Mahabharata Study Guide

The Mahabharata is an ancient Sanskrit poem describing the mythical Kurukshetra War between two sets of
brothers descended from the king Bharata: the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It is considered so historically
important to the Hindu tradition that it is sometimes referred to as the "fifth Veda." The four Vedas are the
foundational texts of Hinduism, outlining tenets of the faith and doctrines for living, but none of them discuss
the tenet of dharma.
The Mahabharata takes dharma as its central theme, and the principle is discussed at length in the portion
known as the Bhagavad Gita and in Bhisma's extensive conversation with Yudhisthira. The Bhagavad Gita on
its own has long been considered a vital text in Hindu philosophy, influencing thinkers as recent as Mohandas
Gandhi in the 20th century.
In its written and unabridged form, the poem is composed of 100,000 verses, making it the longest of all the
ancient epic tales. Yet, unlike the Vedic texts, which are considered to have been passed down and copied
pristinely down to the letter throughout the ages, the Mahabharata did not initially manifest as a written work.
Instead, the tale was passed down through an oral tradition, meaning that the version we have now is
something of a hodge–podge of various versions and revisions made by its tellers. In this sense,
the Mahabharata is similar to the Greek war epic the Iliad, which was passed down orally until being committed
to writing around the 8th century BC, roughly the same period when the Mahabharata began taking shape.
This oral tradition is reflected in the text of the Mahabharata itself, as every single story told is told by one
person to another person. The entire epic itself is framed as being recited by a single storyteller.
Scholarship on the Mahabharata tends to note that the text is intended to be encyclopedic, touching on
everything from the tenets of dharma to the responsibilities of a king to the true nature of women. And while it
is the only ancient Hindu text that takes a narrative form, it is laden with didactic, philosophical segments, be
they in the form of allegorical fables or didactic discourse between its characters. Therefore,
the Mahabharata is part epic poem, part Hindu philosophical treatise.

Mahabharata Summary

Book 1: Beginnings
We begin during the rule of Bharata, when everyone on Earth follows dharma. His lineage is traced to two
sons: Dhrtarastra, who is blind and cannot inherit the throne, and Pandu, who becomes king. Pandu has one
illegitimate son he must give up to be raised as a Suta and five sons to call his own, and all six are gods
incarnate. Dhrtarastra has 100 sons (called Kauravas), all demons. Pandu's five sons Arjuna, Bhima,
Yudhisthira, Nakula, and Sahadeva are all great warriors or great kings, and marry the princess Draupadi.
Dhrtarastra's son Duryodhana leads the other 99 brothers, and has a seething hatred for the Pandavas, or
Pandu's sons. Both Yudhisthira and Duryodhana are granted kingdoms by Dhrtarastra.

Book 2: The Hall

After Yudhisthira is consecrated as king, Duryodhana schemes to take his kingdom. So, Duryodhana
challenges Yudhisthira to a dice game. Duryodhana implores Yudhisthira to participate, and Yudhisthira
determines that it's his dharma to play despite being a terrible gambler. He gradually gambles away his entire
kingdom and the freedom of his wife, but Dhrtarastra commands Duryodhana to give Yudhisthira one more
change. Duryodhana agrees, saying that if Yudhisthira loses he and the other Pandavas must live in exile for
12 years and spend a 13th year in disguise, and if they're recognized, they must spend another 12 years in
exile. Yudhisthira loses.

Book 3: The Forest

The brothers and Draupadi spend the 12 years of exile in the forest, studying with Brahmins and training.
During this period of time, Arjuna is granted a celestial weapon by the god Indra. Draupadi is kidnapped and
brought back.
Book 4: Virata
During their 13th year, the Pandavas take refuge in the king Virata's palace, posing as former subjects of
Yudhisthira. Draupadi poses as a maidservant to maintain her independence. It's an eventful year, with a rape
attempt on Draupadi that leads to Bhima slaughtering all of the aggressor's supporters and Arjuna helping
Virata's son win back cattle from thieves. The brothers make it through the 13th year undetected despite these
showy adventures.

Book 5: Perseverance
Yudhisthira returns to take his kingdom back, but learns Duryodhana has no intention of turning it over.
Duryodhana clearly wants war, but Krsna advises Yudhisthira to ask for a peaceful transfer of power first.
Duryodhana denies this peaceful transfer, clearly desiring war despite being chided by everyone close to him.
The two sides prepare for war. Duryodhana appoints Bhima his commander. Krsna tells the Yudhisthira that
even though he will equip Duryodhana with soldiers, he will side with the Pandavas.

Book 6: Bhisma
At the beginning of the battle, Arjuna asks Krsna for permission to throw down his arms since he does not want
to slay his kind. Krsna recites the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, explaining the tenets of dharma and action, and
specifically Arjuna's duty to fight in this war with a preordained outcome. After a sustained conflict between
Arjuna and Krsna, Arjuna finally kills Bhisma on the 10th day of the war, and Bhisma chooses to lay on a bed
of arrows and delay the date of his death.

Book 7: Drona
Drona, Arjuna's former military trainer, is appointed the new commander of Duryodhana's army. He is a
fearsome fighter, so the Pandavas devise a plan to trick Drona into defying his dharma, making himself ready
to die. Yudhisthira tells Drona that Bhima killed Asvatthaman, which is the name of Drona's son. In reality,
Bhima killed an elephant named Asvatthaman. Drona flies into a fit of rage and violates his dharma by
massacring soldiers he shouldn't kill. When he realizes what has happened, he lays down his arms and
accepts his death.

Book 8: Karna
Duryodhana begins to grasp that his campaign is doomed, but at Karna's request, he appoints Karna the new
commander of his army. Karna and Arjuna meet on the battlefield in a bloody exchange, in which Karna is
slowly brutalized and killed.

Book 9: Salya
Salya is appointed the next and, ultimately, final commander of Duryodhana's army. He is quickly killed by
Yudhisthira. Duryodhana flees to hide in a lake, knowing the end of the war is imminent, but the Pandavas find
him. Bhima kills him in a match with clubs, using an unfair strike. Despite the protests of observers and
Duryodhana himself, Krsna ordains the strike, saying it was within Bhima's dharma and that Duryodhana had
acted in adharma by instigating the war.

Book 10: The Night-Raid

Among the handful of Kauravas surviving, Asvatthaman sneaks into the Pandavas' camp and massacres
everyone in it, some of them in such a way that they do not die a proper warrior's death and can't attain
heaven. As he leaves, he places a curse on Pandava wombs, making them barren.

Book 11: The Women

Yudhisthira visits Dhrtarastra, who is mourning over the death of all of his sons. Likewise, the Kauravas' wives
confront Yudhisthira about massacring their husbands. When Dhrtarastra sees Bhima, he tries to kill him, but
Krsna tricks Dhrtarastra into attacking an effigy of Bhima instead. There is a funeral pyre for the Kauravas and
then a ritual at the Ganga river. At the Ganga, Yudhisthira learns that Karna was his brother, and plunges into
grief.
Book 12: Tranquility
Yudhisthira is ambivalent about taking his throne, but agrees to it to honor Dhrtarastra. The Pandavas travel to
visit the dying Bhisma, who asks for a pillow from Arjuna, but means that he wants more arrows to rest his
head on. Bhisma begins a philosophical conversation with Yudhisthira on his duties as a king and the nature of
dharma.

Book 13: Instruction

Bhisma's and Yudhisthira's conversation continues, as they talk about how to live well and abide by dharma,
as well as about women. Bhisma tells Duryodhana that he should consider the Pandavas his own sons, and
forget about his wicked sons that have gone to hell. Bhisma dies and is cremated.

Book 14: The Horse Sacrifice

Yudhisthira hesitates to resume ruling, but Krsna instructs him to undertake a horse sacrifice ritual to cleanse
the world. Arjuna rides the white horse that will be sacrificed around the former sites of battle and fends off
various aggressors. After the journey, the horse and many other animals are sacrificed in a pyre, and the
smoke from the horse's burning intestinal sac does the purifying.

Book 15: The Hermitage

Dhrtarastra and his wife Gandhari, along with the Pandavas' mother Kunti and some others, retreat to a forest
hermitage to live out their days as ascetics. The Pandavas miss their mother sorely and organize a trip to visit
the elders. Shortly after their trip, their elders burn to death in a sacred fire lit by Dhrtarastra.

Book 16: The Clubs

We read the tale of the Vrsni who descend into sin when they learn of their demise by time. Krsna is himself
killed by a hunter named Jara, which is Sanskrit for "old age." He ascends and rejoins the gods. Without Krsna,
Arjuna is unable to defend the Vrsni women from a kidnapping by a pack of thieves. He returns to tell his
brothers of his defeat.

Book 17: The Great Journey

With Krsna dead, Yudhisthira decides it is his time to die as well. He leaves the throne to Pariksit, and he and
his brothers set out on a journey to travel the world. In the mountains, the brothers and Draupadi die one by
one. When Yudhisthira is met by Indra to be taken in a chariot to heaven, Yudhisthira refuses to leave his dog
behind, since it was loyal to him. The dog transforms into the god of dharma and praises Yudhisthira for his
virtuousness.

Book 18: The Ascent to Heaven

Yudhisthira only finds Duryodhana in heaven and is baffled. He demands to be taken to where his brothers
are, so he is taken to hell. There, Yudhisthira says he will stay with his brothers instead of choosing to go to
heaven. Indra informs him that this was the final test that he passed, and he and all the Pandavas are sent to
heaven, while Duryodhana is condemned to hell.

Mahabharata Character List

Yudhishtra
The eldest of the Pandava brothers, Yudhisthira is their leader as both king and commander in battle. A bad
series of dice games he plays lands him, his wife, and his brothers in exile for 13 years, which precipitates a
war between the Pandavas and Duryodhana. Yudhisthira is described as living fully by dharma, and in turn
always has the gods on his side.
Arjuna
One of the Pandavas brothers, Arjuna is dubbed the "wealth-winner." He is the greatest warrior of all the
brothers, having been trained by his future military opponent Drona. Arjuna is a skilled archer and popular with
women.
Karna
Karna is technically the oldest of the Pandava brothers, but was raised by adoptive parents, and therefore
does not consider himself part of the family. He fights alongside Duryodhana, and is ultimately killed by Arjuna.
The Pandavas are devastated to later learn that Karna was one of their own.
Dhritarashtra
The blind king of Hastinapur who believes his blindness is a curse upon him, he gives birth to 100 sons who
are demons incarnate. The most powerful of these sons is Duryodhana, who leads the 100 brothers into war
against the Pandavas. From early on, Dhritarashtra is well aware that fate is working against Duryodhana, and
the blind king pleads with his son over and over to compromise with the Pandavas, lest he violate dharma.
Draupadi
The wife of the five Pandava brothers, Draupadi is a celebrated princess who is widely regarded as the most
beautiful woman in the world. During their years in exile, Draupadi must pose as a maidservant and suffer a
series of indignities, including an attempted rape by one of Duryodhana's brothers. The humiliation she suffers
ends up being one of the causes of the great battle that the Mahabharata revolves around.
Duryodhana
The leader of 100 demon brothers who are all born of the blind king Dhritarashtra, Duryodhana is portrayed as
living in flagrant violation of dharma. He is motivated by greed, jealously, and a desire for retribution, tricking
Yudhisthira into a dice game that ultimately robs the Pandavas of their kingdom, and gladly engaging them in
war when they return from exile and seek what is rightfully theirs. Duryodhana hides in a lake after all his
warriors are killed, and is ulimately killed by Bhima. In the afterlife, he resides in hell.
Bhima
The strongest of the Pandavas, Bhima is often the brother who kills the brothers' greatest enemies and
protectors them from their most skilled aggressors. Bhima is often described as "wolf-bellied" and is ruthless in
acts of violence.
Krsna
The god who assists the Pandavas throughout the story, Krsna helps them understand their dharma as rulers
and fighters in the war, and constantly reassures them that any violent act they have trepidation about is
mandated by faith. His speech on dharma and action to Arjuna is known as the "Bhagavad Gita," and has been
accepted as central to the Hindu tradition alongside the traditional Vedic texts.
Drona
At the time of the story, Drona is an 85-year-old man who fights like a 16-year-old. Even though he fights on
behalf of Duryodhana, he shares a close bond with the Pandavas, having trained Arjuna as a warrior. Like
many in Duryodhana's army, and unlike Duryodhana himself, Drona is a strict adherent of dharma, and lays
down his weapons to accept his death at the Pandava's hand when he violates his dharma on the battlefield.
Vyasa
As depicted in the story, Vyasa is the narrator of the entirety of the Mahabharata epic, dictating the tale to
Ganesha. The historical Vyasa is popularly considered to have written the Mahabharata and is considered one
of the seven immortal beings in the Hindu tradition.

Mahabharata Glossary
Abhishiva
a religious rite
Dharma
The specific role and responsibilities a person is fated to have, exclusive to that person and specific to his
caste. It can only be satisfied through action.
Adharma
Living in wicked defiance of one's dharma, often choosing instead to live by greed or envy.
Caste System
The Hindu class system, determined by birth.
Ksatriya
The caste made up of warriors and rulers.
Brahmin
The highest caste, made up of holy men, ascetics, and scholars.
Suta
A hybrid caste for someone born to one Brahmin and one Ksatriya. Often, Sutas are artists or storytellers of
some type.
Lotus
A type of flower that represents beauty and growth in Hinduism.
Asram
A hermitage
Eunuch
A man who has been castrated
Bondsman
Slave
Consecration
The ritual by which a king takes his throne
Bounteous
Plentiful
Dakshina
Donation, payment for teachings
Raja
Hindu for king
Diksha
Initiation into a sacred rite
Gandharva
Celestial singer
Gandiva
Arjun's bow
Ghee
A clarified butter that is both sacred in Hinduism and a key ingredient in Indian food
Boon
A supernatural gift given to a human who has merited reward
Kanka
A bird of prey
Manta
An repetitive incantation used in devotional practices

Mahabharata Themes
Dharma
Dharma is the central theme of the Mahabharata. Dharma, most simply put, is the destiny and responsibility of
an individual. Everyone has a different dharma, and it is his or her obligation to follow it. Yudhisthira is
portrayed as a righteous king who closely follows his dharma, while Duyodhana is said to live in defiance of his
dharma. Hence, the conflict between the two that drives this story acts as a parable about man's conflict
between living in accordance with dharma versus failing his dharma.
Action
As outlined in the Bhagavad Gita, action is crucial to fulfilling dharma. Throughout the epic, we see characters
deliberating about whether or not to take action, and ultimately almost always choosing to take the action that
is in accord with their dharma. There are also a number of actions taken impulsively or out of greed, such
as Duryodhana's decision to steal Yudhisthira's kingdom or Dhrtarastra's destruction of an effigy he believes
is Bhima. These instances show that while action is important to achieving dharma, action taken without
detachment or proper consideration could result in sin and, ultimately, adharma.
Caste
Even though the Mahabharata focuses nearly exclusively on characters in higher, privileged castes—Brahmin,
Ksatriya, Suta—the duties and dharma of those castes are profoundly important. The Pandava brothers often
grapple with the dharma of their Ksatriya caste, which obliges them to be warriors and rulers often acting in
conflict with more generalized principles of dharma. Much of the ethical discourse in the epic focuses on this
conundrum. Characters who break with their caste are often shown in distress or committing sin, such as
when Draupadi disguises herself as a maidservant or how Karna decides to live by the dharma of the Ksatriya
caste despite being a Brahmin.
The Tragedy of War
In dharma, war is considered a last resort, only to be fought when all other methods of resolving a conflict fail.
Duryodhana, living in adharma, violets this tenet by seeking conflict with the Pandavas essentially from the
very beginning. But the people actually fighting in the war are often conflicted about the
enterprise. Arjuna initially wants to throw down his arms when he realizes how many kin he will be
slaughtering, and both Bhisma and Drona desire their deaths at the hands of the Pandavas once they feel that
they can no longer fight in the war honorably. The death toll of the war is massive, with less than 10 warriors
left on each side when it's all said and done. The funeral pyre and river ritual in the Ganga stand as one of the
most affecting segments of the epic, as we fully come to terms with the destruction the war has caused.
Gods and Humans
The blurring of boundaries between the gods and humans in the Mahabharata is both a recurring trope and an
important theme, as it helps wed the cosmic, metaphysical aspect of Hinduism to a material, if mythical,
version of humanity. The gods are frequently disguising themselves as humans or inhabiting characters in the
book, while the Pandavas are commonly understood to be incarnates of the gods while the 100 Kaurava
brothers are manifestations of demons. The battle between gods and demons that opens the epic quickly spills
over into the human realm, and the celestial struggle between good and evil is, quite poetically, one that
humans are tasked with arbitrating.
Storytelling
As the Mahabharata is itself a framed story, dictated by Vyasa, storytelling is foundational to the epic unfolding.
But even within it, all manner of parables are recited to clarify moral matters and all the major events of the
epic are recited by a character as either a first– or a second–hand account. Storytelling pegs
the Mahabharata in the oral narrative tradition, but also gives a sense of the multitude of perspectives that
necessarily shape the narratives of world-important events.
Deception
Deception is an interesting theme in the Mahabharata since there is no decisive ethical judgment on the
matter. Instead, it is used by a tool of both dharma and adharma. When Duryodhana deceives Yudhisthira into
gambling away his entire kingdom and even Draupadi's freedom during the dice game, this is clearly an
instance of deception committed in sin. But when Krsna offers Drstarasrta an iron effigy of Bhima to maul so
that he won't actually kill Bhima, this deception is carried out so that Drstarasrta does not impulsively stray
from his dharma.

Mahabharata Quotes and Analysis

"Moreover, that king of astonishing power and heroism who maintained purest dharma considered what would
confer benefit on all people; best of all experts in dharma, Yudhisthira showed kindness to all his subjects and
worked for the benefit of all, with no discrimination. So the people flourished under his paternal care, and no
one hated him; hence he was known as Ajatasatru, 'Man without enemies.'"

Vaisampayan (Page 89)

While the Mahabharata is, in terms of content, a story about war, the book is truly a discursive text on a variety
of matters. One of the central concerns of the epic is how a ruler should rule. Such is the point of this quote,
articulating that a king who treats his subjects with kindness and makes no enemies will be adhering to his
dharma. The subject comes up against throughout the epic, most famously during Yudhisthira's conversation
with the dying Bhisma.
"Great king, if this blood from my nose had fallen on the ground, you and your kingdom would have perished,
make no doubt! But I do not blame you for striking someone blameless, O king, for harshness quickly takes
possession of the powerful."

