Temple Architecture

Origin→? Ancient India

1. Bairat – Rajasthan Viratnagar originally contained a Buddhist Stupa and was made of brick and wood
AL Basham identified this place but not much remains of temples are found.

2. Jandial- Taxila Temple like structure found Excavated in 1912-1913 Greek style of architecture

Probably was a place of worship- Zoroastrian faith Not much evidence of free-standing temples.

Basic Form of a Hindu Temple?

1. a cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha)

2. mandapa- entrance hall

3. mountain like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal
tower, called a vimana, in South India This style developed from 5th century CE Onwards

4. the vahan mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed
axially before the sanctum

5. processional path for circumambulation (Pradakshana Path) that formed a part of the worship-ritual
– later evolution

6. An Amalaka, is a stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits
atop a temple's main tower (Shikhara). According to one
interpretation, the amalaka represents a lotus, and thus the
symbolic seat for the deity below.

Where the deity is placed?

Garbha Griha- Main Goddess ✓river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance
of a garbhagriha in a Nagara temple, ✓dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the gateways or
gopurams of Dravida temples, ✓similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious
planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard them. Vyalas (composite animals).

Deity is placed? installed by performing a special consecration ceremony.

✓Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the sanctum.

✓The deities of directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key directions on the outer walls of
the sanctum and/or on the outer walls of a temple.

✓Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main
deity.

Finally, various elements of ornamentation such as gavaksha (Window), vyala/yali (a mythical

creature), kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple.

Q. Other Art forms on Temple walls? scenes of everyday life consist of military processions, royal court
scenes, musicians, dancers, acrobats and amorous couples.
By 4th Century CE- Gupta Age Free Standing temples started

Q. Free Standing Structural Temples ? Evolutionary Phases→

Styles of Temple Architecture

Nagara Dravida Vesaraa Substyle

Nayaka Hoysala Vijaynagar Pala Sena

 Flat-roofed square temple;

 Flat-roofed square temple with a second storey (vimana) above;
 Square temple with a curvilinear tower (sikhara) above;
 Rectangular temple; and
 Circular temple.

Stage-1

square sanctum and pillared porch emerged. Square base with flat roof - Plain treatment of walls -
Shallow pillared approach at the front…… -Low platforms.

Stage-2

Addition of roof ambulatory round the sanctum Other features same as the first stage continued. High
or upraised platforms Two storeyed temples. Ex. Parvati temple at Nachna and Siva temple at
Bhumara.

Stage-3

High platform and covered ambulator. Flat roof not seen. Low and square shikas (curvilinear tower).
Introduction of panchayatan style. Rectangular Plan. Subsidiary Shrine + Main Shrine Crucified ground
plan.

E.g., Dashvatar temple at Deogarh Temple at Bhitargaon. From this stage- the Nagara Style of
temples emerged.

Stage-4

Main shrine became more rectangular Rest all features continued Ter Temple @ Sholapur.
Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel-vaulted roof above such as the Kapoteswara
temple at Chejarla.

Stage-5

Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections Rest all features continued. Ex.
Maniyar Math- Rajgir.
Nagara Style of Temples→

Nagara Temples ?

Gupta Age Gurjar Pratihara Odissa Solanki

Parmara - Chandela – Solanki

Q. Design of the Nagara Architecture?

The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as nagara.

1.In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading
up to it.

2.Further, unlike in South India it does not usually

have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.

3.While the earliest temples had just one tower

or shikhara, later temples had several.

4.The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

5.There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara. (three
types – of shikhara).

 the 'latina’ or the rekha-prasada type of shikara. square at the base and whose walls curve
or slope inward to a point on top.
 Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina ones. ✓Their roofs are
composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building,
unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers. ✓Phamsana roofs do not
curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. phamsana design is used for
the mandapas while the main garbhagriha is housed in a latina building.
 valabhi type.These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that
would have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called ‘wagonvaulted
buildings’.
1. Gupta Age Temples Ancient temples

In Madhya Pradesh four pillars that support a small mandapa, small room that served as the
garbhagriha. Location→ two such temples, Udaigiri, Vidisha (MP) larger Hindu complex of cave
shrines, At Sanchi, which was a Buddhist site. developments were being in the architecture of
temples of both the religions.

