Theory of Bonding

THEORY OF BONDING
FORMS OF CHEMICAL BONDS
There are 2 extreme forms of connecting or bonding atoms:

 Ionic — The transfer of valence electrons between a metal
and non-metal atom.
 In this transfer the metal atom becomes + vely

charged ion (Cation) and the non-metal atom
becomes – vely charged ion (Anion).
 Covalent — Formed when two atoms share one or more

pairs of valence electrons.
2
COVALENT BONDING
 Definition: Consists of a shared pair of electrons with one electron being

supplied by each atom either side of the bond.
 atoms are held together because their nuclei

which have an overall positive charge are + +
attracted to the shared electrons.
 Formation:
 between atoms of the same element; N2, O2, etc
 between atoms of different elements CO2, SO2
on the RHS of the table;
 when one of the elements is in the CCl4, SiCl4
middle of the table;
3
 with head-of-the-group elements BeCl2
with high ionisation energies;
COVALENT BONDING
BETWEEN ATOMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT
In a fluorine, F2,, molecule
 Each F shares one electron.
 Each F attains an octet.
4
COVALENT BONDING
BETWEEN ATOMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT (MULTIPLE BONDS)
In nitrogen molecule, N2,
 Each N atom shares 3 electrons.
 Each N attains an octet.
 The bond is a multiple bond called a triple bond.
 The name is the same as the element.
5
COVALENT BONDING
BETWEEN ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS
In a CH4, methane, molecule

 C atom shares 4 electrons to attain an
octet.
 Each H shares 1 electron to become
stable like helium.
In Carbon dioxide molecule In Sulphur dioxide molecule
6
COVALENT BONDING
WHEN ONE OF THE ELEMENTS IS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE TABLE
Carbon tetrachloride Silicon tetrachloride
7
LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES
ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION IN MOLECULES
 Electron distribution is depicted with Lewis

electron dot structures.
 Valence electrons are distributed as shared or

BOND PAIRS (BP) and unshared or LONE
PAIRS (LP).
••
H • • Cl •
• G. N. Lewis
••
1875 - 1946
lone pair (LP)
shared or
bond pair
8
This is called a LEWIS ELECTRON DOT structure.
LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURES
GUIDE TO WRITING ELECTRON DOT SYMBOLS

Step 1. Choose the Central atom = S SULFITE ION, SO32-
The least electronegative element is usually the central element, except for H
which is never a central elements.
Step 2. Count valence electrons S = 6, 3 x O = 3 x 6 = 18, Negative charge = 2
TOTAL = 26 e- or 13 pairs
Step 3. Form bonds

••
10 pairs of electrons are now left. O
O
••
••
•• ••
OSO
••
••
••
O S O
•• ••
Each atom is surrounded by an octet of electrons. 9

Remaining pairs become lone pairs, first on outside atoms and then on
central atom.
COVALENT BONDING
HYDROGEN
H H
Hydrogen atom needs Another hydrogen atom

one electron to also needs one electron to
complete its outer shell complete its outer shell
WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE
H H H H 10
COVALENT BONDING
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
Cl H
Chlorine atom Hydrogen atom also

needs one electron needs one electron
to complete its to complete its outer
outer shell shell
H Cl H Cl 11
COVALENT BONDING
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
Cl H
atoms share a pair of

electrons to form a
single covalent bond
H Cl H Cl 12
COVALENT BONDING
METHANE H
H H
C H C H
H H H
atom needs four each atom needs one Carbon shares all 4 of its
electrons to complete electron to complete electrons to form 4 single
its outer shell its outer shell covalent bonds
H H
DOT AND
CROSS
DIAGRAM H C H H C H
13
H H
COVALENT BONDING
WATER
H H O
O
H H
atom needs two each atom needs one Oxygen can only share 2 of its
electrons to complete electron to complete 6 electrons otherwise it will
its outer shell its outer shell exceed the maximum of 8
TWO LONE PAIRS REMAIN
H O H O
14
H H
COVALENT BONDING
OXYGEN
O O O O
each atom needs two electrons each oxygen shares 2 of its