Yudhisthira (Page 285)

Spoken to King Virata, Yudhisthira is forgiving the king for striking him out of rage when Yudhisthira suggests
that Uttara did not save his cattle, but rather Arjuna, disguised as eunuch. Yudhisthira's act of forgiveness is a
kingly one, but more important it speaks to the conflicted nature of holding power. Those in power can exercise
their whims and sometimes succumb to them, but they, just like their subjects, must be offered forgiveness
from time to time.
"Even the seers are perplexed about what is action and what is inaction, so I shall explain action to you; when
you know it, you will be freed from evil."

Krsna (Page 358)

This quote comes during Krsna's recitation of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, and his explanation of action is one
of the most philosophically potent and influential aspects of the Bhagavad Gita on Hindu culture and thought.
Dharma is a way of life where one lives in accordance with his destiny, but action is the specific way that men
exercise it, in turn abiding by their dharma and freeing themselves from evil. As Krsna will go on to explain, the
best way to act is with detachment and careful consideration, but always in the way that is most clear and in
harmony with dharma given a situation.
"I am Time, destroyer of worlds, fully developed, and I have set out here to bring the worlds to their end. Even
without your presence in battle, all these warriors arrayed in opposing ranks will cease to be."

Krsna (Page 363)

"I am Time, destroyer of worlds," is not just the most famous and quotable line from the
entire Mahabharata, but a beautiful, profound one that poetically if plainly states the indiscriminate nature of
the cosmos. The fact that time will kill all men, even warriors who achieve glory on the battlefield, is offered to
Arjuna to encourage him to carry out his dharma without concerns for the deaths he will cause. Everyone
meets the same ultimate fate, yet is Arjuna's duty to carry out his. In this segment of the Bhagavad Gita we
also get a sense of the dharma of the gods, with Krsna as time carrying out his own actions with detachment.
"Many enemy heads, with fine noses, faces and hair, free from wounds, decked with lovely earrings, their
lower lips bitten in rage, flowing with much blood, covered with beautiful garlands, diadems and turbans,
resplendent with diamonds and jewels, seeming like stemless lotuses, or the sun or moon, well-perfumed
heads that once spoke kind words to friends, were scattered by Arjuna's son upon the earth."

Samjaya (422)
Describing Abhimanyu laying waste to the Kaurava army, Samjaya offers a decadent account of the carnage
on the battlefield. This detail reminds us that these are people—human beings—who lay slaughtered, but also
illustrates a kind of grandeur of this war. After all, this is slaughter that is fated, and the way these men are
made up make it seem as if death on the battlefield is a resplendent occasion.
"His vital energy destroyed by a weapon, Bhurisravas, the pure and most worthy granted of boons, quit his
body on the great field of battle and rose aloft, filling heaven and earth with the excellence of his dharma."

Samjaya (Page 450)

As Samjaya is describing Jayadratha leaving his body to Duryodhana, Samjaya is reminding Duryodhana of
the privilege it is to die in battle, countering Duryodhana's despair over losing yet another fine warrior. The
quote here illustrates the principle that for a warrior, dharma means battling, and if one dies while battling, then
one's soul will ascend in dharma.
"Stretching forth both his arms, King Salya fell to the earth before the lord of dharma like a toppled Pole of
Indra. The earth herself seemed to rise to greet with affection that bull-like hero, wounded in every limb as he
was, and doused in blood, like a dear wife greeting her beloved as he fell upon her breast."

Samjaya (Page 536)

Here, we see the last of Duryodhana's commanders slain. Like the above quotes, this one articulates a kind of
splendor and sacredness in dying during warfare, but it's also interesting for its reference to Salya as "bull-
like." The bull is among the most sacred creatures in the Hindu faith, implying that Salya's death is one to be
treated with deep reverence.
"All the joyful womenfolk of the lion-like Bharatas praised Krsna the stirrer of men, like shipwrecked travelers
rescued by a boat; Kunti, Draupadi, Subhadra, Uttara and all the other women rejoiced in their hearts. Then
wrestlers, actors, prizefighters, storytellers, bedside attendants and throngs of Suta and Magadha bards all
praised the stirrer of men, O bull-like heir of Bharata, and uttered blessings praising the Kure lineage."
 Vaisampayana (Page 713)
In the most apocalyptic potion of the Mahabharata, when the world has been left in ruins by a harrowing, and
as more shocking tragedies await the Pandavas, comes this celebration of life. The cycle of rebirth is central to
the Hindu religion, and even in a moment of widespread devastation and death, there is still an opportunity to
praise Krsna for bringing life to the heir Pariksit. Note that most who celebrate Krsna here are creators, be that
in a literal way as women or in a more figurative way as storytellers. These are the people who see to the
sustenance and continuation of the human race.
"Cows gave birth to asses, mules to elephants, dogs to cats, and mongooses to rats. The Vrsnis began to sin
without shame, showing hostility to Brahmins, ancestors and gods; apart from Balarama and Krsna the stirrer
of men, they now despised their elders."

Vaisampayana (Page 712)

Here, the entire order of nature is overturned as the Vrsni people descend into sin. The shocking images serve
to evoke the total state of disorder that arises from an entire society living in flagrant disregard for dharma. This
passage augments the feeling that the end of the Mahabharata illustrates something like the end of the world.
"Now you acted deceitfully towards Drona in the matter of his son; therefore, O king, you have yourself been
deceived into seeing hell."

Indra (Page 784)

This line comes during Yudhisthira's brief visit to hell before he and his brothers ascend to live in heaven. Indra
reminds Yudhisthira of a deceit that he committed to explain why even Yudhisthira must spend some time in
hell. But what this line really seems to say is that even the most virtuous individual imaginable errs in his ways.
This is supposed to show us that no man is perfect in the pursuit of dharma, that striving for such perfection is
a fool's errand because not even Yudhisthira could achieve it.

Mahabharata Summary and Analysis of Beginnings, The Hall, and The Forest
Summary
Book 1: Beginnings
The story begins in the age of the ruler Bharata. During his time, the world is full of people following dharma.
This is also a time when the demons have been defeated by the gods and left powerless in the cosmos, so
they begin inhabiting Earth in the form of various animals. To counteract their evil influence, the gods begin to
inhabit the Earth too, taking the form of humans. Much of "Beginnings" is dedicated to discussing the lineage
descending from Bharata and outlining the various types of curses suffered by people on Earth.
But the most important part of the lineage is the two brothers born of Bharata's descendent Vyasa. One is
Dhrtarastra, who would become king were he not born blind, and the other is the younger Pandu, who indeed
does become king. Dhrtarastra is born 100 sons by his wife Gandhari who gives birth to a large, fleshy embryo
that splits into 100 pieces, and Pandu is born five sons by a variety of women, each the incarnate of a
god: Arjuna, Bhima, Yudhisthira, Nakula, and Sahadeva. A sixth brother, Karna, is born in secret and raised by
a Suta despite, like his brothers, being born into the Ksatriya caste.
Dhrtarastra's sons are all demons, led by the most wicked one Duryodhana, who spurns dharma, and tries
many times to kill Pandu's son Bhima and, later, set Pandu's sons' house on fire to kill all five of them at once.
Bhima saves his brothers and mother from the fire, and this marks a shift from playful fighting between the
cousins to a more acrimonious, warlike relationship. Arjuna begins gaining power and influence around the
land during a variety of sexual escapades. The five brothers marry the princess Draupadi. Dhrtarastra awards
kingdoms to both Duyodhana and Yudhisthira.
Book 2: The Hall
Yudhisthira is urged by his friends and the god Krsna to undergo a consecration ritual to elevate him from the
rank of king to that of emperor. Yudhisthira rebuffs the idea that this is his dharma, but is convinced by Krsna
to defeat Jarasamdha, a king who has imprisoned 84 other kings and wishes to imprison another 16 in order to
sacrifice them all an increase his power. Yudhisthira, Bhima, and Ajuna sneak into Jarasamdha's house in
disguise and challenge him to a battle, wherein Bhima kills Jarasamdha with a spear. The sound of Bhima's
war cry and Jarasamdha's dying wails is so strong that it causes all of the women in the area to miscarry.
Yudhisthira becomes renowned for protecting the kingdom.
As he strictly follows his dharma as king, Yudhisthira reigns over a peaceful and prosperous kingdom. He
decides to follow Krsna's advice and undergo the consecration sacrifice, so he gathers all of the kings from
around the land and houses them in advance of the ritual. During the ritual, the king Sisupala objects to the
ritual on the grounds that Yudhisthira violates his own dharma and shows no respect to the other kings, but
Sisupala's objections are ultimately dismissed and Krsna completes Yudhisthira's consecration as emperor.

While leaving the consecration ceremony, Duryodhana makes a fool of himself by diving into a pool that's too
shallow and hitting his head on a doorway. This puts him in a terrible mood that results in profound jealously of
all Yudhisthira has achieved. While consulting with a trusted advisor Sakuni, Duryodhana devises a plan to ruin
Yudhisthira not through war, but through gambling. Yudhisthira cannot resist the urge to gamble, but is terrible
at it, and gambles away his wealth, his kingdom, his brothers' freedom, his own freedom, and Draupadi's
freedom.

Draupadi objects to becoming Duryodhana's slave, so she appeals to Dhrtarastra, who frees her and grants
her boons to free Yudhisthira and Bhima. Duryodhana is infuriated that his work has been undone, so he
challenges Yudhisthira once again, this time wagering that the loser and his family must be exiled for 12 years,
and live in disguise for a 13th year, with the penalty of returning to exile for another 12 years if he is recognized
while incognito. Yudhisthira loses and he and his brothers are exiled.

Book 3: The Forest

The brothers live in exile while brahmins and kings find them to pay tribute. Yudhisthira complains to one of the
Brahmins that he has to suffer in exile while his enemies, who are wicked people, thrive. Lomasa showers
Yudhisthira with tales of fellow kings and various myths of strange births. Exile is also a time when the brothers
get in a variety of conflicts and misadventures, with Bhima often missing. Arjuna spends some time in the
heavens training with Indra, learning how to use the celestial weapons. Draupadi is briefly kidnapped and won
back.

During this storytelling period, Yudhisthira is told of Savitri, a woman who so closely abided by her own dharma
that she was able to convince the god Yama to give her father-in-law his kingdom and eyesight back, and to
bring her husband Satyavat back from the dead. The time in the forest concludes with Indra visiting Karna as a
beggar Brahmin, asking for Karna's armor and earrings. Karna obliges him, and in return, Indria gives Karna a
spear like the one that Bhima had in the first book, that will be guaranteed to kill an enemy of Karna's choosing
in battle.

Analysis
The early books of the Mahabharata sweep through a massive story spanning both generations of a royal
family and a wide swath of humanity. The first book of the story, "Beginnings," introduces an epic tale that is as
much worldly as it is cosmic. Similar to other foundational epics in human literature from other cultures—
the Iliad for the Greeks, the Old Testament for the Jews—the Mahabharata starts out on matters concerning
the gods, and those matters come to concern humans and the earth insofar as the interests of those higher
beings spill over into this material realm.
Also similarly to those other epics, the Mahabharata unfolds as a series of narrated stories and parables. Such
framing devices exist for two reasons. First, it anchors the story firmly within the cosmic realm, as one of the
recurring themes of the epic that emerges is that all events are fated, prescribed by powerful gods. And much
as a god, according to this epic, knows exactly the course of events that is destined, so too does a storyteller
know the end of a story when he begins to tell it. The very philosophy of fate in Hinduism is determined by this
structure.
The second reason for the framing device is a historical one. The Mahabharata was written down at a time
when the oral narrative traditional was dominant, and its structure as a series of stories recited from one
person to another reflects that spoken tradition. Hence, the role of the storyteller is always important on a
narrative level; without that narrator, there would be no narrative. Hence, we have the character of Vyasa, who
is said to be the descendent of Bharata who has the two sons—Dhrtarastra and Pandu—whose own sons will
embark on the war that is the locus of the Mahabharata. Vyasa is widely understood to be the scribe of
the Mahabharata, and is considered one of the seven immortal beings in the Hindu faith. The link between the
divine and the storyteller, here, is an explicit and crucial one.
The early books introduce the key theme of dharma that will run throughout the epic, but frequently does so by
means of counterpoint. For example, we get parables of characters committing adharma (or violations of
dharma committed out of greed), as well as the Pandava's suffering that comes from Yudhisthira following
dharma and losing his entire kingdom in a dice game. How the exile is crucial to Yudhisthira's dharma, and
how Duryodhana pursues devious methods of stealing Yudhisthira's kingdom, will not just drive the story of
the Mahabharata, but provide entry to its greatest ethical questions and lessons.

Mahabharata Summary and Analysis of : Virata, Perseverance, and Bhisma

Summary
Book 4: Virata
During the brothers' 13th year in exile, they must live in disguise, and will suffer another 12 years in exile if they
are detected. They decide to take residence in the court of King Virata, each assuming a secret identity that
will endear them to the king. Yudhisthira assumes the identity of a brahmin and skilled
gambler, Bhima becomes a skilled cook, Arjuna poses as a eunuch, Nakula will act as a horse trainer, and
Sahadeva will herd the cattle. Draupadi poses as a maidservant skilled at hairdressing so she can maintain her
independence. Virata ecstatically receives them, well aware that these are not typical people posing in their
roles.
While in the kingdom, Draupadi attracts the attention of Kicaka, who tries to rape her in an attempt to make her
his. Draupadi, after suffering multiple indignities as a princess in disguise, appeals to Virata, who is
unsympathetic since he didn't witness the attack. Bhima, though, agrees to help Draupadi, and kills Kicaka,
mangling his body in the manner only a Gandharva could. Kicaka's kinsmen find the dead Kincaka and
immediately conclude that Draupadi is to blame, so they appeal to Virata to let them burn her on Kicaka's
funeral pyre, and Virata assents. When Draupadi is bound and taken by Kincaka's kinsmen, Bhima slaughters
all 105 of them in the forest. Virata, fearing the wrath of the Gandharvas, frees Draupadi, but Draupadi urges
him to let her stay for another 13 days, which will please the Gandharvas.
During this year, Virata's son Uttara is accosted by Duryodhana's men, who try to steal his cattle. Arjuna
heroically accompanies Uttara and saves his cattle, but Arjuna almost gives up his identity to his opponents.
Virata hears that Uttara has saved his cattle, and Yudhisthira infuriates the king when he says that the eunuch
is to thank for the deed. Virata strikes Yudhisthira and gives him a bloody nose, but Yudhisthira doesn't let the
blood fall on the floor, so that he does not have to seek retribution for the assault. When Uttara returns, he
confirms that the eunuch saved the day. Soon after, the 13th year is over, and the five brothers and Draupadi
reveal their real identities. Virata offers them his kingdom. Arjuna's son Abhimanyu marries Virata's daughter.
Book 5: Perseverance
With the 13 years of exile over, Yudhisthira is now becoming aware that Duryodhana has little intention to
return his rightful half of the kingdom. Krsna instructs Yudhisthira to go plead a case for a peaceful transfer of
power and, in the event that Duryodhana refuses, to then declare war. Yudhisthira and his brother Bhima are
reluctant to go to war, while Draupadi demands war to make right for the indignities and humiliation she
suffered during the 13 years of exile imposed by Duryodhana. Visnu promises that even though he would
supply men to Duryodhana, he will throw his support behind Yudhisthira and his brothers.
Yudhisthira follows Krsna's instructions and appeals to Duryodhana for a peaceful transfer, but Duryodhana
refuses. Krsna implores Dhrtarastra to keep his son from initiating a war and destroying the Bharata lineage,
telling him that Duryodhana and Yudhisthira could rule together in peace. Dhrtarastra is won over, and appeals
to his son, even bringing in his Duryodhana's mother Princess Gandhari to reprimand him for his foolishness.
Even Bhisma disagrees that Duryodhana should go to war with the Pandavas.

Nevertheless, Duryodhana is resolved to go to war. Krsna appeals to Karna to join the Pandavas, noting that
he is technically the eldest son of Pandu. But Karna refuses, saying he was abandoned by his mother, that
Duryodhana has been good to him and it is too late to change allegiances. As the war grows closer,
Duryodhana appoints Bhisma as his commander, and Yudhisthira appoints Draupadi's brother Dhrstadyumna
as his own. Arjuna reminds Yudhisthira that he could destroy Duryodhana's forces instantaneously with a
celestial weapon, but that it would be improper. The two sides march to battle.
Book 6: Bhisma
As the battle begins, both Duryodhana and Yudhisthira put forth fearsome, massive armies. Arjuna instructs
Krsna to drive his chariot above the battlefield so that he gets a good view of the beginnings of the battle.
Arjuna then throws down his weapons in despair over the fact that so many of his kin are about to meet their
destruction. Krsna then explains the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, giving him a comprehensive explanation of his
dharma. As Krsna explains, it's Arjuna's responsibility to act on his own dharma with detachment, since actions
are what will result in Krsna's goodwill. Krsna then shows Arjuna his true godly form, and Arjuna is appreciative
and awestruck.

The battle begins with Yudhisthira asking for permission from the leaders of the opposing force to face them in
battle. Those leaders all admit that they are beholden to Duryodhana's army by money, but that they give
Yudhisthira his blessing to fight them and wish him victory. The fighting is bloody from the start, with Bhisma
showering the Pandava forces with arrows. The fortunes of the two forces are constantly changing. The
Pandavas have a fearful army, and Duryodhana suffers injuries in battle, but the tables turn and Bhima also
suffers injuries. At first, Duryodhana is pleased by Bhisma's resolve to defeat the Pandavas, but soon grows
impatient and threatens to replace with Bhisma with Karna.

Throughout the first 10 days of battle, Krsna and Arjuna clash over Arjuna's pledge to kill Bhisma, and there
are a few times Arjuna has to stop Krsna from killing Bhisma himself, lest he break his vow to not fight in the
war. Despite Bhisma killing thousands of Pandava soldiers, he grows tired of killing, and communicates to
Yudhisthira that he desires his dharma of being killed in battle. This is when Yudhisthira sends Arjuna and his
men to kill Bhisma, and they rain arrows on him. Bhisma chooses to delay the day of his death, as he lays in
pain on a bed of arrows, asking Arjuna to prop up his head and feed him water. While Bhisma lays in agony on
the bed of arrows, Karna asks for his permission to fight.