2. In the Later Gupta Period- New temples were constructed

Initially Flat Roof Temple Later on evolved into a full-fledged structural temple.

 Bhitargaon Temple Located in Kanpur (UP) Temple: constructed with brick and terracotta.
resemblance to a tri-ratha sculptured walls illustrate interesting stories, myths and images
Figures of birds, animals and beasts. secular and religious themes -Lord Ganesha, -
Mahishasur-mardani (Goddess Durga) and -The river goddess -abduction of Sita and the
penance of Nara and Naryana.
 Dashavtar Temple Deogarh, Jhansi (UP) Panchayatan Style: This west-facing temple. On the
banks of Betwa River. Figures of Ganga & Yamuna on the door. It is not actually known to
whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally dedicated. There are three main reliefs of
Vishnu on the temple walls: Sheshashayana on the south, Nara- Narayan on the east and
Gajendramoksha on the west. The temple is west-facing, which is less common, as most
temples are east- or north-facing.
 SIRPUR TEMPLE Mahasmand district of Chhattisgarh: both Hindu and Buddhist monuments
east-facing Lakshmana temple built by Vasata, the mother of Mahasivagupta Balarjuna in the
7th century AD. ancient name Sripura.
 Gurjar-Pratihara:

Containing the Armies of the Arab Started the Maru-Gurjar Architecture. Acient name of
Rajasthan was Marudesh while Gujarat was called Gurjaratra. Batesvar temples site or Batesara
temples site dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti Located near Gwalior (MP). Baroli Temples
Complex, also known as the Badoli temples Located in Chattisgarh. Feudal lords- Chandela made
the Khajuraho Monuments.

Odisha:

The main architectural features of Odisha

temples are classified in three orders, i.e.,
1.Rekhapida, (The Shikhara of the
LingarajaTemple in Bhubaneswar) 2. Pidhadeul
(The jaga mohan (assembly hall) of the Sun
temple in Konârak) 3. Khakra (BaitalaDeula,
Bhubaneswar ( dedicated to Chamunda)).

Most of the main temple sites are located in ancient Kalinga— 1. modern Puri District, including
Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, 2. Puri and 3. Konark.

The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct substyle within the nagara order:

1. Shikhara, called Deul, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.

2. Mandapas called Jagamohana in Odisha.

3. The ground plan of the main temple

is almost always square.

4. which, in the upper reaches of its

superstructure becomes circular in the
crowning mastaka.

5.The exterior of the temples are

lavishly carved, their interiors
generally quite bare(imp).

6. Odisha temples usually have boundary walls(imp).

7. Iron girders are used to support the slab. Erotic images- Mithun also used on the door/dwarpalak
and outside walls.
 Jagannath temple, Puri

The image of Jagannath is wooden. Navakalevara ('New Body' or 'New Embodiment') ceremony.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is associated with the puri temple. Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a
name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga
dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.
Subsequently, in 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed
himself as the “deputy” of the god.

The Sun Temple in Konark, Odisha 1240 AD

The Sun temple is set on a high base. its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental carving. These
include twelve pairs of enormous wheels, representing the chariot wheels of the Sun god, chariot
driven by eight horses. On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of surya carved out of green stone.
It is said that there were three such images, each carved out of a different stone placed on the three
temple walls.

Temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh:

The temples of Khajuraho made in the tenth century, i.e., about four hundred years after the temple
at Deogarh. Known for Hindu & Jain temples UNESCO World Heritage Site. The temples were
patronized by Chandela kings. The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone. The largest temple
at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to king Ganda. The Lakshmana
temple dedicated to Vishnu was built in 954 by Chandela king, Dhanga.

Features of Khajurao temple > A nagara temple:

 It is placed on a high platform accessed by stairs. (Unique).