to complete its outer shell electrons to form a
DOUBLE COVALENT BOND
O O
15
COVALENT BONDING
VIOLATIONS OF THE OCTET RULE
 Atoms share electrons to get the nearest noble gas electronic
configuration.
BUT
 Some don’t achieve an “octet” as they haven’t got enough electrons
e.g. Al in AlCl3
 Others share only some - if they share all they will exceed their “octet”
e.g. NH3 and H2O
 Atoms of elements in the 3rd period onwards can exceed their “octet” if
they wish as they are not restricted to eight electrons in their “outer shell”
e.g. PCl5 and SF6
17
COVALENT BONDING
LEARNING CHECK
Use electron dot symbols to show the following:
1. How boron in the molecule BF3 does not obey Octet
2. How nitrogen in the NH3 share only some electrons to try avoid
exceeding octet
3. How SF6 is not restricted to eight electrons in their “outer shell
Draw Lewis dot structures for the following:
1. Hypochlorite ion
2. Ammonium ion ( NH4+) 18

COVALENT BONDING
SOLUTION
Use electron dot symbols to show the following:
1 2 3
Draw Lewis dot structures for the following:
19
1 2
COVALENT BONDING
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
21
COVALENT BONDING
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
‘The ability of an atom to attract the electron pair in a covalent bond to itself’
The Electronegativity value
Indicates the attraction of an atom for shared electrons.
 Increases from left to right going across a period on the periodic

table.
 Is high for the nonmetals with fluorine as the highest.
 Is low for the metals.
Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond Formed
0.0 to 0.5 nonpolar covalent
0.6 to 1.4 polar covalent 22
> 1.5 ionic

COVALENT BONDING
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity
` increases
Electronegativity decreases
High
values
`
Low
values 23
COVALENT BONDING
NONPOLAR & POLAR COVALENT BONDS
A nonpolar covalent bond A polar covalent bond
 occurs between nonmetals.  occurs between nonmetal atoms.

 is an unequal sharing of electrons.
 is an equal or almost equal sharing
 has a moderate electronegativity
of electrons.
difference (0.5 to 1.5).
 has almost no electronegativity
difference (0.0 to 0.4). Examples:
Examples: Electronegativity
Atoms Difference Type of Bond
Electronegativity
Atoms Difference Type of Bond O-Cl 3.5 - 3.0 = 0.5 Polar covalent
N-N 3.0 - 3.0 = 0.0 Nonpolar Cl-C 3.0 - 2.5 = 0.5 Polar covalent
Cl-Br 3.0 - 2.8 = 0.2 Nonpolar O-S 3.5 - 2.5 = 1.0 Polar covalent
H-Si 2.1 - 1.8 = 0.3 Nonpolar 24

COVALENT BONDING
COMPARING NONPOLAR AND POLAR COVALENT BONDS
25
COVALENT BONDING
LEARNING CHECK
1. On the basis of their positions in the periodic table, arrange Cl, Se, Si, and Sr
in order of increasing electronegativity and classify each as a metal, a non-
metal, or a metalloid.
Cl non-metal
Sr, Si, Se, and Cl Se non-metal
Si metalloid
Sr metal
2. Use electronegativity values to determine whether the following have polar

covalent bonds, non-polar covalent bonds or ionic bonds:
O2 O2 → 3.5 – 3.5 = 0 non-polar
KF KF → 4.0 – 0.8 = 3.16 ionic
SiCl4 →
SiCl4 26
3.0 – 1.8 = 1.26 polar
H2O
H2O → 3.5 – 2.1 = 1.24 polar
COVALENT BONDING
LEARNING CHECK
3. Use electronegativity values to determine whether the following have polar

covalent bonds, non-polar covalent bonds or ionic bonds:
HCl HCl HCl → 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9 polar