Analysis
In Book 6, "Bhisma," Krsna recites the Bhagavad Gita, perhaps the most historically and culturally significant
portion of the Mahabharata for the Hindu religion and its society. Many go so far as to consider the Bhagavad
Gita the "fifth Veda," treating it like a crucial fifth amendment to he original four Vedic texts which outline the
mythology and ethics of the Hindu religion. The Bhagavad Gita stands as not just an important treatise on
dharma, but as the only text in the ancient Hindu tradition that expounds on individual action, and an
individual's personal responsibilities when acting on behalf of their dharma. It would become increasingly
important to the Hindu faith during the Middle Ages, and informed Mohandas Gandhi's philosophy and
methods during the Indian independence movement in the 20th century.
As the scholar Lourens Minnema points out, the Bhagavad Gita essentially centers on a contradiction. Arjuna
is a member of the Ksatriya caste and is one of the most fearsome warriors in the world, meaning that it is his
dharma to wage war on behalf of his righteous brother, Yudhisthira. But Arjuna looks down at the battlefield
and recognizes many of his kin, and wants to throw down his arms. The conflict between Arjuna's adherence
to his personal dharma and the more generalized dharma tenets—which preach non-violence and compromise
—inspire Krsna to recite the Bhagavad Gita to explain Arjuna's obligations and resolve the moral quandary.

As Minnema notes, Krsna does this by helping Arjuna recognize matters of scale. There are the immediate
concerns of the individual, and then there are the greater concerns of fate and the cosmos. Krsna makes a
point that by following his own personal dharma—as every man should—Arjuna is in fact satisfying what fate
has designed for him. To act in any other way, be that by another man's dharma or by tenets that do not apply
to oneself, would be to violate that dharma and commit a sin.

Action is central to Krsna's formulation of dharma, as Krsna explains to Arjuna that only through action does a
man fulfill his dharma. He recommends that Arjuna undertake those actions with detachment, freeing this own
personal desires from his need to perform the duties of dharma. Minnema points out that desire is highlighted
in the Bhagavad Gita as the main thing that undermines acting in dharma, highlighting that dharma is as much
a sense of duty as it is an acknowledgment of destiny.

Mahabharata Summary and Analysis of Drona, Karna, and Salya

Summary
Book 7: Drona
With Bhisma vanquished, Duryodhana appoints Drona as his commander. Drona is in his 80s, but fights like he
is 16. He is also the man who taught Arjuna how to fight. Duryodhana demands that Drona kidnap Yudhisthira
and bring him to Duryodhana. Killing Yudhisthira would infuriate Arjuna and cause him to avenge his brother's
death, but if Yudhisthira is kidnapped then Duryodhana can defeat him in another game of dice. Drona vows to
caputre Yudhisthira, but this will mean distracting Arjuna so that Yudhisthira is left unprotected.
After attempting this capture and failing, Drona then promises Yudhisthira that he will kill one of the key
Pandavas. This results in a campaign where Drona and Karna team up on Abhimanyu, Arjuna's son. After a
trying battle between Karna and Abhimanyu, Arjuna's son is ultimately killed, sending shockwaves across the
battlefield. When Arjuna learns of his son's death, he vows to kill Jayadratha, who had attempted to
molest Draupadi during the Pandavas' time in exile. Drona resumes his attempts to kidnap Yudhisthira, but is
now tasked with protecting Jayadratha as well.
When Arjuna and Drona meet in battle, Arjuna backs away in the name of pursuing Karna instead. Drona
taunts Arjuna, asking why he would leave without killing his enemy, and Arjuna tells Drona that he is not an
enemy, but his teacher. After a series of Pandava losses on the battlefield, Bhima goes to fight Drona himself
and lays waste to Drona's armies. In the midst of the chaos, Yudhisthira is left unprotected, making him
vulnerable to being captured. When Arjuna learns of this, he finds himself in quite the bind. He must protect
Yudhisthira and kill Jayadratha, yet the sun is setting.
Arjuna beheads Jayadratha with an arrow and parades around the arrow with Jayadratha's severed head
attached. As retribution, Karna kills Ghatotkaca with a weapon he originally intended to use on Arjuna, but
decides against because it would invite too great retribution. The Pandavas then devise a plan to kill Drona:
Bhima tells him that he has killed Asvatthaman. Asvatthaman is the name of Drona's son, but Bhima is playing
a sly trick, referring to an elephant that he just killed on the battlefield. In a fit of rage, Drona violates his
dharma and kills tens of thousands of soldiers. When confronted with his violation of dharma, Drona lays down
his arms and prays that Karna stays protected. Drona accepts his death at the hands of Dhrstadyumma, and
the Pandavas celebrate a massive victory.

Book 8: Karna
Upon learning of Drona's death, Duryodhana finally grasps the gravity of his errors for provoking the Pandava
brothers. He appoints Karna, who is resolved to kill Arjuna. Salya tries to dissuade Karna from going into battle
with Arjuna since Arjuna and Krsna are invincible and have more powerful weapons, but Karna shows his
bitterness when he recounts the time when he himself sought the cosmic weapons only to see them given to
Arjuna instead. Karna swears to kill Arjuna with his own weapons. After a short period of fighting, Yudhisthira
and Arjuna get in a spat over the fact that Arjuna has yet to kill Karna, which results in Arjuna having to be
talked out of Yudhisthira, Yudhisthira suffering Arjuna's rudeness and vowing to abdicate his kingdom to
Bhima, and the two ultimately resolving their issues to join forces again.
When Arjuna does finally meet Karna on the battlefield, the fight is protracted and bloody. Arjuna systemically
brutalizes Karna by destroying his armor and eventually his body. Whenever Karna fires arrows at Arjuna,
Arjuna cuts those arrows. In response to Karna using his own most powerful weapons, Arjuna unleashes the
Weapons of Indra, and these end up killing Karna. There's a chilling image after Karna's death of his spirit
descending from his body.

Book 9: Salya
Duryodhana is devastated by the death of Karna and begins to realize that his efforts are doomed. On the
recommendation of his confidants, he appoints Salya, the Madra king and the new commander of the army, to
continue the fighting. Early on, everyone is evenly matched, with Asvatthaman fighting Arjuna as an equal.
This changes when Yudhisthira becomes infuriated that Salya is the new commander, and he vows to kill the
king personally himself. Yudhisthira meets Salya in the battlefield and shows a new rage, which leads him to
defeat Salya handily with arrows.

Following Salya's death, Duryodhana instructs his armies to continue fighting, either for victory or for a glorious
death. Packs of Duryodhana's soldiers then begin attacking the Pandavas without Duryodhana's express
permission. When the Pandavas go looking for Duryodhana to kill him, they can not find him and retreat for the
night. But soon enough, Bhima learns that Duryodhana is hiding in a lake, and the brothers go there and
challenge him. The grounds of the challenge are that if Duryodhana can kill one of the Pandavas with a
weapon of his choosing, he will get the kingdom back. He agrees, and chooses a club. Bhima volunteers to
fight first, but Krsna warns him that he may lose, as Duryodhana may outsmart him. Bhima chooses to fight
anyway.

Balarama suddenly returns from a pilgrimage—and the story is briefly interrupted to tell of his pilgrimage
encountering various gods—and suggests that the fight is staged at Samantapanacka, since any warrior who
dies there is guaranteed to go to heaven. The battle ends quickly, after Bhima strikes Duryodhana below the
navel, killing him. Balarama is infuriated, since this is a forbidden form of fighting, and claims Bhima violated
dharma. Duryodhana, while dying, protests Bhima's strike as well, but Krsna gives the final ruling on dharma,
saying that Duryodhana had acted in adharma since the beginning, and that the Pandavas were acting in
dharma by fighting him in a war and defeating him. While Duryodhana ultimately accepts his death,
Asvatthaman is infuriated by the way both his father and Duryodhana were killed, and desires retribution.

Analysis
V.S. Sukthankar, one of the preeminent scholars of the Mahabharata, explores the rich and sometimes
contradictory nature of how this war is depicted in his book On the Meaning of the Mahabharata. He states
that, like with Homer's Iliad, the tragedy of the Mahabharata is a massively destructive war that is, at the end of
the day, an excessive act born out of a provocation that was incommensurate with the cost. In both epics, the
world is effectively destroyed by a war that should not have transpired in the first place. The war at the center
of the Mahabharata was not inevitable but, instead, entirely avoidable.
It's these type of essential contradictions that drive the story in the epic and also set up its most potent and
pertinent character interactions. The battle between Arjuna and Drona is not positioned as that between the
righteous and the sinner like the battle between their respective kings Yudhisthira and Duryodhana is, but
rather as the meeting on the battlefield between two fearsome warriors who share a deep kinship. As Drona is
Arjuna's former mentor, there is a mutual respect between them. Dharma pervades this teacher–pupil
relationship as they now must fulfill their individual dharmas as warriors by confronting each other on behalf of
the forces they represent.

Drona is portrayed as a somewhat paradoxical character. He is an 85-year-old that fights like he's 16, and he
is the commander of an army fighting on behalf of the wicked Duryodhana yet himself commands respect. As
Sukthankar notes, Drona is portrayed as wearing white, the "color of purity and equanimity." How can Drona
himself be so pure, so righteous, if he fights on behalf of a force of evil? Here, we should leave aside any
Judeo-Christian notions of good and evil. Drona is not beholden to fight for the righteous, but to abide by his
own dharma and fulfill his fate.

Drona does not violate his dharma by fighting on behalf of Duryodhana, but by needlessly slaying. He lays
down his arms to accept his fate, as giving himself over to his rightful death is the virtuous move. The idea that
a soldier's death on the battlefield is a virtuous one recurs with the deaths of all of Duryodhana's commanders:
be it with the spectacular image of Karna's soul ascending from his body or with the negative example of
Duryodhana hiding in a lake to escape the impending death that is rightfully his. In all of these cases, death is
not portrayed as something accidental or incidental, but as an inevitable event preordained by some greater
force. For a warrior, accepting that death is acting with detachment in the name of dharma.

Mahabharata Summary and Analysis of The Night-Raid, The Woman, and Tranquility
Summary
Book 10: The Night-Raid
Among the only Kauravas remaining, Krpa, Krtavarman, and Asvatthaman gather to mourn their profound
losses and certain defeat now that Duryodhana is dying. Asvatthaman, though, is still interested in seeking
retribution. The other two try to discourage him, reminding him that Duryodhana had acted in adharma and
invited all the harm that came the Kauravas way. But Asvatthaman retorts that he has been a brahmin
choosing to live by ksatriya dharma, and he will continue to do so.
Asvatthaman then goes to the gates of the Pandava camp seeking entry. He is met by a terrible beast wearing
a tiger-skin garment woven with a snake, spewing fire from every part of its face. When Asvatthaman tries to
battle it, the faces of Krsna multiply and overwhelm him. Asvatthaman then summons Siva to aid him in
defeating this creature, offering himself as a sacrifice at Siva's alter. Siva inhabits Asvatthaman's body, and he
enters the camp.
For the first several people who Asvatthaman murders, he strangles them with his foot, killing them with
indignity like animal sacrifices, and therefore denying them entry into heaven as warriors. It's only as he
continues his slaughter that he meets people noble enough that he considers it proper to slaughter them like
warriors. Upon leaving the camp, he tells Krpa and Krtavarman that he killed all the Pandavas, and they report
the same to the dying Duryodhana, who dies shortly after this update. Asvatthaman then unleashes a weapon
that makes all the Pandava wombs barren, which leads to him being cursed by Krsna to wander the rest of his
life in hunger and suffering, having committed sinful acts of adharma.
Book 11: The Women
Dhrtarastra, deep in grief over his sons, asks Vidura how he may free himself from this abject suffering. Vidura
describes the wheel of life, wherein a man who righteously follows the path of dharma is reincarnated higher
and higher until he is freed and allowed to enter heaven. Dhrtarastra asks if he should take his own life for
encouraging his sons to go to war, and Vidura tells him that the entire war, including Duryodhana's and the
other sons' deaths, was all preordained, and therefore Dhrtarastra should take comfort in fate and not take his
own life.

Yudhisthira visits Dhrtarastra, but is confronted by women who demand to know how he could have been
acting in dharma by slaughtering all of their husbands, sons, and brothers. Dhrtarastra receives Yudhisthira
since, even though he is devastated, he knows Yudhisthira is righteous. But when Dhrtarastra sees Bhima, he
is filled with rage and attempts to kill him. Krsna tricks Dhrtarastra and offers him an iron effigy of Bhima, which
Dhrtarastra smashes until blood pours out of it. Dhrtarastra is quickly overcome by grief over what he's done,
but Krsna informs him that he only broke an effigy, and that Krsna had offered it to him to prevent him from
carrying out an act of sin out of rage. Once again, Dhrtarastra is spared.
The women mourn the Kauravas, piling their bodies with various kinds of tinder to make a funeral pyre. When
it's alight, the women shower it with ghee. After the funeral pyre, the woman go to the Ganga river to perform
river rituals, and Yudhisthira joins them in the ritual to take part in the mourning. The Pandavas' mother tells
them that Karna was their brother, and they are dumbstruck. Yudhisthira is stricken with grief, and weeps at
the river.
Book 12: Tranquility
Yudhisthira asks Narada why Karna was condemned to death, and Narada recounts how Karna consistently
chose to ally himself with Duryodhana even when given many chances to join the Pandavas. In deep grieving,
Yudhisthira declares that he wants to give up his kingdom to Arjuna, and go live an ascetic life in the woods.
Arjuna reminds him that it is not the Ksatriya dharma to live an ascetic life, and that Yudhisthira must take up
his throne. When Yudhisthira does finally take up his throne, he lets all return to his kingdom and gives various
gifts to honor his subjects. He agrees to obey the elder Dhrtarastra.
Yudhisthira and the other Pandavas then travel to consult with the dying Bhisma, who has put off his death for
a great number of days. The remainder of this book is dedicated to a discursive, philosophical monologue by
Bhisma on the various tenets of the king's duties and, more generally, dharma. Throughout he uses parables
to illustrate his lessons. Bhisma describes to Yudhisthira how a king must always act in his own interests as a
king, and operate with a general mistrust of those around him. The ruler's dharma is to rule to the best of his
judgment.

When describing dharma more generally, Bhisma speaks of the merit of planning ahead and deliberating
before taking action. When Yudhisthira asks how a man should wish to exist in the cycle of being reborn,
Bhisma says that men should hope to be freed from living on a flawed earth, and use wisdom to follow actions
that will help them fulfill dharma and escape living. They talk about the nature of time and the cosmos, of
dharma and adharma, and of release.

Analysis
With the fearsome war concluded, the Mahabharata's narrative effectively pauses for a series of passages that
are the most explicitly discursive in the entire epic. Of course, the Mahabharata is, overall, a didactic text, but
in the preceding books, it often teaches its lessons through allegory. Yet in this post-war segment, that
discursive bent appears as philosophical conversation, as the format of the Bhagavad Gita is reiterated and
expanded by way of other characters.
For example, we have the conversation between the grieving Dhrtarastra and Vidura. Dhrtarastra is distressed
over his inability to keep his sons from embarking on this terrible war, and asks if he should take his own life.
What results is an explanation from Vidura about the nature of fate, as he tells Dhrtarastra that the war, as well
as his sons' deaths, was preordained.

Were we to read all those gruesome books about mass slaughter and wonder what exactly the Mahabharata is
supposed to tell us, here Vidura tells us explicitly how war ties into Hindu faith and philosophy. This makes
the Mahabharata unique from its closest analog, Homer's Iliad, in that it portrays events and then provides
commentary on them. In Homer's text, the relevance of specific events in the war are constantly discussed
throughout the narrative, but in the Mahabharata, we have these extra-narrative passages which help us
unpack the narrative.
Consider the Mahabharata within the context of the other Hindu texts. This one is the only narrative of the
bunch, meaning that the more explicitly philosophical passages are in fact the more familiar form within that
early literary tradition. This helps explain why so much of the post-war segment of the Mahabharata is
dedicated to a conversation between Yudhisthira and the dying Bhisma. In these passages, specific precepts
for everything from a king's duty to the nature of living well are outlined in a way that reflects another ancient
Greek test: Plato's Symposium. Perhaps it helps to think of the Mahabharata less as a perfect analog to
the Iliad, but as a hybrid of a narrative war epic and a didactic text, performing the double duty of what Homer
and Plato did individually.

Mahabharata Summary and Analysis of Instruction, The Horse Sacrifice, The Hermitage
Summary
Book 13: Instruction
Yudhisthira continues his conversation with Bhisma, now focusing on all that it takes to live life well. They
discuss tranquility, the virtues of devotion and compassion, and the danger of giving instruction to someone
from a lower caste. They also discuss more explicitly religious matters, such as the 1,000 names of Siva and
how one can only become a brahmin through rebirth. This is when Bhisma tells Yudhisthira that the role of
kings is to honor and protect brahmins.

They also talk about women. The conversation starts off talking about their capricious nature, as well as their
tendencies towards deceit and wrongdoing. Bhisma then goes on to outline the various arrangements for
marriage and the terms for how a girl should be married. Naturally, this leads to a conversation about bearing
children and various other domestic matters. The conversation returns to how a king can rule well, and goes
through a series of questions Yudhisthira has about giving gifts and the virtues of giving cattle. Their dialogue
concludes with explanations of heaven, hell, and honor.

Upon the conclusion of their conversation, Yudhisthira takes up his kingship. After ruling for 50 days, he sets
out to bring Bhisma the preparations for his cremation. Bhisma tells Dhrtarastra that he should consider the
Pandavas his own sons, and that he should not mourn his wicked sons who have gone to hell. Krsna then
gives Bhisma the blessing to die. He takes a yogic breath and his body heals of all wounds before this soul
shoots out of his head into the heavens. Bhisma's mother, the goddess Ganga, mourns his death until Krsna
reminds her that Bhisma only took the form of a man because of a curse.
Book 14: The Horse Sacrifice
Yudhisthira is again overcome with grief. Dhrtarastra tells him not to grieve, since he only acted righteously,
while Krsna chides him for desiring the life of an ascetic despite acting totally within his ksatriya dharma during
the war. Krsna reminds Yudhisthira to ignore desire, which is a distracting and flawed impulse in humans. He
advises that Yudhisthira perform a horse sacrifice. Yudhisthira agrees it would purify the earth, but can not
afford it, since he spent all of his wealth on the war. Krsa tells him to go to Mount Himalaya to find the wealth
he needs that he left there during a brahmin sacrifice.