 There are four smaller temples in the corners, and all the towers or shikharas rise high, upward
in a curved pyramidal fashion.
 Amalak topped with a kalash or vase.
 The temple also has projecting balconies and verandahs, thus very different from Deogarh.
 Inside and outside- both sides are carved.
 ArdhaMandap-Mandap-Garbhagriha→ single element.

Kandariya Mahadeva temple

The Kandariya Mahadeva temple dedicated to Shiva was constructed in 999 by King Dhangadeva of
the Chandela dynasty. An ornamented gateway led to an entrance, and the main hall (mahamandapa)
where dances were performed. The image of
the chief deity was kept in the main shrine
(garbhagriha). This was the place for ritual
worship where only the king, his immediate
family and priests gathered. The Khajuraho
complex contained royal temples where
commoners were not allowed entry.

Chausath Yogini temple (Ekattarso Mahadeva Temple) in Morena constructed by Maharaja

Devapala of the Kacchapagata dynasty, dated VS 1380 (1323 CE) There are many temples at
Khajuraho, most of them devoted to Hindu gods. There are some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth
Yogini temple, which is of interest. Several such temples were dedicated to the cult of the yoginis
across Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and even as far south as Tamil Nadu. They were built between the
seventh and tenth centuries, but few have survived.

Parmara Style-built cave shivleni

Nilakantesvara temple at Udayapur in MP, built by the Paramara King Udayaditya (AD 1059–1080) and
hence also known as the Udayesvara temple.The temple at Ambaranatha (Thane district,
Maharashtra) is another good illustration of the Paramara type.

Gujarat- Solanki Style

The stone used--- sandstone. soft white marble which is also seen in some of the tenth to twelveth
century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the fifteenth century temple at Ranakpur.

Gujarat- Pre Solanki Style

Among the most important art-historical sites ▪in the region is > Samlaji in Gujarat (in Aravalli district
of Gujarat state. - dedicated to Vishnu or Krishna). Showing - earlier artistic traditions of the region
get mixed with a post-Gupta style and gave rise to a distinct style of sculpture. A large number of
sculptures made of grey schist dated between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. While the patronage of
these is debated.
The temple is structured in Chaulukyan style of architecture . It also has a vast area of gathering
which is called as Uagati. It has an elegant elephant gate topped with a beautiful arch which faces
the steps of main temple leading to the entrance hall. Behind the temple, a big lake is situated which
is popular as Shyam Sarovar. The temple is structured in Chaulukyan style of architecture .

The Sun temple at Modhera

was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026. The Solankis were a branch of the later
Chalukyas. The influence of the woodcarving tradition of Gujarat. as the temple faces the east and,
every year, at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into this central shrine. There is a
massive rectangular stepped tank called the surya kund in front of it.

Sun Temple @ Modhera Queen Udaymati- Rani-ki-vav (Queen’s Stepwell). Vimal Vasahi temple @
Dilwara Dedicated to Rishabhdeva (Adinath) Built by minister Vimalshah.

Dravida Temple- Architecture ?

Origin----Pallava Dynasty Climax- Chola Dynasty, 12th Century Onwards. Regional Styles emerged in
the Dravida Art form.

Features:

 enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which
is known as a gopuram.
 The shape of the main temple tower k/a vimana.
 In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the
top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is
equivalent to the amlak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
 Whereas at the entrance to the North Indian temple’s garbhagriha, it would be usual to find
images such as mithunas and the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, in the south you will
generally find sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple.
 It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
 Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as
distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.
 The North Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in
South India. At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is usually the
oldest part of the temple. With the passage of time, the population and size of the town
associated with that temple would have increased, and it would have become necessary to
 make a new boundary wall around the temple. This would have been taller that the last one,
and its gopurams would have been even loftier. So, for instance, the Srirangam temple in
Tiruchirapally has as many as seven ‘concentric’ rectangular enclosure walls, each with
gopurams. The outermost is the newest, while the tower right in the centre housing the
garbhagriha is the oldest.

There are subdivisions also of dravida temples.

These are basically of five different shapes:

1. Kuta or caturasra – square.

2. Shala or ayatasra – rectangular.

3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) – elliptic.

4. Vritta – circular >> deriving from wagon-vaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas with a horse-shoe
shaped entrance facade usually called a nasi.