H2 H2 H2 → 2.1 – 2.1 = 0 non-polar
CH4
CH4 CH4 → 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4 non-polar
27
COVALENT BONDING
PT WITH ELECTRONEGATIVITY VALUES
28
FORMAL ATOMIC CHARGES
FORMAL CHARGES (FC):
FC= V – N – (B/2)
 Are apparent charges on certain
Where,
atoms in a Lewis structure that arise
V = number of valence electrons of
when atoms have not contributed
the atom in isolation;
equal numbers of electrons to the
N = number of non-bonding valence
covalent bonds joining them.
electrons on this atom in the
 In cases where more than one Lewis
molecule;
structure seems possible, formal
B = total number of electrons shared
charges are used to ascertain which
in covalent bonds with
sequence of atoms and arrangement
other atoms in the molecule.
of bonds is most satisfactory.
29
 Formal charge = [# of valence electrons] – [electrons in lone pairs] – [1/2 x the
number of bonding electrons]
CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2
FC = 6 – 4 – (4/2) = 0
•• ••
• •
• O C O •
FC = 4 – 0 – (8/2) = 0
Overall charge = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 30
GENERAL RULES
 The sum of the formal charges in a Lewis structure must equal

zero for a neutral molecule.
 And must equal the magnitude of the charge for a polyatomic

ion.
 Where formal charges are required, they should be as small as

possible.
 Negative formal charges usually appear on the most

electronegative atoms; positive formal charges, on the least
electronegative atoms.
31
THIOCYANATE ION, SCN-
FC = 5 – 2 - (1/2)(6) = 0
•• -
• •
• S C N •
••
FC = 4 – 0 - (1/2)(8) = 0
32
Overall charge = -1 + 0 + 0 = -1
LEARNING CHECK
For each if the following molecules or ions; draw the best Lewis
structure for the molecule, including all unpaired electrons and assign
the formal charge to each atom.
1. Hydronium ion
2. Ammonium ion
3. Methoxide ion (CH3O-)
4. Carbon monoxide
NB: the sum of the formal charges of all atoms must equal the
33
Overall charge on the structure.
SOLUTION
 Hydronium ion  Ammonium ion

 FC (O) = 1  FC(N) = 1
 FC(H) = 0  FC(H) = 0
 Overall = 1  Overall = 1
1 2
 Methoxide ion  Carbon monoxide

 FC(C) = 0  FC(C) = -1
 FC(H) = 0  FC(H) = 1
 FC(O) = -1  OVERALL = 0
 OVERALL = -1
34
3 4
HOMEWORK
For each if the following molecules or ions; draw the best lewis structure
for the molecule, including all unpaired electrons and assign the formal
charge to each atom.
1. Ozone
2. Sulphuric acid
35
SOME COMMON MOLECULES…
38
RESONANCE STRUCTURES
 Some molecules cannot be adequately represented by a single Lewis structure.

For example, two valid Lewis structures can be drawn for the anion (HCONH)¯
(FORMAMIDE ION).
 One structure has a negatively charged N atom and a C=O double bond;
the other has a negatively charged O atom and a C=N double bond.
 These structures are called resonance structures or resonance forms. A

39
double headed arrow is used to separate the two resonance structures.
Only electronsare moved.
 Regarding the two resonance forms of (HCONH)¯ shown below, it should

be noted that:
 Neither resonance structure is an accurate representation for (HCONH)¯. The

true structure is a composite of both resonance forms and is called a
resonance hybrid.
 The hybrid shows characteristics of both structures.
 Resonance allows certain electron pairs to be delocalized over two or more

atoms, and this delocalization adds stability.
40
 A molecule with two or more resonance forms is said to be resonance
stabilized. The more forms-THE MORE STABLE
Drawing Resonance Structures
Rule [1]: Two resonance structures differ in the position of multiple bonds and
non-bonded electrons (lone pairs). The placement of atoms and single
bonds always stays the same.
Rule [2]: Two resonance structures must have the same number of unpaired
electrons.
41
Rule [3]: Resonance structures must be valid Lewis structures. Hydrogen must
have two electrons and no second-row element can have more than
eight electrons.
42

 Curved arrow notation is a convention that is used to show how electron
position differs between the two resonance forms.
 Curved arrow notation shows the movement of an electron pair. The tail of the
arrow always begins at the electron pair, either in a bond or lone pair. The head
points to where the electron pair “moves.”
Example 1:
Example 2:
43
Example 3:
Equivalent structures:
Nonequivalent structures:
In the two examples above, a lone pair is located on an atom

44
directly bonded to a double bond.