Krsna visits the ascetic Vasudeva to tell him of the war, and when Vasudeva deduces that Krsna has omitted
talking about the death of Abhimanyu, the ascetic grows infuriated. But Krsna quells him, saying that he is the
creator, and he is in all men, just as all men are in him. As if to demonstrate this principle, Krsna then goes to
visit Abhinmayu's widow, who is to give birth to Abhimanyu's stillborn son due to the curse placed on Pandava
women by Asvatthaman. Krsna gives that stillborn son live, and people come from all around to sing his
praises.

Yudhisthira secures the white horse that will be used for the sacrifice ceremony, and sends Arjuna to travel the
world on it, retracing all of the battlegrounds of the terrible war. During this journey, Arjuna encounters a
number of enemies with whom he does battle, and all of whom try to intercept or kill the sacrificial horse.
Yudhisthira rejoices when Arjuna returns, and the horse becomes the center of a sacrifice of 300 animals
carried out by brahmin priests. The smoke from the horses's cooking intestinal sac purifies the entire earth. A
mongoose emerges to denounce the animal sacrifice as needless. With the ritual having been performed the
world is now cleansed and Yudhisthira can take his rightful throne.
Book 15: The Hermitage
As king, Yudhisthira mandates that Dhrtarastra and Gandhari be treated with utmost reverence, and gives
them accommodations to live lavishly. He demands that all of the Pandavas treat them well,
but Bhima disobeys in secret, never forgiving Dhrtarastra for the imprudence that led to that precipitous dice
game. After 15 years, Dhrtarastra appeals to Yudhisthira to let him and Gandhari go to live out their remaining
years as ascetics in the forest, just as Ksatriyas are supposed to do when their son takes control of the
kingdom.
Yudhisthira is shocked to learn that Dhrtarastra is so unhappy living in his kingdom, but is ultimately convinced
by Vidura to grant them their wish. He sends Dhrtarastra, Gandhari, the Pandava's mother Kunti, Vidura, and
Samjaya to the forest with brahmins, seers, slaves, and all manner of riches. After a period of time, the
Pandava brothers are despondent over their mother's departure, so they set out on an expedition to visit the
forest-dwellers. There, Yudhisthira finds a dying Vidura, and offers to cremate his body, but instructed not to,
for Vidura's body is Yudhisthira's too.

During their time in the hermitage, Vyasa summons all of the Kaurava warriors who died in the great war. They
appear in the Ganga free of enmity, and Vyasa tells their wives to plunge in the river and reunite with their
husbands. Blind all his life, Dhrtarastra can see his sons for the first time, in their true form. The Pandavas
return to their kingdom, and after a period of time, are visited by Narada.
Narada informs Yudhisthira that a fire consumed the hermitage, and killed all of the elders living ascetically.
Yudhisthira mourns Dhrtarastra, who died an undignified death, as well as his mother, who he imagines
terrified in her final moments. But Narada informs him that it was a sacred fired initially set by Dhrtarastra, and
that his mother has attained perfection in death. The Pandavas carry out the proper funerary rites for the dead,
but Yudhisthira rules cheerlessly, with most of his closest relatives and kin deceased.

Analysis
In his introduction to the Penguin abridged edition of the Mahabharata, John D. Smith asks why a full third of
the epic—the final third of the verses—is dedicated to discussing so few events. After all, the first two–thirds of
the book depicting the lead–up to the war and the war itself are action-packed, with a litany of adventures and
allegories, of conflict and confrontation. But the final third is largely dedicated to, as previous mentioned,
didactic conversation. Smith posits that Bhisma's extensive conversation with Yudhisthira is a result of the
encyclopedic tendencies of the Mahabharata.
On one hand, this means that compilers of the epic felt the need to have it describe just about every matter
that a ksatriya or brahmin may have to consider in the course of life. But on the other, as Smith points out, that
encyclopedic tendency extends to addressing and evaluating both sides of various debates that were likely
occurring at the time of the Mahabharata's writing. Bhisma talks about both Samkhya and Yoga in "Instruction,"
which are two differing philosophical systems within Hindu thought, and Smith remarks on the fact that the epic
remarks on both of these somewhat conflicting schools of thought without trying to reconcile them.
Smith traces this tendency throughout the final books of the epic, noting the ambivalent portrayal of animal
sacrifice. Arjuna's final glory occurs during his trip around the world on the white horse that will be sacrificed to
purify the earth, and indeed these adventures are portrayed as awe-inspiring. The same holds true for the
preparations of the sacrifice and the sacrifice itself. All of this is an awesome spectacle. Yet, at the end of the
sacrifice, a mongoose denounces the ritual killing of animals as pointless. Smith notes that this is the strange
conflicted nature of the Mahabharata's didactic segments, as the text tends to offer all perspectives on some
matters without arbitrating them.
With all of this said, the final third of the Mahabharata is not without crucial narrative. Just after the horse
sacrifice, the elders in the Bharata line retreat to a forest hermitage to die as ascetics. They are consumed by a
fire initially set by Dhrtarastra. When Yudhisthira learns of this, he is hysterical over the idea of his mother
dying in terror, but Narada reminds Yudhisthira that his mother attained perfection in death. Here, we see the
narrative and the philosophical blended perfectly, as the epic's tendency towards allegory makes an allegory
out of its central characters, illustrating how human emotion and experience so easily bristle against the
spiritual tenets of Hinduism.

Mahabharata Summary and Analysis of The Clubs, The Great Journey, The Ascent to Heaven
Summary
Book 16: The Clubs
The Pandavas learn form Vaisampayana about the downfall of Vrsnis and Krsna's death. They're shocked to
hear about both of these and wish to learn how it all happened. Vaisampayana starts by talking about the
Vrsnis, who have become aware of their impending destruction at the hands of Time. They descend into all
manner of bizarre happenings and reckless sin, so Krsna impels them to take a pilgrimage to the ocean.
During this pilgrimage, the Vrsnis have a drinking party which turns into a massive melee, with them fashioning
clubs out of anything they grab. With these clubs, they kill each other, destroying everybody.
Krsna is despondent at first, but knew all along that this would be their fate. He went wandering into the
deserted forest and, before too long, decided that it was his time to die as well. Krsna uses yoga to restrain his
senses, and is shot by the hunter Jara (meaning "old age" in Sanskrit). Jara, at first, thinks he committed a
terrible crime, but Krsna assures him he did nothing wrong as he ascends to heaven. There, Krsna joins all the
other gods.

Arjuna goes to find Vasudeva to confirm the news, and Vasudeva says that Krsna said Arjuna would come, for
Arjuna and Krsna are one. After Arjuna performs Krsna's funerary rites, he leads a caravan of Vrsni women.
Without Krsna, Arjuna is not able to defend the women from a pack of thieves who raid their caravan.
Thousands of Vrsni women are abducted. Arjuna becomes abject, and visits Vyasa, telling him that he has lost
his prowess. Vyasa tells Arjuna that Time does and undoes all, and that as a man grows mighty, he will
eventually grow powerless. Vyasa assures Arjuna that he has done well, and Arjuna returns to the Pandavas
to tell them of his defeat.
Book 17: The Great Journey
When Yudhisthira hears of Krsna's passing, he resolves that it is his time to pass as well. The Pandava
brothers agree that Time, ruler of all, has dictated that they should all pass. Yudhisthira consecrates
Abhimanyu's son Pariksit as king of his kingdom, and convinces his subjects that the time has come for him to
step down. He leads his brothers into the forest, where the god Fire compels Arjuna to give up his cosmic
weapons, now that he has no use for them.

The brothers and Draupadi, devoted to Yoga, hope to travel the entire earth. But as they cross the northern
mountains, each of them begins to die one by one, starting with Draupadi. For each that falls, Yudhisthira
offers Bhima a flaw of theirs that contributed to their death. Finally, Bhima himself falls, leaving Yudhisthira
alone. Indra comes down from the heavens on a chariot and commands Yudhisthira to mount it.
Yudhisthira demands from Indra that he let him take the dog that had followed the Pandavas, as this is the only
living creature remaining, and he does not want to abandon a creature so loyal. The dog then transforms into
the god of dharma and praises Yudhisthira, saying he has achieved the highest celestial state even in his own
body. When he arrives in heaven, he finds that none of his brothers nor Draupadi are there. He tells Indra that
he can't bear to be without them, and wants to go wherever they are.

Book 18: The Ascent to Heaven

Upon arrival to heaven, Yudhisthira finds only Duryodhana and grows quickly indignant. He asks why a man
whose shortsightedness and envy caused so much death would gain entry to heaven, but not any of the
Pandavas, or Karna, or any brahmins, or any of the brave kings who fought righteously in the war. Yudhisthira
declares that he wants to be wherever his brothers are, so the gods instruct him to go there.
The path he follows is riddled with darkness and horrors, such as human hair growing where there should be
moss and flesh and blood where there should be mud. He sees various men being tortured for their sins, and
hears his brothers call out in voices as wicked as the place where he stands. In anger, he denounces the gods
and dharma, and says to leave him there in hell so he can give his brothers company.

Indra then tells Yudhisthira that all kings must see hell, but since he and his brothers have lived virtuously, they
will simply visit hell first before living in heaven. Yudhisthira is sent to heaven with his brothers, Draupadi,
Karna, and all the kings who were slain in his name in battle. At the end, Vyasa sings a hymn to dharma.

Analysis
Critical literature on the Mahabharata often draws parallels between this epic and another ancient epic poem
that tells of a gruesome war, Homer's Iliad. But what we see in "The Clubs" perhaps is best likened not to that
Greek epic, but to the "Book of Revelations" in the Christian New Testament. Both "The Clubs" and "The Book
of Revelations" illustrate a surreal apocalypse, when a condemned section of humanity awaits its demise.
Nature falls into disorder, and everything familiar is made strange.
In "The Clubs" and "The Ascent to Heaven" alike, we are presented with freakish inversions of the everyday. In
"The Clubs," various animals are portrayed as giving birth to other animals, and everyday objects are suddenly
transformed into deadly clubs during a drunken brawl that ends in the annihilation of all the men involved. In
"The Ascent to Heaven," Yudhisthira enters hell and sees human hair grow where there should be moss, and
flesh and blood where there should be mud. The Mahabharata portrays grotesque landscapes for grotesque
people. Sinners, by living life in defiance of their dharma and fate, inherit versions of the world that defy logic
and order.
If the prior depictions of war had desensitized us to violence in battle by perpetually deeming its events the due
course of preordained fate, then these images do the opposite. They are intended to shock the audience, to
provide the most extreme example of what happens to people who live their lives in contempt of that very fate.
But hell, as "The Ascent to Heaven" makes clear, is not simply reserved for the wicked. All of the Pandavas
spend some time there, despite the fact that they were gods incarnate, despite the fact that they vanquished
the evil Duryodhana.

The Mahabharata concludes on what may strike the reader as an odd moral. In one respect, it seems to tell us
that even the most righteous are condemned—that even the most virtuous have their moment in hell. But that's
the glass-half-empty read. The more optimistic and charitable interpretation of the epic's conclusion is that,
yes, even the most virtuous king who has ever existed had his time in hell, but only before he entered heaven.
It construes hell as a gruesome place where you wouldn't want to spend eternity, compelling the audience to
live a life that ensures they only spend a brief time in their afterlife to hell, and to illustrate that even if you live a
life that condemns you to hell for a little bit, it may still be one that lands you in heaven.

Mahabharata Symbols, Allegory and Motifs

Lotus (Symbol)
The lotus plant has a long-running significance in the Hindu faith. The flower is often used to evoke beauty, but
it can also represent a kind of blossoming of the soul. Often in the Mahabharata, the lotus is described as an
adornment to someone's garb or as a decoration in a house.
Snakes (Motif)
Snakes appear over and over throughout the book, from the giant sacrifice of snakes in a fire to the stitching
on tiger-skin garment worn by a terrifying monster guarding the Pandava camp. Throughout the book, snakes
represent something dangerous yet not entirely wicked. We read stories of people getting turned into snakes or
having to encounter snakes, and while there is always some trouble afoot, it's clear that these creatures are
nonetheless dominated by humans.
The Kauaravas Birth (Allegory)
The Kauravas are born when their mother Gandhari gives birth to a single embryo, which she splits amongst
100 pots, each of which bears a son. The unnatural and unsettling nature of the Kauravas' birth foreshadows
an unholy existence lived in adharma, and the tale stands as an allegory of how evil can quite literally multiply
when fostered by people who are acting out of greed. Here, those people are Dhrtasastra and Gandhari, who
are not capable of bearing children but defy what should be their dharma to remain childless and bring the
children into existence regardless.
Fire (Motif)
Fire recurs throughout the Mahabharata in moments of destruction, but modulates based on the merit of that
destruction. For example, early on Duryodhana tries to burn down the Pandava brothers' house to kill them,
and he is clearly acting in adharma. But we also see funeral pyres, sacrificial fires, and various supernatural
characters spewing fire. In these situations, fire is conjured as a force that draws a link between the material
world and the cosmos, be that by the gods demonstrating their awesome powers using fire or by humans
making offerings to the celestial beings to consecrate various rites.
The Clubs (Allegory)
While the Mahabharata is full of allegorical tales meant to demonstrate some ethical conundrum or dictate a
moral, "The Clubs" is the only book in the epic almost entirely dedicated to one such allegory. It portrays the
Vrsnis, who face imminent destruction by Time and descend into a sinful free–for–all. They cast aside all
decorum and dharma, committing to drunkenness and violence as the world turns increasingly bizarre around
them. The story illustrates an apocalypse, allegorically depicting how the world is turned upside down when
societies decide to live in defiance of virtuous and dharma. Contrast this allegory with the elders descended
from Bharata who assent to their demise by choosing to live out their days as ascetics in the forest hermitage.
Mahabharata Metaphors and Similes
"Goddess Ganga, the divine lovely river that flows through the three worlds" (Metaphor)
Early in the book, we encounter a parable of the Goddess Ganga seducing the great creator Indra. Like in
many celestial origin stories, a goddess is used to embody the principle of fertility that fosters all of existence,
and the metaphor likening her to a river links the cosmos with the very nature to which it gives birth.
"Fate robs us of wisdom as sudden glare robs us of sight." (Simile)
Yudhisthira utters this before his doomed gambling match with Duryodhana. He knows that it is his destiny to
enter this gambling match, that it is how he will fulfill his dharma, and this simile shows how fate will stun better
judgment. Importantly, Yudhisthira does not draw the comparison to temporary blindness to denounce fate, but
simply to illustrate his own powerlessness in the face of it.
"Then she wept ceaselessly, till her face shone as bright as the disc of the moon in the sky when it
emerges from a cloud-bank." (Simile)
Here, Draupadi's tears when she is continually wronged during her time in exile is likened to a celestial
phenomena, partially to illustrate the depth of her pain, but also to draw yet another analogy between the key
Pandavas and the greater cosmic forces which rule the world.
"You are so stupid that you want to seize him, like a child who wants the moon!" (Simile)
In "Perseverance," Dhrtarastra reprimands his son Duryodhana for seeking war against Yudhisthira, likening
him to a child that wants the moon. He extends the simile by saying that you cannot touch the moon with your
hand and you cannot seize the wind with your hand, meaning that Duryodhana is attempting to manipulate
forces that are far greater and more powerful than any human can control.
"But today I shall fulfill my second vow by slaying Duryodhana like a sacrificial beast!" (Simile)
Bhima says this to Krsna and Arjuna after Karna's death. While at first it may seem like a superficial simile—
Duryodhana must be sacrificed like an animal to end the war—remember that animal sacrifice is handled with
ambivalence in this epic. After the horse sacrifice in a later book, a mongoose denounces animal sacrifice as
pointless. Therefore, there is also an interpretation of the simile that Bhima's desire to kill Duryodhana like a
sacrificial beast is an expression of his excessively violent character.

Mahabharata Irony
The Five Brothers' Disguises (Situational Irony)
In their 13th year of exile, the five Pandava brothers and Draupadi decide to go in disguise in a fellow king's
court. These disguises are all ironic given their real identities, providing one of the few explicitly comic
episodes in this epic. Yudhisthira, for example, poses as a brahmin who is also a skilled gambler, ironic
because gambling is how he lost everything and was exiled in the first place. Draupadi becomes a
maidservant, ironic because she can still enjoy similar freedom to what she enjoyed as a princess, but at the
exact opposite end of the social ladder. Arjuna poses a eunuch and Bhima as a cook, both meant to provide
winking counterpoints to their real identities as deadly warriors, inverting their hyper-masculine identities by
assuming more feminine roles.
Karna, The Secret Pandava (Dramatic Irony)
The big secret at the heart of the warfare between the Pandavas and the Kauravas is that Karna is the eldest
son of Pandu, and therefore a blood relative of the Pandava brothers who he is fighting. While he is well aware
of this, and repeatedly refuses to reject Duryodhana and join his brothers on account of being abandoned by
his father, the other Pandavas are not. Yudhisthira is dumbstruck by grief when he learns that Karna was one
of his own, for this drives home an essential fact of war that Arjuna was initially weary of: that warfare occurs
between kin. While that fact is made quite literal here, imbuing the clash with a tragic irony, this could be
understood as an allegorical conceit meant to illustrate that all warfare is warfare between brothers.
The Ksatriya's Dharma (Dramatic Irony)
One of the essential ironies of the epic is the dharma of the ksatriya caste, which destines them to wage
terrible war, existing in direct conflict with the more generalized dharma to commit no acts of violence. Krsna's
recitation of the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna during the early part of the war is a key portion of the text, not just for
explaining this conflicted dharma, but for elucidating how a person is supposed to fulfill his dharma. While
perhaps still ironic, Krsna explains that Arjuna's dharma is not in conflict with anything, since every man has
his own dharma and must act in accordance with his dharma and no one else's. Only by acting with
detachment when fulfilling his duties can Arjuna achieve his dharma.
Duryodhana Hides in a Lake (Situational Irony)
When the Kauravas' defeat is certain, Duryodhana flees the conflict and hides in a lake to escape his own
certain death. This move is deeply ironic, as it mirrors the Pandava's prior exile to the woods. Just as
Duryodhana had forced those five brothers to flee into a remote part of the Earth, so does he himself. The
irony illustrates how Duryodhana is getting his comeuppance in the midst of an act of cowardice.