5. Ashtasra – octagonal.

PALLAVA

4 stages

1st Stage→Mahendravarman-I Rock cut cave temples

2nd Stage→ Narsimhvarman-I Rath temples→Panchapanadava rathas

3rd Stage→ Rajasimha Structural temples so sand rocks

4th Stage→ later pallava rulers

1. Mahendra group Built by king Mahendravarman:

Cave temple of Mandagapattu: Tirumurti Temple Built by Mahendravarman I.1st cave temple of
Tamil Nadu. dedicated to Brahma-Shiva-Vishnu Holds a significant position in the history of
architecture of the Pallavas. Inscription in Sanskrit- Grantha Script.

Other Cave temples→ Mahishasuramardini Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple,

Mahishasuramardini Varaha, The Kotikal Cave Temple, Tiger Cave Temple (also known as Yali),
Atiranachanda Cave Temple.
2. Narasimha group: Ratha Temples @ Mahabalipuram-- Rock cut- rath temples:

Mandapas were now divided into separate rathas. Built by Narsimhvarman (Mamlla). design of a
temple in the Dravidian style of architecture is a successor of the Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha,
Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha.

ARCHITECTURE AT MAHABALIPURAM UNSESCO World Heritage Site

1. Ratha temples or Pancha Ratha: Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula
and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha,
2. Rock-cut caves: Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, Panchapandava Cave Temple,
and the Mahishasuramardini Mandapa (Bas-relief of Goddess Durga killing Mahishasura)
3. Stone Sculpture→ Arjun’s penance/Bhagirath’s penance/Descent of Ganges
4. Shore Temple complex: images of Nandi, the vahana of Shiva. sculpture of Anantashayana
Vishnu in one of the three temples within the complex.
5. Krishna’s Butter Ball

Panch Pandava Rath ?

i) Draupadi Ratha: Dedicated to Goddess Durga.
ii) Arjuna Ratha: Dedicated to Lord Shiva; is almost a replica of the Dharmaraja
ratha.
iii) Bhima Ratha: Dedicated to Vishnu in repose; replicates a Buddhist chaitya;
iv) Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha: Dedicated to Indra, elephant statue is there Vimana is
known by the name Gajaprashta.
v) Dharmaraja Ratha: Dedicated to Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva) and Ardhanareeswara
(Siva-Parvati combine, Biggest Rath).

Arjun’s Penance-Bhagirath’s Penance- Descent of Ganges:

world’s largest Bas Relief -Arjuna is seen as doing penance for obtaining the powerful
Pasupatha ---Astra from Lord Siva for the ensuing war with his cousins, the Kauravas -Siva,
Vishnu, Surya, Chandra, celestial musicians like Kinnaras and Gandharvas, Bhuta ganas
(dwarves)},there are sages doing penance, hunters, ordinary human beings, serpents, wild
animals like lion, elephant and deer and domestic animals like cat and mouse Sculpture- divided
into 2 parts- middle- descent of Ganges 5 dwarf images→ 5 material elements- air, earth, space,
fire and water Arjun shown as Nara→ accompanied by Narayana Kiratarjuniya
 3. Rajsimha group: Rajsimhavarman – Narsimhvarman-II structural temples was started in the
place of rock-cut temples. Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath temple at
Kanchipuram, etc.
Kshatriyasimha Pallavesvara temple ---dedicated to Siva and temple facing east →sea shore.
narrow and elongated Vimana and contains a fluted Siva linga made of granite known as
‘Dhara Lingam’. Vishnu temple---Called as Narapathi Simha Pallava Vishnu shrine and
contains the figure of Seshasayi Vishnu (locally called Palligondaruliya Deva). the image of
Vishnu and the base of its shrine are carved out of the bed rock, other part made of stone
blocks. Rajasimha Pallavesvara temple: This is a west facing Shiva temple and contains a
smaller spire.
4. Nandivarman group:
smaller in size. similar to the Dravidian style of temple architecture. new style under the Chola
kingdom, known as the Dravidian style of temple architecture. Vaikuntaperumal temple at
Kanchi were constructed.