Example 4:
 In the above examples, an atom bearing a (+) charge is bonded either to

a double bond or an atom with a lone pair.
45
RESONANCE HYBRIDS
 A resonance hybrid is a composite of all possible resonance structures. In

the resonance hybrid, the electron pairs drawn in different locations in
individual resonance forms are delocalized.
 When two resonance structures are different, the hybrid looks more like the
“better” resonance structure. The “better” resonance structure is called
the major contributor to the hybrid, and all others are minor contributors.
A “better” resonance structure is one that has more bonds and fewer
charges.
46
These equivalent structures are called RESONANCE STRUCTURES. The

true electronic structure is a HYBRID of the two.
RESONANCE STRUCTURES OF NITRATE ION (NO3-)
O O O
N N N
O O O O O O
47
Four criteria for choosing the more important resonance structure

(major contributor):
1. Smaller formal charges (either positive or negative) are preferable to

larger charges;
2. A more negative formal charge should exist on an atom with a larger EN

value.
3. Get unlike charges as close together as possible
4. Avoid like charges (+ + or - - ) on adjacent atoms
48
Resonance and Formal Charge

EXAMPLE: Cyanate ion (NCO-)has 3 possible resonance forms:
Determine Formal Charges
 Forms B and C have smaller formal charges; this makes them

more important than form A. (rule 1)
49
 Form C has a negative charge on O which is the more electronegative
element, therefore C contributes the most to the resonance hybrid. (rule 2)
LEARNING CHECK
Is there a“better” resonance structure from the given resonance structures

below?
1.
No
Yes
2.
50
LEARNING CHECK
Which resonance structure (Hydrocyanic acid) is more stable?
0 0 0 0 +1 -1
Rule 1: For two acceptable Lewis structures, the one with the least separation
of formal charges is more stable.
Therefore, is the more stable isomer of the pair.
51
What happens in in a case where bonding pair of electrons is spread over a

number of atoms rather than localised between two?
CARBONATE
Instead of drawing the resonance structures, a dotted/dashed line may be used to

represent a partial bond.
This is called delocalized bond.
Therefore this form can be used to

represent CO32- in a delocalized form.
52
LEARNING CHECK
Draw 3 resonance structures for SO32- and its delocalized structure.
Which is the most important resonance form of Thiocyanate Ion, SCN-?
53
LEARNING CHECK
Write the most plausible Lewis structure of nitrosyl chloride, NOCl.
55
SOLUTION
56
SOLUTION
57
HYBRIDIZATION
HYDRIDIZATION
 The original valence bond theory, as proposed by G.N. Lewis, is inadequate in

explaining bonding and structure of many covalent species, i.e. CH4,SF6, PCl5
 Hybridization is a model that attempts to remedy the shortcomings of simple

valence bond theory.
 For example, Both carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, implying that
methane is a covalent compound, not an ionic compound, meaning methane
is made up of molecules, not ions.
 Experimentally, the four carbon-hydrogen bonds in the methane molecule

are identical, meaning they have the same bond energy and the same bond
length.
 VSEPR theory suggests that the geometry at the carbon atom

59
in the methane molecule is tetrahedral.
HYDRIDIZATION
 Consider the electron configurations of carbon and hydrogen. Methane CH4
 The valence shell in carbon is shell two, and it has four electrons.
 The number of valence orbitals in carbon each bearing one electron is two (2px
and 2py).
 The valence shell in hydrogen is shell one, which has one orbital (1s), bearing one
electron. But…..
 According to valence bond theory, to form a covalent bond, a valence orbital

bearing one electron in one atom overlaps with a valence orbital bearing one
electron in another atom.
60
 Thus, the maximum number of hydrogen atoms a carbon atom can form
covalent bonds with is two, not four.
HYDRIDIZATION
 To explain the structure of the
 Notice that the simple valence methane molecule, two modifications,
bond theory fails even to explain
known as excitation and hybridization,
the existence of methane.
are introduced to valence bond theory.
 The carbon atom here is a ground
state atom.
 Convert it into an excited-state atom by
moving an electron from the 2s
orbital to the empty 2pz orbital.
 In the excited-state carbon atom, there are four

valence orbitals each bearing one electron
(2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz).
 Thus, the excited-state carbon atom can form
61
covalent bonds with four hydrogen atoms,
resulting in a methane molecule.
HYDRIDIZATION
 Since the four hybridized orbitals are created by mixing one 2s orbital and
three 2p orbitals, they are called sp3-hybridized orbitals.
 To explain the bonding in the methane molecule using the valence bond
model, two modifications are necessary.
i. Use the excited-state carbon atom, rather than a ground-state carbon

atom, in bonding. 62
ii. Use an sp3-hybridized carbon atom in bonding.