Mahabharata Imagery
Yudhisthira's Heavenly Hall
There's a slapstick moment immediately following Yudhisthira's consecration when Duryodhana tries to exit the
great hall but constantly mistakes what he's walking into. He twice pulls up his garments because he thinks
that the floor is a pool of water, only to fall in an actual pool of water that he mistakes for elaborate decoration.
When he's leaving, he hits his head on an open door that he thinks is closed, then stands in front of a closed
door he things is open. The image of Duryodhana having such a difficult time assessing the material reality of
the room—and becoming the butt of the joke to Arjuna and Bhima—speaks to the fundamentally mistaken way
that Duryodhana sees and assesses the world.
Krsna's True Body
At the end of the section when Krsna recites the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna, Krsna reveals his true body, and
Arjuna is awestruck by its ornamentation and how it contains the gods. In Krsna's body, he sees the infinitude
of gods and a brilliance of light he's never known before. Here, in the midst of a battle, the image of Krsna's
true body is used to remind us of the profound difference between gods and men, and to remind Arjuna of the
awesome power dictating his destiny.
Karna's Slain Body
When Karna is killed, his body is discussed in the language of awe-inspiring phenomena one might find in
nature. His body is described as looking like a thunderstruck mountain, and his blood is described as flowing
with mineral ore. He can be seen blazing with a fiery energy that shoots up into the sky. The image of Karna, in
death, imposing his surroundings like a mountain and flowing into the sky is yet another conflation of the
human with the godly, and a reminder of the blessed stock that Karna descends from.
The Funeral Pyre
When Duryodhana's body is burned in a funeral pyre along with the other Kauravas, the pyre is described
"looking like planets in a cloudless sky." The spectacular image of the pyre is likened to a cosmic phenomenon
to illustrate how profound, how extraordinarily significant, the war that just ended seemed to be. It suggests a
scale great than the earthly or the human.

Mahabharata Tragedy and Time in The Mahabharata

The comparative literature scholar Lourens Minnema wrote a fascinating book on tragedy called Tragic Views
of the Human Condition, in which he traces approaches to tragedy in Shakepeare's plays, Homer's Iliad, and
the Mahabharata. His inquiry across all of these different incarnations of tragic literature concerns
commonalities and divergences across narrative, literary style, socio-political concerns, religion, ethics, and
more. It's a useful source for scholarship on both the specific literature Minnema writes about and tragedy,
more generally, as a genre.
One of the most fascinating discussions of the Mahabharata in Minnema's book concerns the relationship
between tragedy and time. In Western narratives, he writes, time helps processes unfold, as events change
and characters' relationship with their circumstances evolve. Consider Hamlet's developing feud with Claudius
in Hamlet or the narrative trajectory of the war in the Iliad. In both of these situations, the plots concern
problems in need of solutions, which characters learning both the nature of the conflicts in which they are
embroiled and either rising to the occasion to confront them, or crumbling under the pressure of the
circumstances. The tragedy stems from the unforeseeable, as characters progress within a situation only to
learn that something has gone terribly awry along the way.
In the Mahabharata, time and tragedy have a different relationship. Minnema uses Arjuna's feelings about the
great war as an illustrative example of how time does not help events evolve or characters come to a new
understanding of them, but instead simply ushers along events whose ending is foretold. As Minnema
explains, Arjuna is well aware that the war he is about to fight will be a bleak enterprise, as gruesome as it is
unnecessary. His misgivings spur Krsna to recite the Bhagavad Gita to him, and Krsna's message is clear.
Arjuna's participation in the war is his fate, and the war's outcome is preordained. It is not Arjuna's duty to
make the right decision or even to influence the course of the events to follow. Rather, it is Arjuna's duty to act
in the exact capacity he is fated to act.
Time, in this case, is simply a vector for Arjuna coming to terms with his role and duties. Such is the case for all
the characters embroiled in this war. Minnema makes the pertinent observation that almost all of the major
warriors — be they Duryodhana's commanders, Dhrtarastra, or the Pandavas—understand exactly how
fruitless the violence will prove, as they all know the outcome of the war well in advance. The war is ultimately
a means for these men to come to terms with their dharma and act in accordance with it.
In the Bhagavad Gita, Krsna invokes his own mighty power with the line, "I am Time, destroyer of worlds." The
conception of time that is related to dharma is effectively one stemming from the simple principle that every
person knows he will die, that everything in the world is finite, that Time makes and undoes all that exists in the
world. Tragedy is not an act of discovery as time progresses, but simply the senseless violence that transpires
as time passes. Perhaps the true tragedy in the Mahabharata is that these characters with all their human
afflictions and affections are in fact powerless, that the virtuous Yudhisthira and the wicked Duryodhana are
both fated—one to live in heaven and one in hell, but fated nonetheless.

Mahabharata Tragedy and Time in The Mahabharata

The comparative literature scholar Lourens Minnema wrote a fascinating book on tragedy called Tragic Views
of the Human Condition, in which he traces approaches to tragedy in Shakepeare's plays, Homer's Iliad, and
the Mahabharata. His inquiry across all of these different incarnations of tragic literature concerns
commonalities and divergences across narrative, literary style, socio-political concerns, religion, ethics, and
more. It's a useful source for scholarship on both the specific literature Minnema writes about and tragedy,
more generally, as a genre.
One of the most fascinating discussions of the Mahabharata in Minnema's book concerns the relationship
between tragedy and time. In Western narratives, he writes, time helps processes unfold, as events change
and characters' relationship with their circumstances evolve. Consider Hamlet's developing feud with Claudius
in Hamlet or the narrative trajectory of the war in the Iliad. In both of these situations, the plots concern
problems in need of solutions, which characters learning both the nature of the conflicts in which they are
embroiled and either rising to the occasion to confront them, or crumbling under the pressure of the
circumstances. The tragedy stems from the unforeseeable, as characters progress within a situation only to
learn that something has gone terribly awry along the way.
In the Mahabharata, time and tragedy have a different relationship. Minnema uses Arjuna's feelings about the
great war as an illustrative example of how time does not help events evolve or characters come to a new
understanding of them, but instead simply ushers along events whose ending is foretold. As Minnema
explains, Arjuna is well aware that the war he is about to fight will be a bleak enterprise, as gruesome as it is
unnecessary. His misgivings spur Krsna to recite the Bhagavad Gita to him, and Krsna's message is clear.
Arjuna's participation in the war is his fate, and the war's outcome is preordained. It is not Arjuna's duty to
make the right decision or even to influence the course of the events to follow. Rather, it is Arjuna's duty to act
in the exact capacity he is fated to act.
Time, in this case, is simply a vector for Arjuna coming to terms with his role and duties. Such is the case for all
the characters embroiled in this war. Minnema makes the pertinent observation that almost all of the major
warriors — be they Duryodhana's commanders, Dhrtarastra, or the Pandavas—understand exactly how
fruitless the violence will prove, as they all know the outcome of the war well in advance. The war is ultimately
a means for these men to come to terms with their dharma and act in accordance with it.
In the Bhagavad Gita, Krsna invokes his own mighty power with the line, "I am Time, destroyer of worlds." The
conception of time that is related to dharma is effectively one stemming from the simple principle that every
person knows he will die, that everything in the world is finite, that Time makes and undoes all that exists in the
world. Tragedy is not an act of discovery as time progresses, but simply the senseless violence that transpires
as time passes. Perhaps the true tragedy in the Mahabharata is that these characters with all their human
afflictions and affections are in fact powerless, that the virtuous Yudhisthira and the wicked Duryodhana are
both fated—one to live in heaven and one in hell, but fated nonetheless.
Mahabharata Literary Elements
Genre
Epic Poem
Setting and Context
India, circa the Iron Age
Narrator and Point of View
The epic is told through a series of narrators, creating a framed, nested narrative.
Tone and Mood
Bellicose and spiritual
Protagonist and Antagonist
Yudhisthira (protagonist) and Duryodhana (antagonist)
Major Conflict
Duryodhana instigates a war with Yudhisthira and his brothers over the rights to the brothers' kingdom.
Climax
An 18 day blood war between the Pandavas and Kauravas that destroys the world
Foreshadowing
Characters are often told of their predestined fates, such as Arjuna's duty to slay thousands in the war
Understatement
Allusions
Imagery
Multiple instances of souls ascending to heaven from dead bodies, such as Karna's and Bhisma's
Paradox
Yudhisthira feels compelled by dharma to participate in the dice game even though he knows he's a terrible
gambler and will lose everything.
Parallelism
Metonymy and Synecdoche
The Pandavas are gods incarnate, and their fighting is therefore the will of the gods
Personification
An effigy of Bhima is offered to Dhrtarastra to maul, and the effigy bleeds like a person

Ramayana

Ramayana (Rama’s Journey) shorter of the two great epic poems of india, the other being the
Mahabharata(Great epic of the Bharata Dynasty), it was composed in Sanskrit, dated to around BCE
to 100 BCE by the poet Valmiki, its pressing form consist 24,000 couplets divided into seven books.
The epic contains the teachings of the very ancient Hindu sages
BACKGROUND OF THE AUTHOR
: Maharshi Valmiki, the author of the great Indian epic , was a Hindu sage who lived around the
beginning of the first millennium B.C. He is referred to as the 'adikavi', the original creator of the
Hindu 'sloka' - a verse form in which most of the great epics such as Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Puranas, and other works are composed.
11. He was a Brahman by birth belonging to the lineage of Bhrigu. Fate consigned him to a family
of robbers which brought him up. Accidental contact with the Saptarsis - the Seven Sages and
with the sage Narada changed his life. By the repetition of Ramanama or the name of Ram, he
attained the supreme state of a 'maharshi' or great sage. Since a 'valmika' or an anthill had grown
 over his body during his long period of austerities and poised state of penance, he came to be
known as Valmiki

Ramayana Short Summary

Dasharatha is the King of Ayodhya and has three wives and four sons, Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata
and Shatrughana. Rama is the ideal and perfect son, and grows up with his brothers. When he
comes of age, he marries Sita, the princess of a nearby kingdom. However, Bharata's mother is
Kaikeyi, who resents Rama being the crown prince. She calls up a debt that Dasharatha owes her
and asks for Rama to be exiled for fourteen years and her son Bharata be made crown prince
instead.

The devastated Dasharatha has no choice and Rama prepares to leave for exile. Sita and
Lakshmana will not leave his side however and follow him into the forest. While in the forest,
Surphanaka, a female rakshasi (demoness) becomes enamored of Rama and is wounded by
Lakshmana while trying to kill Sita. She flees to her brother Khara and asks him to avenge her.
However, Khara and his army are defeated by Rama and Lakshmana, and only one member of their
entire army survives. This lone soldier flees to the island kingdom of Lanka and begs Surphanaka's
brother, the mighty king Ravana to avenge them. Ravana has heard of Sita's beauty and he decides
to abduct her. Using trickery and magic, he manages to lure Rama and Lakshmana away from Sita
and kidnaps her, taking her away to Lanka.

Ravana kidnaps Sita and slays Jatayu.

Rama and Lakshmana travel far and wide searching for Sita but to no avail. Finally, they come upon
a band of vanaras or monkey-men who pledge to help him. One of the might warriors of the vanaras,
Hanuman, becomes Rama's staunch devotee. The vanaras seek out traces of Sita and find she has
been taken to Lanka. Hanuman flies to Lanka and confirms she is imprisoned there. He contacts Sita
and informs her of Rama's whereabouts, promising that they will be back to rescue her. Before
returning to the mainland, Hanuman sets fire to the whole city of Lanka.

Rama, Lakshmana and the vanar army build a causeway from the tip of India to Lanka. They travel to
Lanka, where an epic battle follows between the armies. Ravana is finally killed by Rama, and Sita is
freed. They return to Ayodhya, where Bharata returns the crown to Rama.

SETTING City of Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala

 MAIN CHARACTERS:
Dasaratha -- King of Ayodhya (capital of Kosala), whose eldest son was Rama. Dasaratha had three
wives and four sons -- Rama, Bharata, and the twins Lakshmana and Satrughna.
Rama -- Dasaratha's first-born son, and the upholder of Dharma (correct conduct and duty). Rama,
along with his wife Sita, have served as role models for thousands of generations in India and
elsewhere. Rama is regarded by many Hindus as an incarnation of the god Vishnu.
Sita -- Rama's wife, the adopted daughter of King Janak. Sita was found in the furrows of a sacred
field, and was regarded by the people of Janak's kingdom as a blessed child.
Bharata -- Rama's brother by Queen Kaikeyi. When Bharata learned of his mother's scheme to
banish Rama and place him on the throne, he put Rama's sandals on the throne and ruled Ayodhya
in his name.
Hanuman -- A leader of the monkey tribe allied with Rama against Ravana. Hanuman has many
magical powers because his father was the god of the wind.
Ravana -- The 10-headed king of Lanka who abducted Sita.
Kaushlaya -- Dasaratha's first wife, and the mother of Rama.
Lakshmana -- Rama's younger brother by Dasaratha's third wife, Sumitra. When Rama and Sita were
exiled to the forest, Lakshmana followed in order to serve.
Jataya- is a great eagle and was at point became friend of dasaratha

Kaikeyi- is dasarathas favourite wife and the mother of bharatha

King Janaka- is sitas adoptive father and the king of Mithila

Surpanakha-is ravanas demoness sister, she was enamored by Rama and tried to kill sita

Kooni-is a hunchback woman and kaikeyis companion, encourages kayeki to use her promised
boons from dasaratha to banish rama to the 14 years

Vishnu- one of the gods that make up the hindu trinity alongside shiva and brahma and referred to as
the protector

Indra- lesser god in hindu mythology, depicted as the spiritual father if vali

Shiva- one of the gods who granted Ravana the boons that made him powerful

Brahma- One of the Gods of hindu trinity- referred to as the creator and has four faces

Point of view
The poem is written in the third person. It generally describes events from the point of view of Rama,
but also switches to other relevant settings where Rama is not present, such as the court of Ravana.

1. Exposition : Ravana, the ten-headed king of the evil demons, continually pursues the
destruction of dharma or social and moral order in the world. The gods persuade Vishnu to
reincarnate himself as a man to defeat Ravana. Vishnu is now born as Rama, son of Dasartha.
The epic centers on the life and adventures of Rama and Sita, the daughter of goddess Earth,
his wife.
2. Conflict: When Ravana stole Sita and brought her to his place. Climax: When Rama fought
against Ravana for two days where many were injured and some died.
3. Resolution: They won the battle and was able to take Sita back. But then there are rumors
pertaining to his wife's infidelity so she was exiled. One day, Rama met his sons, twins, and
sent a messenger to findSita and convince her to return. Sita returned the next day and
revealed her innocence with the accusation. And from that moment, he would never see her
wife again and Rama's life returned to Vishnu.
The theme of the play Ramayana is human value and the concept of dharma. Rama is brave, wise
and dutiful, and Sita is beautiful, generous and saintly. Sita gets introduced to Rama at a ceremony
called ‘Swayamvara’, organized by her father Janaka, the king of Mithila to identify a suitable
bridegroom for her lovely daughter. Ramayana is the immortal tale of Shri Rama that teaches us the
values of ideology, devotion, duty, relationships, dharma and karma.

OTHER Plot
Exposition: An archery contest was held for the hunt of Sita. Rama won the contest and was declared
as the future king.

Rising Action: Because of Kaikeyi's jealousy, she requested Rama to be exiled in the forest of
Dandak and let her son be the regent king.

Climax: Bharata followed Rama to convince him to return and be the king but he refused. So he took
his brother's sandals as a proof that he is ruling in Rama's name.

Falling Action: A Raksha princess was rejected when she fell in love with Rama & Lakshmana.
Inrevenger, Ravana sent a deer to tempt the the two brothers and stole Sita away.

Resolution: In the end of search, they successfully recovered Sita and returned to North India.
THEME

The Perfect Man • Romantic Love • Dharma • Brotherly Love • Good and Evil • Combat • Human and Divine

RAMAYANA STORY

The Ramayana is the epic tale of Shri Rama, which teaches about ideology, devotion, duty, dharma
and karma. The word  'Ramayana', literally means "the march (ayana) of Rama" in search of human
values. Written by the great sage Valmiki, the Ramayana is referred to as the Adi Kavya or original
epic. 

The epic poem is composed of rhyming couplets called slokas in high Sanskrit, in a complex linguistic
meter called 'anustup'. The verses are grouped into individual chapters called sargas, with each one
containing a specific event or intent. The sargas are grouped into books called kandas.

The Ramayana has 50 characters and 13 locations in all. 

Here is a condensed English translation of the Ramayana by scholar Stephen Knapp. 

Early Life of Rama

Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, an ancient kingdom that was located in present day Uttar
Pradesh. Ayodhya was its capital. Dasharatha was loved by one and all. His subjects were happy and
his kingdom was prosperous. Even though Dasharatha had everything that he desired, he was very
sad at heart; he had no children.
 
During the same time, there lived a powerful Rakshasa king in the island of Ceylon, located just south
of India. He was called Ravana. His tyranny knew no bounds, his subjects disturbed the prayers of
holy men.

The childless Dasharatha was advised by his family priest Vashishtha to perform a fire sacrifice
ceremony to seek the blessings of God for children. Vishnu, the preserver of the universe, decided to
manifest himself as the eldest son of Dasharatha in order to kill Ravana. While performing the fire
worship ceremony, a majestic figure rose from the sacrificial fire and handed to Dasharatha a bowl of
rice pudding, saying, "God is pleased with you and has asked you to distribute this rice pudding
(payasa) to your wives - they will soon bear your children."

The king received the gift joyfully and distributed the payasa to his three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi,
and Sumitra. Kausalya, the eldest queen, gave birth to the eldest son Rama. Bharata, the second son
was born to Kaikeyi and Sumitra gave birth to the twins Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Rama's birthday
is celebrated now as Ramanavami.
The four princes grew up to be tall, strong, handsome, and brave. Of the four brothers, Rama was
closest to Lakshmana and Bharata to Shatrughna. One day, the revered sage Viswamitra came to
Ayodhya. Dasharatha was overjoyed and immediately got down from his throne and received him
with great honor.

Viswamitra blessed Dasharatha and asked him to send Rama to kill the Rakshasas who were
disturbing his fire sacrifice. Rama was then only fifteen years old. Dasharatha was taken aback.
Rama was too young for the job. He offered himself, but sage Viswamitra knew better. The sage
insisted upon his request and assured the king that Rama would be safe in his hands. Ultimately,
Dasharatha agreed to send Rama, along with Lakshmana, to go with Viswamitra. Dasharatha strictly
ordered his sons to obey Rishi Viswamitra and fulfill all his wishes. The parents blessed the two
young princes. They then departed with the sage (Rishi).