Chola Art: Climax period of Dravidian Architecture Tanjore & Trichy→ number of temples built

Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture: the patronage of the Chola rulers, hundreds of temples were

features of the Dravidian style or chola style are: • high boundary walls. • gopuram. • Panchayatan
Style • vimana. • vestibular tunnel known as antarala • . Dwaarpal, mithun and yakshas • water tank
inside the temple
Example: Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore
(built by Raja Raja I in 1011 A.D.),
Gangaikondacholapuram temple (built by
Rajendra I to commemorate his victory in
the Gangetic delta), etc.

Temples thus started becoming the focus

of urban architecture. 1. Kanchipuram, 2.
Thanjavur or Tanjore, 3. Madurai and 4.
Kumbakonam (in theThanjavur district).

Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram,

built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are
architectural and sculptural marvels. The Sri
Ranganathaswamy Temple is a Hindu
temple dedicated to Ranganatha, a reclining
form of Hindu deity, Vishnu located in
Srirangam, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.

The Rajarajeshvara Temple Who built it? The

Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur had the
tallest shikhara amongst temples of its time.

An inscription mentions that it was built by

King Rajarajadeva for the worship of his god,
Rajarajeshvaram.

The towns people are all praise for its architect

Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan who
has proudly carved his name on the temple
wall.

Even now a village near the temple is called

Charupallam, the “Village of the Incline”.

Temples were not only places of worship; • they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as
well. • crafts associated with temples • Multiple activities connected with the temples.
 Vesara School

known as the Karnataka school of architecture. Chalukya rulers in the midseventh century A.D. It
combined features of both Nagara school and Dravidian school and resulted in a hybridised style. .

Three prominent dynasties who made Vesara style temples are:

• Chalukyas of Badami and Kalyani 543 to 757 AD and again from about 975 to about 1189.

• Rashtrakutas (750-983 AD). For Example, Kailashnath temple in Ellora, etc.

• Hoysala Dynasty (1050-1300 AD). • For example, temples at Halebid, Belur etc.

Influence of Nagara style is in Curvilinear Shikhara and square base of Vesara temples. Influence of
Dravida style is seen in intricate carvings and sculptures, design of Vimana and Step or terraced Shikara
of Vesara temples.

Example: Doddabasappa temple at Dambal, Ladkhan temple at Aihole, temples at Badami etc.

Chalukyan architecture

→ divided into two stages.

 first stage→ temples at Aihole & Badami.

 Second Stage→ temples at Pa adakal.
 Aihole- town of temple- more than 70 temples located temple built between the 7th-8th
centuries.
 Ladh Khan temple is a flat roofed building (like sanchi temple no. 17)- dedicated to Shiva.
 Durga temple was an experiment seeking to adopt the Buddhist chaitya to a Brahmanical
temple. Irony- not dedicated to god Durga, but name from Durg- Fortress Fusion of Nagara and
Dravida→ Gajaprastha design.
 Hucimaligudi is very similar to the Durga temple, but smaller than it.
 Meguti Jain temple shows some progress in the erection of structural temples, but it is
unfinished Meguti Temple→ Known for Aihole Inscrip on (Puleshin II minister Ravikrirti
mentions how pukeshin II defeated Harshavardhana).

Temples at Badami:

Early Chalukyan period. the Melagitti Sivalaya four rock-cut halls at Badami (three of them Hindu—
Sapatmatrika, Natraj etc and one Jaina) workmanship in the caves is marked by a high degree of
technical excellence carved out of sand stone. same plan – a veranda with columns and brackets
leading to a main hall.
Pattadakal Temples nine Hindu temples & one Jain temple- UNESCO:

4 Nagara & 4 Dravida architecture & 1 Jain & 1 mixed- Papanath Temple.

 Sangamesvara Temple-oldest one.