HYDRIDIZATION
SP3 HYBRIDIZED ORBITALS
 25% s character and 75 % p character
 Angle in-between the hybridized orbitals is 109◦
 H orbitals of hydrogen overlap with sp3 hybrid

orbital of carbon (single electrons- VBT)
63
HYDRIDIZATION
Example 2: NH3
 Nitrogen has 7 electrons and 5 in the

valence shell
 Electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p3
 Sp3 (s orbital) with paired electrons, therefore

no overlap with hydrogen atoms
 Overlap in p orbital, single electrons (VBT)

64
HYDRIDIZATION
 One s and 2 p orbitals, forming 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals
 All boron and carbon compounds with double bond are sp2
hybridized
 Bond angle in-between are 120◦
 Shape is triangular planar
Example 1: BCl3 Example 2: BF3
65
HYDRIDIZATION
LEARNING CHECK
1. Show sp3 hybridization in the water (H2O) molecule
2. Show sp2 hybridization in Ethylene (C2H4)
66
HYDRIDIZATION
ALTERNATIVE USE- COUNT REGIONS OF ELECTRON DENSITY
 Regions of electrons density can be lone pair of electrons, single bond,

double or triple bond)
 6 regions of high electron density (sp3d2)
 5 regions of high electron density (sp3d)
 4 regions of high electron density (sp3)
 3 regions ( sp2)
 2 regions (sp)
67
67
HYDRIDIZATION
ALTERNATIVE USE- COUNT REGIONS OF ELECTRON DENSITY
o
# #
regions regions
Lewis Lewis
molecule of high molecule of high
structure structure
electron electron
density density
BeCl2 2 BF3 3
HCN 2 SO3 3
CO2 2 NO2 3
CH4 4 NH3 4
PCl5 5 SF6 6
68
HYDRIDIZATION

Phosphorus pentachloride(PCl5)
 Ground state electronic configuration of phosphorus atom is:
1s2 2s22p63s23px13py13pz1.
 The formation of PCl5 molecule requires 5 unpaired electrons.
 Hence the phosphorus atom undergoes excitation to promote one electron

from 3s orbital to one of empty 3d orbital.
3d
3p
69
3s
HYDRIDIZATION
Show how sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) attains sp3d2 and sp3d1
70
Trigonal planar
Tetrahedral
VALENCE
SHELL
ELECTRON
PAIR Bent
REPULSION
THEORY
Trigonal
pyramidal
VSEPR THEORY
MOLECULAR SHAPE
 VSEPR theory is used to predict the shape of a molecule/compounds.
 VSEPR theory: Assumes that the shape of a molecule is determined by the

repulsion of electron pairs.
72
VSEPR: pronounced “vesper”

VSEPR THEORY
MOLECULAR SHAPE
 Based on Electron Dot (Lewis structures)
 Electrons around central nucleus repel each other. So, structures have atoms
maximally spread out
73
VSEPR THEORY
MOLECULAR SHAPE
 A general formula is used to predict the structural arrangement of
molecules/compounds in VSEPR; AXmEn
 A - Is the central atom
 X - Atoms attached to the central atom.
No distinction is made between atoms of different elements.
For example, AX4 can refer to CH4 or to CCl4.
 E - Nonbonding electron pairs (lone pairs).
 m - Number of central atoms
 n – Number of lone nonbonding electrons.