The party of Viswamitra, Rama, and Lakshmana soon reached Dandaka forest where the Rakshasi
Tadaka lived with her son Maricha. Viswamitra asked Rama to challenge her. Rama strung his bow
and twanged the string. The wild animals ran helter-skelter in fear. Tadaka heard the sound and she
became incensed. Mad with rage, roaring thunderously, she rushed at Rama. A fierce battle ensued
between the huge Rakshasi and Rama. Finally, Rama pierced her heart with a deadly arrow and
Tadaka crashed down to the earth. Viswamitra was pleased. He taught Rama several Mantras (divine
chants), with which Rama could summon many divine weapons (by meditation) in order to fight
against evil

Viswamitra then proceeded, with Rama and Lakshmana, towards his ashram. When they started the
fire sacrifice, Rama and Lakshmana were guarding the place. Suddenly Maricha, Tadaka's ferocious
son, arrived with his followers. Rama silently prayed and discharged the newly acquired divine
weapons at Maricha. Maricha was thrown many, many miles away into the sea. All other demons
were slain by Rama and Lakshmana. Viswamitra completed the sacrifice and the sages rejoiced and
blessed the princes.

The next morning, Viswamitra, Rama, and Lakshmana headed towards the city of Mithila, the capital
of the kingdom of Janaka. King Janaka invited Viswamitra to attend the great fire sacrifice ceremony
that he had arranged. Viswamitra had something in mind - to get Rama married to the lovely daughter
of Janaka.

Janaka was a saintly king. He received a bow from Lord Siva. It was strong and heavy.

He wanted his beautiful daughter Sita to marry the bravest and strongest prince in the country. So he
had vowed that he would give Sita in marriage only to the one who could string that great bow of
Siva. Many had tried before. None could even move the bow, let alone string it.

When Viswamitra arrived with Rama and Lakshmana at the court, King Janaka received them with
great respect. Viswamitra introduced Rama and Lakshmana to Janaka and requested that he show
the bow of Siva to Rama so that he could try to string it. Janaka looked at the young prince and
assented doubtfully. The bow was stored in an iron box mounted on an eight-wheeled chariot. Janaka
ordered his men to bring the bow and place it in the middle of a big hall filled with many dignitaries.

Rama then stood up in all humility, picked up the bow with ease, and got ready for the stringing. He
placed one end of the bow against his toe, put forth his might, and bent the bow to string it-when to
everyone's surprise the bow snapped in two! Sita was relieved. She had liked Rama right at the first
sight.
Dasharatha was immediately informed. He gladly gave his consent to the marriage and came to
Mithila with his retinue. Janaka arranged for a grand wedding. Rama and Sita were married. At the
same time, the three other brothers were also provided with brides. Lakshmana married Sita's sister
Urmila. Bharata and Shatrughna married Sita's cousins Mandavi and Shrutakirti. After the wedding,
Viswamitra blessed them all and left for the Himalayas to meditate. Dasharatha returned to Ayodhya
with his sons and their new brides. People celebrated the marriage with great pomp and show.

For the next twelve years Rama and Sita lived happily in Ayodhya. Rama was loved by all. He was a
joy to his father, Dasharatha, whose heart nearly burst with pride when he beheld his son. As
Dasharatha was growing older, he summoned his ministers seeking their opinion about crowning
Rama as prince of Ayodhya. They unanimously welcomed the suggestion. Then Dasharatha
announced the decision and gave orders for the coronation of Rama. During this time, Bharata and
his favorite brother, Shatrughna, had gone to see their maternal grandfather and were absent from
Ayodhya.

Kaikeyi, Bharata's mother, was in the palace rejoicing with the other queens, sharing the happy news
of Rama's coronation. She loved Rama as her own son; but her wicked maid, Manthara, was
unhappy. Manthara wanted Bharata to be the king so she devised a heinous plan to thwart Ramas
coronation. As soon as the plan was set firmly in her mind, she rushed to Kaikeyi to tell her.

"What a fool you are!" Manthara said to Kaikeyi, "The king has always loved you more than the other
queens. But the moment Rama is crowned, Kausalya will become all powerful and she will make you
her slave."

Manthara repeatedly gave her poisoned suggestions, clouding Kaikeyis mind and heart with
suspicion and doubt. Kaikeyi, confused and distraught, finally agreed to Mantharas plan.

"But what can I do to change it?" asked Kaikeyi with a puzzled mind.

Manthara was clever enough to chalk out her plan all the way. She had been waiting for Kaikeyi to
ask her advice.

"You may recall that long ago when Dasharatha was badly wounded in the battle field, while fighting
with the Asuras, you saved Dasraratha's life by swiftly driving his chariot to safety? At that time
Dasharatha offered you two boons. You said you would ask for the boons some other time." Kaikeyi
readily remembered.

Manthara continued, "Now the time has come to demand those boons. Ask Dasharatha for your first
boon to make Bharat the king of Kosal and for the second boon to banish Rama to the forest for
fourteen years."

Kakeyi was a noble-hearted queen, now trapped by Manthara. She agreed to do what Manthara said.
Both of them knew that Dasharatha would never fall back on his words.

Rama's Exile
The night before the coronation, Dasharatha came to Kakeyi to share his happiness at seeing Rama
the crown prince of Kosala. But Kakeyi was missing from her apartment. She was in her "anger
room". When Dasharatha came to her anger room to inquire, he found his beloved queen lying on the
floor with her hair loose and her ornaments cast away.
Dasharatha gently took Kakeyi's head on his lap and asked in a caressing voice, "What is wrong?"

But Kakeyi angrily shook herself free and firmly said; "You have promised me two boons. Now please
grant me these two boons. Let Bharata be crowned as king and not Rama. Rama should be banished
from the kingdom for fourteen years."

Dasharatha could hardly believe his ears. Unable to bear what he had heard, he fell down
unconscious. When he returned to his senses, he cried out in helpless anger, "What has come over
you? What harm has Rama done to you? Please ask for anything else but these."

Kakeyi stood firm and refused to yield. Dasharatha fainted and lay on the floor the rest of the night.
The next morning, Sumantra, the minister, came to inform Dasharatha that all the preparations for the
coronation were ready. But Dasharatha was not in a position to speak to anyone. Kakeyi asked
Sumantra to call Rama immediately. When Rama arrived, Dasharatha was sobbing uncontrollably
and could only utter "Rama! Rama!"

Rama was alarmed and looked at Kakeyi with surprise, "Did I do anything wrong, mother? I have
never seen my father like this before."

"He has something unpleasant to tell you, Rama," replied Kakeyi. "Long ago your father had offered
me two boons. Now I demand it." Then Kakeyi told Rama about the boons.

"Is that all mother?" asked Rama with a smile. "Please take it that your boons are granted. Call for
Bharata. I shall start for the forest today."

Rama did his pranams to his revered father, Dasharatha, and to his stepmother, Kakeyi, and then left
the room. Dasharatha was in shock. He painfully asked his attendants to move him to Kaushalya's
apartment. He was waiting for death to ease his pain.

The news of Rama's exile spread like a fire. Lakshmana was furious with his father's decision. Rama
simply replied, "Is it worthwhile to sacrifice your principle for the sake of this small kingdom?"

Tears sprang from Lakshmana's eyes and he said in a low voice, "If you must go to the forest, take
me along with you." Rama agreed.

Then Rama proceeded to Sita and asked her to stay behind. "Look after my mother, Kausalya, in my
absence."

Sita begged, "Have pity on me. A wife's position is always beside her husband. Don't leave me
behind. Ill die without you." At last Rama permitted Sita to follow him.

Urmila, Lakshamans wife, also wanted to go with Lakshmana to the forest. But Lakshmana explained
to her the life that he plans to lead for the protection of Rama and Sita.

"If you accompany me, Urmila," Lakshmana said, "I may not be able to fulfill my duties. Please take
care of our grieved family members." So Urmila stayed behind on Lakshmana's request.

By that evening Rama, Sita and Lakshmana left Ayodhya on a chariot driven by Sumatra. They were
dressed like mendicants (Rishis). The people of Ayodhya ran behind the chariot crying loudly for
Rama. By nightfall they all reached the bank of the river, Tamasa. Early the next morning Rama
awoke and told Sumantra, "The people of Ayodhya love us very much but we have to be on our own.
We must lead the life of a hermit, as I promised. Let us continue our journey before they wake up."

So, Rama, Lakshmana and Sita, driven by Sumantra, continued their journey alone. After travelling
the entire day they reached the bank of the Ganges and decided to spend the night under a tree near
a village of hunters. The chieftain, Guha, came and offered them all the comforts of his house. But
Rama replied, "Thank you Guha, I appreciate your offer as a good friend but by accepting your
hospitality I will break my promise. Please allow us to sleep here as the hermits do."

Next morning the three, Rama, Lakshmana and Sita, said goodbye to Sumantra and Guha and got
into a boat to cross the river, Ganges. Rama addressed Sumantra, "Return to Ayodhya and console
my father."

By the time Sumantra reached Ayodhya Dasharatha was dead, crying until his last breath, "Rama,
Rama, Rama!" Vasishtha sent a messenger to Bharata asking him to return to Ayodhya without
disclosing the details.

Bharata immediately returned with Shatrughna. As he entered the city of Ayodhya, he realized that
something was terribly wrong. The city was strangely silent. He went straight to his mother, Kaikeyi.
She looked pale. Bharat impatiently asked, "Where is father?" He was stunned by the news. Slowly
he learned about Ramas exile for fourteen years and Dasharathas demise with the departure of
Rama.

Bharata could not believe that his mother was the cause of the disaster. Kakyei tried to make Bharata
understand that she did it all for him. But Bharata turned away from her with disgust and said, "Don't
you know how much I love Rama? This kingdom is worth nothing in his absence. I am ashamed to
call you my mother. You are heartless. You killed my father and banished my beloved brother. I will
not have anything to do with you for as long as I live." Then Bharata left for Kaushalyas apartment.
Kakyei realized the mistake she made.

Kaushalya received Bharata with love and affection. Addressing Bharata she said, "Bharata, the
kingdom is waiting for you. No one will oppose you for ascending the throne. Now that your father is
gone, I would also like to go to the forest and live with Rama."

Bharata could not contain himself any further. He burst into tears and promised Kaushalya to bring
Rama back to Ayodhya as quickly as possible. He understood the throne rightfully belonged to Rama.
After completing the funeral rites for Dasharatha, Bharata started for Chitrakut where Rama was
staying. Bharata halted the army at a respectful distance and walked alone to meet Rama. Seeing
Rama, Bharata fell at his feet begging forgiveness for all the wrong doings.

When Rama asked, "How is father?" Bharat began to cry and broke the sad news; "Our father has left
for heaven. At the time of his death, he constantly took your name and never recovered from the
shock of your departure." Rama collapsed. When he came to senses he went to river, Mandakini, to
offer prayers for his departed father.

The next day, Bharata asked Rama to return to Ayodhya and rule the kingdom. But Rama firmly
replied, "I cannot possibly disobey my father. You rule the kingdom and I shall carry out my pledge. I
will come back home only after fourteen years."

When Bharata realized Ramas firmness in fulfilling his promises, he begged Rama to give him his
sandals. Bharata told Rama the sandals will represent Rama and he would carry out the duties of the
kingdom only as Ramas representative. Rama gracefully agreed. Bharata carried the sandals to
Ayodhya with great reverence. After reaching the capital, he placed the sandals on the throne and
ruled the kingdom in Ramas name. He left the palace and lived like a hermit, as Rama did, counting
the days of Ramas return.

When Bharata left, Rama went to visit Sage Agastha. Agastha asked Rama to move to Panchavati on
the bank of Godavari River. It was a beautiful place. Rama planned to stay at Panchavati for some
time. So, Lakshamana quickly put up an elegant hut and they all settled down.

Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana, lived in Panchavati. Ravana was then the most powerful Asura
king who lived in Lanka (today's Ceylon). One day Surpanakha happened to see Rama and instantly
fell in love with him. She requested Rama to be her husband.

Rama was amused, and smilingly said, "As you see I am already married. You can request
Lakshmana. He is young, handsome and is alone without his wife."

Surpanakha took Rama's word seriously and approached Lakshmana. Lakshmana said, "I am
Rama's servant. You should marry my master and not me, the servant."

Surpanakha got furious with the rejection and attacked Sita in order to devour her. Lakshmana swiftly
intervened, and cut off her nose with his dagger. Surpanakha ran away with her bleeding nose, crying
in pain, to seek help from her Asura brothers, Khara and Dushana. Both the brothers got red with
anger and marched their army towards Panchavati. Rama and Lakshmana faced the Rakshasas and
finally they were all killed.

The Abduction of Sita 

Surpanakha was terror stricken. She immediately flew to Lanka to seek her brother Ravana's
protection. Ravana was outraged to see her sister mutilated. Surpanakha described all that
happened. Ravana was interested when he heard that Sita is the most beautiful woman in the world,
Ravana decided to abduct Sita. Rama loved Sita very much and could not live without her.

Ravana made a plan and went to see Maricha. Maricha had the power of changing himself into any
form he wanted along with the appropriate voice imitation. But Maricha was afraid of Rama. He still
could not get over the experience he had when Rama shot an arrow that hurled him far into the sea.
This happened in Vashishtha's hermitage. Maricha tried to persuade Ravana to stay away from Rama
but Ravana was determined.

"Maricha!" shouted Ravana, "You have only two choices, help me to carry out my plan or prepare for
death." Maricha preferred to die in Rama's hand than be killed by Ravana. So he agreed to help
Ravana in the abduction of Sita.

Maricha took the form of a beautiful golden deer and began to graze near Rama's cottage in
Panchavati. Sita was attracted towards the golden deer and requested Rama to get the golden deer
for her. Lakshmana warned that the golden deer may be a demon in disguise. By then Rama already
started to chase the deer. He hurriedly instructed Lakshmana to look after Sita and ran after the deer.
Very soon Rama realized that the deer is not a real one. He shot an arrow which hit the deer and
Maricha was exposed.

Before dying, Maricha imitated Ram's voice and shouted, "Oh Lakshmana! Oh Sita,! Help! Help!"
Sita heard the voice and asked Lakshmana to run and rescue Rama. Lakshmana was hesitant. He
was confident that Rama is invincible and the voice was only a fake. He tried to convince Sita but she
insisted. Finally Lakshmana agreed. Before his departure, he drew a magic circle, with the tip of his
arrow, around the cottage and asked her not to cross the line.

"As long as you stay within the circle you will be safe with the grace of God" said Lakshmana and
hurriedly left in search of Rama.

From his hiding place Ravana was watching all that was happening. He was glad that his trick
worked. As soon as he found Sita alone, he disguised himself as a hermit and came near Sita's
cottage. He stood beyond the protection line of Lakshmana, and asked for alms (bhiksha). Sita came
out with a bowl full of rice to offer to the holy man, while staying within the protection line drawn by
Lakshmana. The hermit asked her to come near and offer. Sita was unwilling to cross the line when
Ravana pretended to leave the place without alms. As Sita did not want to annoy the sage, she
crossed the line to offer the alms.

Ravana did not lose the opportunity. He quickly pounced on Sita and seized her hands, declaring, "I
am Ravana, the king of Lanka. Come with me and be my queen." Very soon Ravana's chariot left the
ground and flew over the clouds on way to Lanka.

Rama felt distressed when he saw Lakshmana. "Why did you leave Sita alone? The golden deer was
Maricha in disguise. "

Lakshman tried to explain the situation when both the brothers suspected a foul play and ran towards
the cottage. The cottage was empty, as they feared. They searched, and called out her name but all
in vain. Finally they were exhausted. Lakshmana tried to console Rama as best as he could.
Suddenly they heard a cry. They ran towards the source and found a wounded eagle lying at the
floor. It was Jatayu, the king of eagles and a friend of Dasharatha.

Jatayu narrated with great pain, "I saw Ravana abducting Sita. I attacked him when Ravana cut my
wing and made me helpless. Then he flew towards the south." After saying this, Jatayu died on the
lap of Rama. Rama and Lakshmana burried Jatayu and then moved towards the south.

On their way, Rama and Lakshmana met a ferocious demon, called Kabandha. Kabandha attacked
Rama and Lakshmana. When he was about to devour them, Rama struck Kabandha with a fatal
arrow. Before his death, Kabandh disclosed his identity. He had a beautiful form which was changed
by a curse to the form of a monster. Kabandha requested Rama and Lakshmana to burn him into
ashes and that will bring him back to the old form. He also advised Rama to go to the monkey king
Sugrive, who lived in the Rishyamukha mountain, to get help in regaining Sita.

On his way to meet Sugriva, Rama visited the hermitage of an old pious woman, Shabari. She was
waiting for Rama for a long time before she could give up her body. When Rama and Lakshmana
made their appearance, Shabari's dream was fulfilled. She washed their feet, offered them the best
nuts and fruits that she collected for years. Then she took Rama's blessings and departed for the
heaven.

After a long walk, Rama and Lakshmana reached the Rishyamukha mountain to meet Sugriva.
Sugriva had a brother Vali, the king of Kishkindha. They were once good friends. This changed when
they went to fight with a giant. The giant ran into a cave and Vali followed him, asking Sugriva to wait
outside. Sugriva waited for a long time and then returned to the palace in grief, thinking that Vali was
killed. He then became the king upon the request of the minister.
After some time, Vali suddenly appeared. He was mad with Sugriva and blamed him to be a cheater.
Vali was strong. He drove Sugriva out of his kingdom and took away his wife. Ever since, Sugriva had
been living in the Rishyamukha mountain, which was out of bound for Vali because of a Rishi's curse.

On seeing Rama and Lakshmana from a distance, and not knowing the purpose of their visit, Sugriva
sent his close friend Hanuman to find out their identity. Hanuman, disguised as an ascetic, came to
Rama and Lakshmana.

The brothers told Hanuman of their intention to meet Sugriva because they wanted his help to find
Sita. Hanuman was impressed by their courteous behavior and removed his garb. Then he carried
the princes on his shoulder to Sugriva. There Hanuman introduced the brothers and narrated their
story. He then told Sugriva of their intention to come to him.