 Virupaksha Temple- built
in 740 CE By queen
lokmaha Devi
Commomerate victory of
Husband Vikramaditya II on
South India.
 Jambulinga Temple-
dedicated to Shiva Images
of Parvati and Nandi Shikar is of the Nagara art.
 MALLIKARJUNA TEMPLE second queen of Vikaramaditya II Largest hindu temple at Pattadakal
Commomeorate victory over Pallava.
 One Jain Temple Built in 9th Century CE.
 narrative art of the temples depicts different episodes from the Hindu epics like Ramayana and
Mahabharata -the holy book Bhagavata Purana as well as the tales of Panchatantra.
 Papanath TempleMixture of all styles.

Hoysalas of Karnataka

With the waning of Chola and Pandya power, the Hoysalas of Karnataka grew to prominence in South
India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.

only three of them that are most frequently discussed: temples at Belur, Halebid (Dwarsamundra) and
Somnathpuram.

This was known as the Stellate plan. soft sope stone (Chorite schist) → material. Ornamental designs.
Shallow height→ 1 meter height. The walls and stairs of the temple followed a zigzag pa ern.

Example: Kesava at Somnathpur, Chenna Kesava at Belur and Hoyasalesvara at Halebid.

Hoysaleshvara temple (Lord of the Hoysalas) at Halebid:

 Dedicated to Hindu god Shiva. during the rule of King Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala Empire in
the 12th century.
 The Hoysaleshvara temple (Lord of the Hoysalas) at Halebid in Karnataka was built in dark schist
stone in 1150.
 Hoysala temples are sometimes called hybrid or vesara as their unique style seems neither
completely dravida nor nagara, but somewhere in between.
 They are easily distinguishable from other medieval temples by their highly original star-like
ground-plans and profusion of decorative carvings.
 Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja, the Halebid temple is a double building with a large hall for the
mandapa to facilitate music and dance.
 So intricate is the carving that it is said, for instance, in the bottom-most frieze featuring a
continuous procession of hundreds of elephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the
same pose.

Vijaynagar Kingdom

Founder Harihar & Bukka Vijaynagar Style of Temple Art Developed.

Vijayanagar style→ characterised as Dravida style, it had its own dis nct features combined the
features of Chola, Hoysalas, Pandyas, Chalukyas architectural styles. temples also have a kalyana
mandapam Pillars with horse motif(Yali, musical pillars). Amman shrine was meant for the consort of
the god. Temples in this style are in Hampi-Vijayanagar Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara Ramaswamy
temples. Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaram(T.N.), Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha
temples at Kanchipuram.

Vijayanagara School(1335-1565 AD):

capital at Hampi (Karnataka). combined the features of Chola, Hoysalas, Pandyas, Chalukyas. Hampi
Monuments- UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa group of temples, Achyutaraya temple complex, Vitthala
temple complex, Pattabhirama temple complex, Lotus Mahal complex

Temple complexes containing subsidiary shrines, bazaars, residential areas and tanks applying the
unique hydraulic technologies and skilfully and harmoniously integrating the town and defence
architecture.

Kalyana Mandapa and Utsava Mandapa stone chariot, large Pushkarani (stepped tank) Material→
granite, burnt bricks and lime mortar

Also fusion of Architecture is found→ Indo Islamic Architecture in secular buildings like the Queen’s
Bath and the Elephant Stables, Lotus Mahal complex.
architectural styles. influenced by the Indo-Islamic style of Bijapur.

Features→ Rai Gopurams→ all sides • Monolithic rock pillars, Musical Pillars, Yali Stambh • Use of
Kalyan Mandap . • Temple complex is enclosed by boundaries • Secular buildings used Example:
Vittalsami temple, Lotus Mahal, Virupaksha temple in Hampi, Raghunatha Temple in Hampi etc. Rock-
cut idol of Narasimha on Shesha (snake) near Hampi is a marvel in itself.

Nayaka School: 16th centuries and 18th centuries A.D.

It was also knows as Madurai school. It was architecturally similar to the Dravidian style, Large size,
islamic influence.

Some of the unique features are:

• Presence of Prakarms or huge corridors in the portico, around the garbhagriha, along with roofed
ambulatory passageways.

• The gopurams built under the Nayaka rulers were some of the largest gopurams.

• The Meenakshi temple in Madurai has the tallest gopuram in the world. The art of gopuram reached
its climax in the Nayaka style.