 The lone pair (LP) will spread more than bonding pair (BP). 74
 The order of repulsion can be expressed as follows:

LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP
75
VSEPR THEORY
MOLECULAR SHAPE
 Electron-group repulsions and the five basic molecular shapes
76
Ideal bond angles are shown for each shape.
VSEPR THEORY
77
VSEPR THEORY
LEARNING CHECK
For each of the following molecules draw the Lewis dot structure and
use the VSPER theory to predict the shape or structure, formula and
hybridization state
1. NH3
2. PF3
3. H2O
4. CH4
78
VSEPR THEORY
SOLUTIONS
1. NH3 2. PF3
Lewis structure Lewis structure
Notation (formula) - AX3E

Notation (formula) - AX3E
Shape - Trigonal pyramid
Shape -Trigonal pyramid
Hybridization- sp3 Hybridization – sp3
3. H2O 4. CH4
Notation - AX2E2 Notation (formula) – AX4
Shape - Non-liner/Bent/Angular Shape – Tetrahedral 79
Hybridization – sp3 Hybridization – sp3

VSEPR THEORY
LEARNING CHECK
For each of the following molecules draw the Lewis dot structure and use
the VSPER theory to predict the shape or structure, formula and state the
hybridization.
1. H2S
2. SnCl2
3. CS2
4. BF3
5. PCl5
80
VSEPR THEORY
SOLUTIONS
1. H2S 2. SnCl2 3. CS2
Lewis structure Lewis structure Lewis structure
Notation (formula) - AX2 Notation (formula) - AX2E Notation (formula) - AX2
Shape -Bent/Angular Shape - Non-liner/Angular Shape -Bent/Angular
Hybridization- sp3 Hybridization- sp2 Hybridization- sp
4. BF3 5. PCl5
Notation (formula) – AX3 Notation (formula) – AX5
Shape - Trigonal planar Shape - Trigonal bipyramidal

81
Hybridization- sp2 Hybridization- sp3d

Theory of Bonding

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Theory of Bonding

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THEORY OF BONDING

FORMS OF CHEMICAL BONDS

There are 2 extreme forms of connecting or bonding atoms:

 In this transfer the metal atom becomes + vely

 Covalent — Formed when two atoms share one or more

 Definition: Consists of a shared pair of electrons with one electron being

 atoms are held together because their nuclei

BETWEEN ATOMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT

In a fluorine, F2,, molecule

 Each F shares one electron.

 Each F attains an octet.

BETWEEN ATOMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT (MULTIPLE BONDS)

In nitrogen molecule, N2,

 Each N atom shares 3 electrons.

 Each N attains an octet.

 The bond is a multiple bond called a triple bond.

 The name is the same as the element.

BETWEEN ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS

In a CH4, methane, molecule

In Carbon dioxide molecule In Sulphur dioxide molecule

WHEN ONE OF THE ELEMENTS IS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE TABLE

Carbon tetrachloride Silicon tetrachloride

ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION IN MOLECULES

 Electron distribution is depicted with Lewis

 Valence electrons are distributed as shared or

GUIDE TO WRITING ELECTRON DOT SYMBOLS

Step 2. Count valence electrons S = 6, 3 x O = 3 x 6 = 18, Negative charge = 2

Step 3. Form bonds

Each atom is surrounded by an octet of electrons. 9

Hydrogen atom needs Another hydrogen atom

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

Chlorine atom Hydrogen atom also

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

atoms share a pair of

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

each atom needs two electrons each oxygen shares 2 of its

1. How boron in the molecule BF3 does not obey Octet

3. How SF6 is not restricted to eight electrons in their “outer shell

Draw Lewis dot structures for the following:

2. Ammonium ion ( NH4+) 18

Use electron dot symbols to show the following:

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

The Electronegativity value

Indicates the attraction of an atom for shared electrons.

 Increases from left to right going across a period on the periodic

 Is high for the nonmetals with fluorine as the highest.

 Is low for the metals.

Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond Formed

0.0 to 0.5 nonpolar covalent

0.6 to 1.4 polar covalent 22

> 1.5 ionic

 occurs between nonmetals.  occurs between nonmetal atoms.

H-Si 2.1 - 1.8 = 0.3 Nonpolar 24

COMPARING NONPOLAR AND POLAR COVALENT BONDS

2. Use electronegativity values to determine whether the following have polar

3. Use electronegativity values to determine whether the following have polar

HCl HCl HCl → 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9 polar

CARBON DIOXIDE, CO2

 The sum of the formal charges in a Lewis structure must equal

 And must equal the magnitude of the charge for a polyatomic

 Where formal charges are required, they should be as small as

 Negative formal charges usually appear on the most

THIOCYANATE ION, SCN-

3. Methoxide ion (CH3O-)