In return, Sugriva told his story and sought help from Rama to kill Vali, otherwise, he could not help
even if he wanted to. Rama agreed. Hanuman then kindled a fire to bear witness to the alliance
made.

In due course, Vali was killed and Sugriva became the king of Kishkindha. Soon after Sugriva took
over the kingdom of Vali, he ordered his army to proceed in the search of Sita.

Rama specially called Hanuman and gave his ring saying, "If any one finds Sita, it will be you
Hanuman. Keep this ring to prove your identity as my messenger. Give it to Sita when you meet her."
Hanuman most respectfully tied up the ring to his waist and joined the search party.

As Sita flew, she dropped her ornaments on the ground. These were traced by the monkey army and
it was concluded that Sita was carried southwards. When the monkey (Vanara) army reached the
Mahendra Hill, located on the south shore of India, they met Sampati, the brother of Jatayu. Sampati
confirmed that Ravana took Sita to Lanka. The monkeys were perplexed , how to cross the huge sea
that stretched in front of them.

Angada, the son of Sugriva, asked, "Who can cross the ocean?" silence prevailed, until Hanuman
came up to give a try.

Hanuman was the son of Pavana, the wind god. He had a secret gift from his father. He could fly.
Hanuman enlarged himself to a huge size and took a jump to cross the ocean. After overcoming
many obstacles, at last Hanuman reached Lanka. He soon contracted his body and alighted as a tiny
insignificant creature. He soon passed through the city unnoticed and managed to enter the palace
quietly. He went through every chamber but could not see Sita.

Finally, Hanuman located Sita in one of the gardens of Ravana, called Ashoka grove (Vana). She
was surrounded by the Rakshashis who were guarding her. Hanuman hid on a tree and watched Sita
from a distance. She was in deep distress, crying and praying to God for her relief. Hanuman's heart
melted in pity. He took Sita as his mother.

Just then Ravana entered the garden and approached Sita. "I have waited enough. Be sensible and
become my queen. Rama can not cross the ocean and come through this impregnable city. You
better forget about him."

Sita sternly replied, "I have repeatedly told you to return me to Lord Rama before his wrath falls upon
you."
Ravana got furious, "You have gone beyond the limits of my patience. You give me no choice than to
kill you unless you change your mind. Within a few days I shall be back."

As soon as Ravana left, other Rakshashis, who were attending Sita, came back and suggested her to
marry Ravana and enjoy the enviable wealth of Lanka." Sita kept quiet.

Slowly the Rakshashis wandered away, Hanuman came down from his hiding place and gave
Rama's ring to Sita. Sita was thrilled. She wanted to hear about Rama and Lakshmana. After
conversing for a while Hanuman asked Sita to take a ride on her back to return to Rama. Sita did not
agree.

"I do not want to return home secretly" said Sita, "I want Rama to defeat Ravana and take me back
with honor."

Hanuman agreed. Then Sita gave her necklace to Hanuman as an evidence confirming their meeting.

Slaying of Ravana
Before departing from the Ashoka grove (Vana), Hanuman wanted Ravana to have a lesson for his
misconduct. So he began to destroy the Ashoka grove by uprooting the trees. Soon the Rakshasa
warriors came running to catch the monkey but were beaten up. The message reached Ravana. He
was enraged. He asked Indrajeet, his able son, to capture Hanuman.

A fierce battle ensued and Hanuman was finally captured when Indrajeet used the most powerful
weapon, the Brahmastra missile. Hanuman was taken to Ravana's court and the captive stood in
front of the king.

Hanuman introduced himself as the messenger of Rama. "You have abducted the wife of my all
powerful master, Lord Rama. If you want peace, return her with honor to my master or else, you and
your kingdom will be destroyed."

Ravana was wild with rage. He ordered to kill Hanuman instantly when his younger brother
Vibhishana objected. "You can not kill a king's envoy" said Vibhishana. Then Ravana ordered
Hanuman's tail to be set on fire.

The Rakshasa army took Hanuman outside the hall, while Hanuman increased his size and
lengthened his tail. It was wrapped with rags and ropes and soaked in oil. He was then paraded
through the streets of Lanka and a big mob followed to have fun. The tail was set on fire but because
of his divine blessing Hanuman did not feel the heat.

He soon shrank his size and shook off the ropes that bound him and escaped. Then, with the torch of
his burning tail, he jumped from roof to roof to set the city of Lanka on fire. People began to run,
creating chaos and hideous cries. Finally, Hanuman went to the sea shore and put off the fire in the
sea water. The he began his homeward flight.

When Hanuman joined the monkey army and narrated his experience, they all laughed. Soon the
army returned to Kishkindha.

Then Hanuman quickly went to Rama to give his first-hand account. He took out the jewel that Sita
gave and placed it in Rama's hands. Rama burst into tears when he saw the jewel.
He addressed Hanuman and said, "Hanuman! You have achieved what none else could. What can I
do for you?" Hanuman prostrated before Rama and sought his divine blessing.

Sugriva then discussed in detail with Rama their next course of action. On an auspicious hour the
entire monkey army set out from Kishkindha towards Mahendra Hill, located on the opposite side of
Lanka. Upon reaching Mahendra Hill, Rama faced the same problem, how to cross the ocean with
the army. He called for a meeting of all the monkey chiefs, and sought their suggestions for a
solution.

When Ravana heard from his messengers that Rama had already arrived at Mahendra Hill, and was
preparing to cross the ocean to Lanka, he summoned his ministers for advice. They unanimously
decided to fight Rama to his death. To them, Ravana was indestructible and they, undefeatable. Only
Vibhishana, the younger brother of Ravana, was cautious and opposed to this.

Vibhishana said, "Brother Ravana, you must return the chaste woman, Sita, to her husband, Rama,
seek his forgiveness and restore peace."

Ravana became upset with Vibhishana and told him to leave the kingdom of Lanka.

Vibhishana, through his magical power, reached Mahendra Hill and sought permission to meet Rama.
The monkeys were suspicious but took him to Rama as a captive. Vibhishana explained to Rama all
that happened in Ravana's court and sought his asylum. Rama gave him sanctuary and Vibhishana
became the closest adviser to Rama in the war against Ravana. Rama promised Vibhishana to make
him the future king of Lanka.

To reach Lanka, Rama decided to build a bridge with the help of the monkey engineer Nala. He also
summoned Varuna, the God of the Ocean, to cooperate by staying calm while the bridge was in the
making. Immediately thousands of monkeys set about the task of gathering the materials to build the
bridge. When the materials were piled up in heaps, Nala, the great architect, started to build the
bridge. It was a stupendous undertaking. But the entire monkey army worked hard and completed the
bridge in just five days. The army crossed over to Lanka.

After crossing the ocean, Rama sent Angada, the son of Sugrive, to Ravana as a messenger.
Angada went to Ravana's court and delivered Rama's message, "Return Sita with honor or face
destruction." Ravana became enraged and ordered him out of the court immediately.

Angada returned with Ravanas message and preparation for the war began. The next morning Rama
ordered the monkey army to attack. The monkeys rushed forward and hurled huge boulders against
the city walls and gates. The battle continued for a long time. Thousands were dead on each side and
the ground soaked in blood.

When Ravana's army was losing, Indrajeet, Ravana's son, took the command. He had the ability to
fight while staying invisible. His arrows tied up Rama and Lakshmana with serpents. The monkeys
began to run with the fall of their leaders. Suddenly, Garuda, the king of the birds, and the sworn
enemy of the serpents, came to their rescue. All of the snakes slithered away leaving the two brave
brothers, Rama and Lakshmana, free.

Hearing this, Ravana himself came forward. He hurled the powerful missile, Shakti, at Lakshmana. It
descended like a fierce thunderbolt and hit hard at Lakshmana's chest. Lakshmana fell down
senseless.
Rama wasted no time to come forward and challenged Ravana himself. Following a fierce fight
Ravana's chariot was smashed and Ravana was sorely wounded. Ravana stood helpless before
Rama whereupon Rama took pity on him and said, "Go and rest now. Return tomorrow to resume our
fight." In the mean time Lakshmana recovered.

Ravana was shamed and called upon his brother, Kumbhakarna for assistance. Kumbhakarna had
the habit of sleeping for six months at a time. Ravana ordered him to be awakened. Kumbhakarna
was in a deep sleep and it took the beating of drums, piercing of sharp instruments and elephants
walking on him to awaken him.

He was informed of Rama's invasion and Ravana's orders. After eating a mountain of food,
Kumbhakarna appeared in the battlefield. He was huge and strong. When he approached the monkey
army, like a walking tower, the monkeys took to their heels in terror. Hanuman called them back and
challenged Kumbhakarna. A great fight ensued until Hanuman was wounded.

Kumbhakarna headed towards Rama, ignoring the attack of Lakshmana and others. Even Rama
found Kumbhakarna difficult to kill. Rama finally discharged the powerful weapon that he obtained
from the wind God, Pavana. Kumbhakarna fell dead.

Hearing the news of his brother's death, Ravana swooned away. After he recovered, he lamented for
a long time and then called Indrajeet. Indrajeet consoled him and promised to defeat the enemy
quickly.

Indrajeet began to engage in the battle safely hidden behind the clouds and invisible to Rama. Rama
and Lakshmana seemed to be helpless to kill him, as he could not be located. Arrows came from all
directions and finally one of the powerful arrows hit Lakshmana.

Everyone thought this time Lakshmana was dead and Sushena, the physician of the Vanara army,
was called. He declared that Lakshmana was only in a deep coma and instructed Hanuman to leave
immediately for Gandhamadhana Hill, located near the Himalayas. Gandhamadhana Hill grew the
special medicine, called Sanjibani, that was needed to revive Lakshmana. Hanuman lifted himself in
the air and traveled the entire distance from Lanka to Himalaya and reached the Gandhamadhana
Hill.

As he was unable to locate the herb, he lifted the entire mountain and carried it to Lanka. Sushena
immediately applied the herb and Lakshmana regained consciousness. Rama was relieved and the
battle resumed.

This time Indrajeet played a trick on Rama and his army. He rushed forward in his chariot and created
an image of Sita through his magic. Catching the image of Sita by the hair, Indrajeet beheaded Sita in
front of the entire army of the Vanaras. Rama collapsed. Vibhishana came to his rescue. When Rama
came to senses Vibhishana explained that it was only a trick played by Indrajeet and that Ravana
would never allow Sita to be killed.

Vibhishana further explained to Rama that Indrajeet was realizing his limitations to kill Rama. Hence
he would soon perform a special sacrificial ceremony in order to acquire that power. If successful, he
would become invincible. Vibhishana suggested Lakshmana should go immediately to obstruct that
ceremony and slay Indrajeet before he became invisible again.

Rama accordingly sent Lakshmana, accompanied by Vibhishana and Hanuman. They soon reached
the spot where Indrajeet was engaged in performing the sacrifice. But before the Rakshasa prince
could complete it, Lakshmana attacked him. The battle was fierce and finally Lakshmana severed
Indrajeet's head from his body. Indrajeet fell dead.

With the fall of Indrajeet, Ravanas spirit was in complete despair. He wailed most piteously but sorrow
soon gave way to anger. He furiously rushed to the battlefield to conclude the long drawn fight
against Rama and his army. Forcing his way, past Lakshmana, Ravana came face to face with
Rama. The fight was intense.

Finally Rama used his Brahmastra, repeated the mantras as taught by Vashishtha, and hurled it with
all his might towards Ravana. The Brahmastra whizzed through the air emitting scorching flames and
then pierced the heart of Ravana. Ravana fell dead from his chariot. The Rakshasas stood silent in
amazement. They could scarcely believe their eyes. The end was so sudden and final.

The Coronation of Rama

After Ravana's death, Vibhishana was duly crowned as king of Lanka. The message of Rama's
victory was sent to Sita. Happily she bathed and came to Rama in a palanquin. Hanuman and all
other monkeys came to pay their respect. Meeting Rama, Sita was overcome by her joyous emotion.
Rama, however, seemed to be far away in thought.

At length Rama spoke, "I am happy to rescue you from the hands of Ravana but you have lived a
year in enemy's abode. It is not proper that I should take you back now."

Sita could not believe what Rama said. Bursting in tears Sita asked, "Was that my fault? The monster
carried me away against my wishes. While in his residence, my mind and my heart were fixed on my
Lord, Rama, alone."

Sita felt deeply grieved and decided to end her life in the fire.

She turned to Lakshmana and with tearful eyes she implored him to prepare the fire. Lakshmana
looked at his elder brother, hoping for some type of reprieve, but there was no sign of emotion on
Ramas face and no words came from his mouth. As instructed, Lakshmana built a large fire. Sita
reverently walked around her husband and approached the blazing fire. Joining her palms in
salutation, she addressed Agni, the God of fire, "If I am pure, O fire, protect me." With these words
Sita stepped into the flames, to the horror of the spectators.

Then Agni, whom Sita invoked, arose from the flames and gently lifted Sita unharmed, and presented
her to Rama.

"Rama!" addressed Agni, "Sita is spotless and pure at heart. Take her to Ayodhya. People are waiting
there for you." Rama delightfully received her. "Don't I know she is pure? I had to test her for the sake
of the world so that the truth may be known to all."

Rama and Sita were now reunited and ascended on a air chariot (Pushpaka Viman), along with
Lakshmana to return to Ayodhya. Hanuman went ahead to apprise Bharata of their arrival.

When the party reached Ayodhya, the entire city was waiting to receive them. Rama was coronated
and he took up the reins of government much to the great joy of his subjects.
This epic poem was highly influential on many Indian poets and writers of all ages and languages.
Although it had existed in Sanskrit for centuries, The Ramayana was first introduced to the West in
1843 in Italian by Gaspare Gorresio.

Ramayana

Ramayana (Rama’s Journey) shorter of the two great epic poems of india, the other being the
Mahabharata(Great epic of the Bharata Dynasty), it was composed in Sanskrit, dated to around BCE
to 100 BCE by the poet Valmiki, its pressing form consist 24,000 couplets divided into seven books.
The epic contains the teachings of the very ancient Hindu sages
BACKGROUND OF THE AUTHOR
: Maharshi Valmiki, the author of the great Indian epic , was a Hindu sage who lived around the
beginning of the first millennium B.C. He is referred to as the 'adikavi', the original creator of the
Hindu 'sloka' - a verse form in which most of the great epics such as Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Puranas, and other works are composed.
11. He was a Brahman by birth belonging to the lineage of Bhrigu. Fate consigned him to a family
of robbers which brought him up. Accidental contact with the Saptarsis - the Seven Sages and
with the sage Narada changed his life. By the repetition of Ramanama or the name of Ram, he
attained the supreme state of a 'maharshi' or great sage. Since a 'valmika' or an anthill had grown
over his body during his long period of austerities and poised state of penance, he came to be
known as Valmiki

Ramayana Short Summary

Dasharatha is the King of Ayodhya and has three wives and four sons, Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata
and Shatrughana. Rama is the ideal and perfect son, and grows up with his brothers. When he
comes of age, he marries Sita, the princess of a nearby kingdom. However, Bharata's mother is
Kaikeyi, who resents Rama being the crown prince. She calls up a debt that Dasharatha owes her
and asks for Rama to be exiled for fourteen years and her son Bharata be made crown prince
instead.

The devastated Dasharatha has no choice and Rama prepares to leave for exile. Sita and
Lakshmana will not leave his side however and follow him into the forest. While in the forest,
Surphanaka, a female rakshasi (demoness) becomes enamored of Rama and is wounded by
Lakshmana while trying to kill Sita. She flees to her brother Khara and asks him to avenge her.
However, Khara and his army are defeated by Rama and Lakshmana, and only one member of their
entire army survives. This lone soldier flees to the island kingdom of Lanka and begs Surphanaka's
brother, the mighty king Ravana to avenge them. Ravana has heard of Sita's beauty and he decides
to abduct her. Using trickery and magic, he manages to lure Rama and Lakshmana away from Sita
and kidnaps her, taking her away to Lanka.

Ravana kidnaps Sita and slays Jatayu.

Rama and Lakshmana travel far and wide searching for Sita but to no avail. Finally, they come upon
a band of vanaras or monkey-men who pledge to help him. One of the might warriors of the vanaras,
Hanuman, becomes Rama's staunch devotee. The vanaras seek out traces of Sita and find she has
been taken to Lanka. Hanuman flies to Lanka and confirms she is imprisoned there. He contacts Sita
and informs her of Rama's whereabouts, promising that they will be back to rescue her. Before
returning to the mainland, Hanuman sets fire to the whole city of Lanka.

Rama, Lakshmana and the vanar army build a causeway from the tip of India to Lanka. They travel to
Lanka, where an epic battle follows between the armies. Ravana is finally killed by Rama, and Sita is
freed. They return to Ayodhya, where Bharata returns the crown to Rama.

SETTING City of Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala

 MAIN CHARACTERS:
Dasaratha -- King of Ayodhya (capital of Kosala), whose eldest son was Rama. Dasaratha had three
wives and four sons -- Rama, Bharata, and the twins Lakshmana and Satrughna.
Rama -- Dasaratha's first-born son, and the upholder of Dharma (correct conduct and duty). Rama,
along with his wife Sita, have served as role models for thousands of generations in India and
elsewhere. Rama is regarded by many Hindus as an incarnation of the god Vishnu.
Sita -- Rama's wife, the adopted daughter of King Janak. Sita was found in the furrows of a sacred
field, and was regarded by the people of Janak's kingdom as a blessed child.
Bharata -- Rama's brother by Queen Kaikeyi. When Bharata learned of his mother's scheme to
banish Rama and place him on the throne, he put Rama's sandals on the throne and ruled Ayodhya
in his name.
Hanuman -- A leader of the monkey tribe allied with Rama against Ravana. Hanuman has many
magical powers because his father was the god of the wind.
Ravana -- The 10-headed king of Lanka who abducted Sita.
Kaushlaya -- Dasaratha's first wife, and the mother of Rama.
Lakshmana -- Rama's younger brother by Dasaratha's third wife, Sumitra. When Rama and Sita were
exiled to the forest, Lakshmana followed in order to serve.
Jataya- is a great eagle and was at point became friend of dasaratha
Kaikeyi- is dasarathas favourite wife and the mother of bharatha

King Janaka- is sitas adoptive father and the king of Mithila

Surpanakha-is ravanas demoness sister, she was enamored by Rama and tried to kill sita

Kooni-is a hunchback woman and kaikeyis companion, encourages kayeki to use her promised
boons from dasaratha to banish rama to the 14 years

Vishnu- one of the gods that make up the hindu trinity alongside shiva and brahma and referred to as
the protector

Indra- lesser god in hindu mythology, depicted as the spiritual father if vali

Shiva- one of the gods who granted Ravana the boons that made him powerful

Brahma- One of the Gods of hindu trinity- referred to as the creator and has four faces

Point of view

The poem is written in the third person. It generally describes events from the point of view of Rama,
but also switches to other relevant settings where Rama is not present, such as the court of Ravana.