• The temple structure was filled with intricate carvings. Example: Meenakshi temple, Madurai, etc.

East India

Locations ? -North- East→ Assam -Bengal and -Odisha. Each of these three areas produced distinct
types of temples.

It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction, and also for moulding plaques which
depicted Buddhist and Hindu deities in Bengal until the seventh century.

A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal which shows the development of
important regional schools in those regions.

Temple, Sibsagar, Assam

6th century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few stray sculptures from
Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the import of the Gupta idiom in that
region.

 This post-Gupta style continued in the region well into the 10th century.
 However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam. The style
that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style
 of Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as the - Ahom style in and around
Guwahati.

Kamakhya temple built in the 17th century:

 At Guwahati, Assam.The temple is located on the Nilachal hill in Guwahati. dedicated to the tantric
goddesses.
 There is no statue, idol or image of Devi in the temple, but in the corner of the cave in the temple,
there is sculptured image of the yoni or Vagina of the goddess, which is the object of worship and
reverence.
 Temple, Sibsagar, Assam Sivasagar Sivadol ( Sibsagar district of Upper Assam) > comprising three
Hindu temples of Sivadol, Visnudol and Devidol, other shrines, and a museum.

Bengal: the Pala style (9th to 11th C), the Sena style (11th to 13th C)

Palas are celebrated as patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from that region are
known to express the local Vanga style.

Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple

The 9th C. in Barakar in Burdwan District > shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka
and is an example of the early Pala style. It is similar to contemporaneous temples of Odisha.

The black to grey basalt and chlorite stone pillars and arched niches of these (Purulia) temples heavily
influenced the earliest Bengal sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.

Prominent feature

The shape of the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut. This feature was
eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings, and is known across North India as the Bangla roof.

Location of these temples:

These can be widely found in and around ex. Vishnupur, Terracotra Bankura, Burdwan and Birbhum >
dated to 7th c.. Note→ Pala + local hut + islamic archi.

Temple complexes in Hills

A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir.

Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara sites (such as Taxila, Peshawar and the northwest
frontier) lent the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE. This began to mix with the
Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that were brought to it from Sarnath, Mathura and even centres in
Gujarat and Bengal. Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks frequently travelled between Kashmir,
Garhwal, Kumaon and religious centres in the plains like Banaras, Nalanda and even as far south as
Kanchipuram. As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the
hills. The hills also had their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs.

At several places in the hills, main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a rekha-prasada or latina
style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes on
a pagoda shape.

Pandrethan temples :

The Karkota period of Kashmir > Pandrethan temples , built during the 8th and 9th centuries. In
keeping with the tradition of a water tank attached to the shrine, this temple is built on a plinth built
in the middle of a tank. This temple is a Hindu one, possibly dedicated to Shiva.The architecture of this
temple is in keeping with the age-old Kashmiri tradition of wooden buildings. Due to the snowy
conditions in Kashmir, the roof is peaked and slants slowly outward.The temple is moderately
ornamented, moving away from the post-Gupta aesthetics of heavy carving. A row of elephants at the
base and a decorated doorway are the only embellishments on the shrine.

Laksna-Devi Mandir @ Chamba:

Like the findings at Samlaji, the sculptures at Chamba also show an amalgamation of local traditions
with a post-Gupta style. The images of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha images show the influence
of the metal sculpture tradition of Kashmir.

Chaurasi Temple @ chamba

1) Lakshana Devi Temple - old architectural features of wooden temples. Durga is represented here
in her aspect of four armed Mahishasuramardini, the slayer of the demon Mahishasura.

2) Narsingh (Narasimha) Temple: Narasimha is an incarnation of Vishnu. The bronze image of this
god, which is exquisitely cast, is awe-inspiring.

3) Manimahesh (Shiva) Temple: Manimahesh temple which stands in the centre of Chaurasi temple,
is main temple, enshrining a huge Shiva linga. Abode of lord Shiva.

Temples in Kumaon(UK)

Jageshwar temple,Almora & Champavat temple, Pithoragarh - are classic examples of nagara
architecture in the region.