calorimeters. The walls of calorimeters are well
insulated to block the heat flow from the reaction to
the surroundings outside the calorimeter. The heat flow CONSTANT-PRESSURE CALORIMETERS
will be between the reaction system and the
calorimeter and the “nonsystem surroundings” inside - This calorimeter consists of two nested Styrofoam
it. cups with a loose-fitting lid and a temperature
measuring device such as a thermometer or a
- The temperature change measured by the
thermocouple.
calorimeter is used to compute for the amount of heat
absorbed or released during the reaction.

EXOTHERMIC REACTION IN
CALORIMETERS
- When an exothermic reaction occurs in a solution in
a calorimeter, the heat produced by the reaction is
absorbed by the solution, which increases its
temperature.
- The temperature change, along with the specific heat
and mass of the solution, can then be used to calculate
the amount of heat .
- The Styrofoam coffee cup is used because it is
considered as a good insulator and is fairly effective
in preventing the transfer of energy as heat between
the solution and the surroundings.
- Coffee – cup calorimeters are frequently used in
determining the specific heat of solids or in studying
reactions in aqueous solutions.
WHY IS IT CALLED A CONSTANT-PRESSURE
CALORIMETER?
- Because the cup is not tightly sealed, the pressure
inside the calorimeter is basically equal to the pressure
of the surroundings, hence it is called a constant –
pressure calorimeter.
- For the same reason, these easy-to-use coffee-cup
calorimeters allow more heat exchange with the
outside environment, and therefore produce less
accurate energy values.
REACTION IN CONSTANT-PRESSURE
CALORIMETERS
- We assume that the heat from the reaction is
completely absorbed by the solution and that the
calorimeter itself does not absorb heat. Since no heat
is gained or lost to the environment, this can be shown
using the equation:
• Qreaction + Q solution = 0
• Qreaction = - Qsolution
- Since water is used as solvent in solutions, then:
• Qreaction = -Qwater
EXAMPLE #3
- Calcium chloride, CaCl2 , is added to canned
vegetables to maintain the vegetables’ firmness. When
added to water, it dissolves. A calorimeter contains 50
g of water at 25°C. When 1.0 g of calcium chloride is
added to the calorimeter, the temperature rises to
28.51°C. Assume that all the heat given off by the
reaction is transferred to the water.
1. Calculate the heat for the reaction system
2. How much calcium chloride must be added to
raise the temperature of the solution by 9°C?
- GIVEN:
• mass of water in calorimeter = 50 g
• mass of calcium chloride added = 1.0 g
• Ti of water in calorimeter = 25°C
• Tf of water in calorimeter = 28.51°C
- REQUIRED:
1. Qreaction
2. mass of calcium chloride to be added if ΔT =
9°C
- SOLUTION:
1. Since there is an increase in the temperature of
water, this means that water gained heat and the
reaction lost heat.
• heat lost by the reaction = heat gained by
water
2. First we need to solve for the heat of the reaction
that will cause an increase in the temperature of the
50g water by 9°C.
- This means that when m grams of calcium chloride is - SOLUTION:
added to the 50 g water in the calorimeter, it will
1. Since the problem says that the reaction absorbs
cause the temperature of the water to increase by 9°C.
27.5 kJ of heat upon the addition of urea to water,
- In #1 we were able to solve that 734.29 J of heat is then we can say that the process is endothermic.
released by the reaction when 1.0 g of calcium chloride
2.
is added to the water in the calorimeter.
This time we compute for the mass of calcium chloride
added to the water so that 1882.8 J of heat will be
released.
- We can solve this using ratio and proportion or 3. Since the density of water is 1 g/mL, then 250 mL of
dimensional analysis: water is just equal to 250 g of water.

- ANSWER:
1. The heat for the reaction system is -734.29 J.
2. Approximately 2.56g of CaCl2 must be added to
the water inside the calorimeter to raise the
temperature of the solution by 9°C.

EXAMPLE #4

- Urea, (NH2)2CO, is used in the manufacture of resins - ANSWER:

and glues. When 5.00 g of urea is dissolved in 250.0 mL
of water at 30.0°C in a coffee-cup calorimeter, 27.5 kJ
of heat is absorbed.
1. Is the process exothermic? Why or why not?
2. What is QH2O?
3. What is the final temperature of the solution?
1. The reaction is endothermic as it absorbs heat
from the water.
2. The heat released by the water is 27.5 kJ or
27,500J.
3. The final temperature of the solution is
approximately 2.71°C.

- GIVEN:
• mass of urea = 5.00 g CONSTANT VOLUME CALORIMETER
• mass of water = 250.0 mL - A bomb calorimeter is a type of calorimeter that
• Ti of water = 30°C operates at constant volume.
• Qreaction = 27.5 kJ
- This type of calorimeter is usually used to measure
- REQUIRED: the energy produced by reactions that release large
amounts of heat and gaseous products or those
1. Is the process exothermic? Explain.
reactions that can be initiated using a spark like
2. QH2O
combustion reactions.
3. What is the final temperature of the solution?
- The term “bomb” is used since the reactions carried
out in this type of calorimeter can be vigorous enough
to resemble explosions that would damage other
calorimeters.
BOMB CALORIMETER
- The bomb calorimeter contains a vacuum sealed
outside wall. Inside it is a heavy metal vessel called the
”bomb” that is usually surrounded by water bath. The
reactants are placed in a sample cup inside the bomb
and it is ignited using ignition wires.
- As heat is released by the reaction to the, the
motorized stirrer evenly distributes the heat absorbed
by the surrounding water. The rise in the temperature
of the water is read using the thermometer and the
heat generated by the reaction is computed.
HEAT FLOW IN A BOMB CALORIMETER
- The diagram shows the standard choice of system
and surroundings for a bomb calorimeter. The system
consists of the contents of the bomb itself. The
surroundings include the bomb and the water bath
surrounding it. We assume that no heat is exchanged
with the rest of the universe, outside the insulated
walls of the apparatus.
REACTION IN CONSTANT-VOLUME
CALORIMETERS
- We now understand that the general premise of a
bomb calorimeter is simply to carry out a reaction at
constant volume and with no heat flow between the
calorimeter and the outside world.
- Whatever amount heat released by the reaction
would be absorbed by the immediate surroundings
inside the calorimeter
• Qreaction=−Qcalorimeter
– that is, the water and the bomb.
• Qcalorimeter=Qwater+Qbomb
- therefore
• Qreaction=−[Qwater+Qbomb]
- For accurate measurements, accounting for the heat
absorbed by the thermometer and the container as
well is required. This can be done by using the
relationship
• Qcalorimeter=CΔT
- where C is the heat capacity of the entire calorimetry
assembly and is called the calorimeter constant with a
unit J/°C.
 • density of ethyl ether = 0.714 g/mL
EXAMPLE #5
• initial temperature of the bomb, Ti = 23.50°C
• final temperature of the bomb, Tf = 39.7°C
- A 1.0-g sample of octane was burned in a bomb • heat capacity of the calorimeter = 10.34 kJ/°C
calorimeter with 1200 g of water. The temperature
increases from 25°C to 34.10°C. Calculate the heat of - REQUIRED: Qcalorimeter
combustion (heat of the reaction) of octane, in kJ, if - SOLUTION:
the heat capacity of the bomb is 890 J/°C.
- GIVEN:
• mass of octane = 1.0 g
• mass of water = 1,200 g
• Ti = 25°C - ANSWER: The amount of heat absorbed by the
calorimeter is approximately 167.51 kJ.
• Tf = 34.10°C
• Cbomb = 890J/°C
- REQUIRED: Qreaction EXAMPLE #7

- SOLUTION: - A calorimeter is to be used to compare the energy

content of some fuels. In the calibration of the
calorimeter, an electrical heater supplies 100.0 J of
heat and a temperature increase of 0.850 °C is
observed. Then 0.245 g of a particular fuel is burned in
this same calorimeter, and the temperature increases
by 5.23 °C. Calculate the energy density of this fuel,
which is the amount of energy liberated per gram of
fuel burned.
- GIVEN:

- ANSWER: The heat of combustion of octane is 53.79

kJ.

EXAMPLE #6

- In earlier times, ethyl ether was commonly used as

an anesthetic. It is, however, highly flammable. When
5 mL of ethyl ether is burned in a bomb calorimeter,
the temperature rises from 23.5°C to 39.7°C. If the
calorimeter heat capacity is 10.34 kJ/°C and the - REQUIRED: energy density of the fuel
density of ethyl ether is 0.714 g/mL, find the heat - SOLUTION:
absorbed by the calorimeter.
1. using the data given in the calibration of the
- GIVEN: calorimeter, we can compute for the heat capacity of
• volume of ethyl ether = 5 mL the calorimeter

2. When 0.245g of the fuel was burned, it caused the
temperature of the calorimeter to rise by 5.23°C. Using
this data and the heat capacity of the calorimeter, we
can solve for the heat of the reaction.
3. Energy density is the amount of energy liberated for
every gram of fuel burned.
- ANSWER: The energy density of the fuel is
approximately 2,511.40J/g or 2.51kJ/g
Activity #2
Instructions:
1. Solve the given problems on a 1 whole sheet
long-sized newsprint/bondpaper.
2. Show your COMPLETE and PROPER solutions. (No
need to copy the problem.)
3. Solutions must be handwritten.
4. Submit during the face-to-face meeting
indicated in MSTeams.
5. Use the format indicated below.
1. Suppose 61.0 g of hot metal, which is initially at
120.0°C, is plunged into 100.0 g of water that is
initially at 20.00°C. The metal cools down and the
water heats up until they reach a common
temperature of 26.39°C. Calculate the specific heat of
the metal, using 4.184 J/g°C as the specific heat of
water.
2. A piece of zinc at 20.0°C that weighs 60.0 g is
dropped into 200.0 g of water at 100.0°C. The specific
heat of zinc is 0.389J/g°C, and that of water near
100.0°C is 4.22 J/g°C. Calculate the final temperature
reached by the piece of zinc and water.
3. When a 4.25-g sample of solid ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) dissolves in 60.25 g of water in a coffee-cup
calorimeter, the temperature drops from 22.55∘C to
16.0∘C. How much heat was transferred in the process?
4. A 2.200-g sample of quinone (C6H4O2) is burned
in a bomb calorimeter whose total heat capacity is
7.857 kJ/∘C. The temperature of the calorimeter
increases from 23.44∘C to 30.57∘C. What is the heat of
combustion per gram of quinone?
5. Under constant-volume conditions, the heat of
combustion of glucose (C6H6O6) is 15.57 kJ/g. A 3.500-g
sample of glucose is burned in a bomb calorimeter. The
temperature of the calorimeter increased from 20.94∘C
to 24.72∘C. What is the total heat capacity of the
calorimeter?