1. Exposition : Ravana, the ten-headed king of the evil demons, continually pursues the
destruction of dharma or social and moral order in the world. The gods persuade Vishnu to
reincarnate himself as a man to defeat Ravana. Vishnu is now born as Rama, son of Dasartha.
The epic centers on the life and adventures of Rama and Sita, the daughter of goddess Earth,
his wife.
2. Conflict: When Ravana stole Sita and brought her to his place. Climax: When Rama fought
against Ravana for two days where many were injured and some died.
3. Resolution: They won the battle and was able to take Sita back. But then there are rumors
pertaining to his wife's infidelity so she was exiled. One day, Rama met his sons, twins, and
sent a messenger to findSita and convince her to return. Sita returned the next day and
revealed her innocence with the accusation. And from that moment, he would never see her
wife again and Rama's life returned to Vishnu.
The theme of the play Ramayana is human value and the concept of dharma. Rama is brave, wise
and dutiful, and Sita is beautiful, generous and saintly. Sita gets introduced to Rama at a ceremony
called ‘Swayamvara’, organized by her father Janaka, the king of Mithila to identify a suitable
bridegroom for her lovely daughter. Ramayana is the immortal tale of Shri Rama that teaches us the
values of ideology, devotion, duty, relationships, dharma and karma.

OTHER Plot
Exposition: An archery contest was held for the hunt of Sita. Rama won the contest and was declared
as the future king.

Rising Action: Because of Kaikeyi's jealousy, she requested Rama to be exiled in the forest of
Dandak and let her son be the regent king.

Climax: Bharata followed Rama to convince him to return and be the king but he refused. So he took
his brother's sandals as a proof that he is ruling in Rama's name.

Falling Action: A Raksha princess was rejected when she fell in love with Rama & Lakshmana.
Inrevenger, Ravana sent a deer to tempt the the two brothers and stole Sita away.

Resolution: In the end of search, they successfully recovered Sita and returned to North India.

THEME

The Perfect Man • Romantic Love • Dharma • Brotherly Love • Good and Evil • Combat • Human and Divine

RAMAYANA STORY

The Ramayana is the epic tale of Shri Rama, which teaches about ideology, devotion, duty, dharma
and karma. The word  'Ramayana', literally means "the march (ayana) of Rama" in search of human
values. Written by the great sage Valmiki, the Ramayana is referred to as the Adi Kavya or original
epic. 

The epic poem is composed of rhyming couplets called slokas in high Sanskrit, in a complex linguistic
meter called 'anustup'. The verses are grouped into individual chapters called sargas, with each one
containing a specific event or intent. The sargas are grouped into books called kandas.

The Ramayana has 50 characters and 13 locations in all. 

Here is a condensed English translation of the Ramayana by scholar Stephen Knapp. 

Early Life of Rama

Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, an ancient kingdom that was located in present day Uttar
Pradesh. Ayodhya was its capital. Dasharatha was loved by one and all. His subjects were happy and
his kingdom was prosperous. Even though Dasharatha had everything that he desired, he was very
sad at heart; he had no children.
 
During the same time, there lived a powerful Rakshasa king in the island of Ceylon, located just south
of India. He was called Ravana. His tyranny knew no bounds, his subjects disturbed the prayers of
holy men.

The childless Dasharatha was advised by his family priest Vashishtha to perform a fire sacrifice
ceremony to seek the blessings of God for children. Vishnu, the preserver of the universe, decided to
manifest himself as the eldest son of Dasharatha in order to kill Ravana. While performing the fire
worship ceremony, a majestic figure rose from the sacrificial fire and handed to Dasharatha a bowl of
rice pudding, saying, "God is pleased with you and has asked you to distribute this rice pudding
(payasa) to your wives - they will soon bear your children."

The king received the gift joyfully and distributed the payasa to his three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi,
and Sumitra. Kausalya, the eldest queen, gave birth to the eldest son Rama. Bharata, the second son
was born to Kaikeyi and Sumitra gave birth to the twins Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Rama's birthday
is celebrated now as Ramanavami.

The four princes grew up to be tall, strong, handsome, and brave. Of the four brothers, Rama was
closest to Lakshmana and Bharata to Shatrughna. One day, the revered sage Viswamitra came to
Ayodhya. Dasharatha was overjoyed and immediately got down from his throne and received him
with great honor.

Viswamitra blessed Dasharatha and asked him to send Rama to kill the Rakshasas who were
disturbing his fire sacrifice. Rama was then only fifteen years old. Dasharatha was taken aback.
Rama was too young for the job. He offered himself, but sage Viswamitra knew better. The sage
insisted upon his request and assured the king that Rama would be safe in his hands. Ultimately,
Dasharatha agreed to send Rama, along with Lakshmana, to go with Viswamitra. Dasharatha strictly
ordered his sons to obey Rishi Viswamitra and fulfill all his wishes. The parents blessed the two
young princes. They then departed with the sage (Rishi).

The party of Viswamitra, Rama, and Lakshmana soon reached Dandaka forest where the Rakshasi
Tadaka lived with her son Maricha. Viswamitra asked Rama to challenge her. Rama strung his bow
and twanged the string. The wild animals ran helter-skelter in fear. Tadaka heard the sound and she
became incensed. Mad with rage, roaring thunderously, she rushed at Rama. A fierce battle ensued
between the huge Rakshasi and Rama. Finally, Rama pierced her heart with a deadly arrow and
Tadaka crashed down to the earth. Viswamitra was pleased. He taught Rama several Mantras (divine
chants), with which Rama could summon many divine weapons (by meditation) in order to fight
against evil

Viswamitra then proceeded, with Rama and Lakshmana, towards his ashram. When they started the
fire sacrifice, Rama and Lakshmana were guarding the place. Suddenly Maricha, Tadaka's ferocious
son, arrived with his followers. Rama silently prayed and discharged the newly acquired divine
weapons at Maricha. Maricha was thrown many, many miles away into the sea. All other demons
were slain by Rama and Lakshmana. Viswamitra completed the sacrifice and the sages rejoiced and
blessed the princes.

The next morning, Viswamitra, Rama, and Lakshmana headed towards the city of Mithila, the capital
of the kingdom of Janaka. King Janaka invited Viswamitra to attend the great fire sacrifice ceremony
that he had arranged. Viswamitra had something in mind - to get Rama married to the lovely daughter
of Janaka.

Janaka was a saintly king. He received a bow from Lord Siva. It was strong and heavy.

He wanted his beautiful daughter Sita to marry the bravest and strongest prince in the country. So he
had vowed that he would give Sita in marriage only to the one who could string that great bow of
Siva. Many had tried before. None could even move the bow, let alone string it.

When Viswamitra arrived with Rama and Lakshmana at the court, King Janaka received them with
great respect. Viswamitra introduced Rama and Lakshmana to Janaka and requested that he show
the bow of Siva to Rama so that he could try to string it. Janaka looked at the young prince and
assented doubtfully. The bow was stored in an iron box mounted on an eight-wheeled chariot. Janaka
ordered his men to bring the bow and place it in the middle of a big hall filled with many dignitaries.

Rama then stood up in all humility, picked up the bow with ease, and got ready for the stringing. He
placed one end of the bow against his toe, put forth his might, and bent the bow to string it-when to
everyone's surprise the bow snapped in two! Sita was relieved. She had liked Rama right at the first
sight.

Dasharatha was immediately informed. He gladly gave his consent to the marriage and came to
Mithila with his retinue. Janaka arranged for a grand wedding. Rama and Sita were married. At the
same time, the three other brothers were also provided with brides. Lakshmana married Sita's sister
Urmila. Bharata and Shatrughna married Sita's cousins Mandavi and Shrutakirti. After the wedding,
Viswamitra blessed them all and left for the Himalayas to meditate. Dasharatha returned to Ayodhya
with his sons and their new brides. People celebrated the marriage with great pomp and show.

For the next twelve years Rama and Sita lived happily in Ayodhya. Rama was loved by all. He was a
joy to his father, Dasharatha, whose heart nearly burst with pride when he beheld his son. As
Dasharatha was growing older, he summoned his ministers seeking their opinion about crowning
Rama as prince of Ayodhya. They unanimously welcomed the suggestion. Then Dasharatha
announced the decision and gave orders for the coronation of Rama. During this time, Bharata and
his favorite brother, Shatrughna, had gone to see their maternal grandfather and were absent from
Ayodhya.

Kaikeyi, Bharata's mother, was in the palace rejoicing with the other queens, sharing the happy news
of Rama's coronation. She loved Rama as her own son; but her wicked maid, Manthara, was
unhappy. Manthara wanted Bharata to be the king so she devised a heinous plan to thwart Ramas
coronation. As soon as the plan was set firmly in her mind, she rushed to Kaikeyi to tell her.

"What a fool you are!" Manthara said to Kaikeyi, "The king has always loved you more than the other
queens. But the moment Rama is crowned, Kausalya will become all powerful and she will make you
her slave."

Manthara repeatedly gave her poisoned suggestions, clouding Kaikeyis mind and heart with
suspicion and doubt. Kaikeyi, confused and distraught, finally agreed to Mantharas plan.
"But what can I do to change it?" asked Kaikeyi with a puzzled mind.

Manthara was clever enough to chalk out her plan all the way. She had been waiting for Kaikeyi to
ask her advice.

"You may recall that long ago when Dasharatha was badly wounded in the battle field, while fighting
with the Asuras, you saved Dasraratha's life by swiftly driving his chariot to safety? At that time
Dasharatha offered you two boons. You said you would ask for the boons some other time." Kaikeyi
readily remembered.

Manthara continued, "Now the time has come to demand those boons. Ask Dasharatha for your first
boon to make Bharat the king of Kosal and for the second boon to banish Rama to the forest for
fourteen years."

Kakeyi was a noble-hearted queen, now trapped by Manthara. She agreed to do what Manthara said.
Both of them knew that Dasharatha would never fall back on his words.

Rama's Exile
The night before the coronation, Dasharatha came to Kakeyi to share his happiness at seeing Rama
the crown prince of Kosala. But Kakeyi was missing from her apartment. She was in her "anger
room". When Dasharatha came to her anger room to inquire, he found his beloved queen lying on the
floor with her hair loose and her ornaments cast away.

Dasharatha gently took Kakeyi's head on his lap and asked in a caressing voice, "What is wrong?"

But Kakeyi angrily shook herself free and firmly said; "You have promised me two boons. Now please
grant me these two boons. Let Bharata be crowned as king and not Rama. Rama should be banished
from the kingdom for fourteen years."

Dasharatha could hardly believe his ears. Unable to bear what he had heard, he fell down
unconscious. When he returned to his senses, he cried out in helpless anger, "What has come over
you? What harm has Rama done to you? Please ask for anything else but these."

Kakeyi stood firm and refused to yield. Dasharatha fainted and lay on the floor the rest of the night.
The next morning, Sumantra, the minister, came to inform Dasharatha that all the preparations for the
coronation were ready. But Dasharatha was not in a position to speak to anyone. Kakeyi asked
Sumantra to call Rama immediately. When Rama arrived, Dasharatha was sobbing uncontrollably
and could only utter "Rama! Rama!"

Rama was alarmed and looked at Kakeyi with surprise, "Did I do anything wrong, mother? I have
never seen my father like this before."

"He has something unpleasant to tell you, Rama," replied Kakeyi. "Long ago your father had offered
me two boons. Now I demand it." Then Kakeyi told Rama about the boons.

"Is that all mother?" asked Rama with a smile. "Please take it that your boons are granted. Call for
Bharata. I shall start for the forest today."
Rama did his pranams to his revered father, Dasharatha, and to his stepmother, Kakeyi, and then left
the room. Dasharatha was in shock. He painfully asked his attendants to move him to Kaushalya's
apartment. He was waiting for death to ease his pain.

The news of Rama's exile spread like a fire. Lakshmana was furious with his father's decision. Rama
simply replied, "Is it worthwhile to sacrifice your principle for the sake of this small kingdom?"

Tears sprang from Lakshmana's eyes and he said in a low voice, "If you must go to the forest, take
me along with you." Rama agreed.

Then Rama proceeded to Sita and asked her to stay behind. "Look after my mother, Kausalya, in my
absence."

Sita begged, "Have pity on me. A wife's position is always beside her husband. Don't leave me
behind. Ill die without you." At last Rama permitted Sita to follow him.

Urmila, Lakshamans wife, also wanted to go with Lakshmana to the forest. But Lakshmana explained
to her the life that he plans to lead for the protection of Rama and Sita.

"If you accompany me, Urmila," Lakshmana said, "I may not be able to fulfill my duties. Please take
care of our grieved family members." So Urmila stayed behind on Lakshmana's request.

By that evening Rama, Sita and Lakshmana left Ayodhya on a chariot driven by Sumatra. They were
dressed like mendicants (Rishis). The people of Ayodhya ran behind the chariot crying loudly for
Rama. By nightfall they all reached the bank of the river, Tamasa. Early the next morning Rama
awoke and told Sumantra, "The people of Ayodhya love us very much but we have to be on our own.
We must lead the life of a hermit, as I promised. Let us continue our journey before they wake up."

So, Rama, Lakshmana and Sita, driven by Sumantra, continued their journey alone. After travelling
the entire day they reached the bank of the Ganges and decided to spend the night under a tree near
a village of hunters. The chieftain, Guha, came and offered them all the comforts of his house. But
Rama replied, "Thank you Guha, I appreciate your offer as a good friend but by accepting your
hospitality I will break my promise. Please allow us to sleep here as the hermits do."

Next morning the three, Rama, Lakshmana and Sita, said goodbye to Sumantra and Guha and got
into a boat to cross the river, Ganges. Rama addressed Sumantra, "Return to Ayodhya and console
my father."

By the time Sumantra reached Ayodhya Dasharatha was dead, crying until his last breath, "Rama,
Rama, Rama!" Vasishtha sent a messenger to Bharata asking him to return to Ayodhya without
disclosing the details.

Bharata immediately returned with Shatrughna. As he entered the city of Ayodhya, he realized that
something was terribly wrong. The city was strangely silent. He went straight to his mother, Kaikeyi.
She looked pale. Bharat impatiently asked, "Where is father?" He was stunned by the news. Slowly
he learned about Ramas exile for fourteen years and Dasharathas demise with the departure of
Rama.

Bharata could not believe that his mother was the cause of the disaster. Kakyei tried to make Bharata
understand that she did it all for him. But Bharata turned away from her with disgust and said, "Don't
you know how much I love Rama? This kingdom is worth nothing in his absence. I am ashamed to
call you my mother. You are heartless. You killed my father and banished my beloved brother. I will
not have anything to do with you for as long as I live." Then Bharata left for Kaushalyas apartment.
Kakyei realized the mistake she made.

Kaushalya received Bharata with love and affection. Addressing Bharata she said, "Bharata, the
kingdom is waiting for you. No one will oppose you for ascending the throne. Now that your father is
gone, I would also like to go to the forest and live with Rama."

Bharata could not contain himself any further. He burst into tears and promised Kaushalya to bring
Rama back to Ayodhya as quickly as possible. He understood the throne rightfully belonged to Rama.
After completing the funeral rites for Dasharatha, Bharata started for Chitrakut where Rama was
staying. Bharata halted the army at a respectful distance and walked alone to meet Rama. Seeing
Rama, Bharata fell at his feet begging forgiveness for all the wrong doings.

When Rama asked, "How is father?" Bharat began to cry and broke the sad news; "Our father has left
for heaven. At the time of his death, he constantly took your name and never recovered from the
shock of your departure." Rama collapsed. When he came to senses he went to river, Mandakini, to
offer prayers for his departed father.

The next day, Bharata asked Rama to return to Ayodhya and rule the kingdom. But Rama firmly
replied, "I cannot possibly disobey my father. You rule the kingdom and I shall carry out my pledge. I
will come back home only after fourteen years."

When Bharata realized Ramas firmness in fulfilling his promises, he begged Rama to give him his
sandals. Bharata told Rama the sandals will represent Rama and he would carry out the duties of the
kingdom only as Ramas representative. Rama gracefully agreed. Bharata carried the sandals to
Ayodhya with great reverence. After reaching the capital, he placed the sandals on the throne and
ruled the kingdom in Ramas name. He left the palace and lived like a hermit, as Rama did, counting
the days of Ramas return.

When Bharata left, Rama went to visit Sage Agastha. Agastha asked Rama to move to Panchavati on
the bank of Godavari River. It was a beautiful place. Rama planned to stay at Panchavati for some
time. So, Lakshamana quickly put up an elegant hut and they all settled down.

Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana, lived in Panchavati. Ravana was then the most powerful Asura
king who lived in Lanka (today's Ceylon). One day Surpanakha happened to see Rama and instantly
fell in love with him. She requested Rama to be her husband.

Rama was amused, and smilingly said, "As you see I am already married. You can request
Lakshmana. He is young, handsome and is alone without his wife."

Surpanakha took Rama's word seriously and approached Lakshmana. Lakshmana said, "I am
Rama's servant. You should marry my master and not me, the servant."

Surpanakha got furious with the rejection and attacked Sita in order to devour her. Lakshmana swiftly
intervened, and cut off her nose with his dagger. Surpanakha ran away with her bleeding nose, crying
in pain, to seek help from her Asura brothers, Khara and Dushana. Both the brothers got red with
anger and marched their army towards Panchavati. Rama and Lakshmana faced the Rakshasas and
finally they were all killed.
The Abduction of Sita 
Surpanakha was terror stricken. She immediately flew to Lanka to seek her brother Ravana's
protection. Ravana was outraged to see her sister mutilated. Surpanakha described all that
happened. Ravana was interested when he heard that Sita is the most beautiful woman in the world,
Ravana decided to abduct Sita. Rama loved Sita very much and could not live without her.

Ravana made a plan and went to see Maricha. Maricha had the power of changing himself into any
form he wanted along with the appropriate voice imitation. But Maricha was afraid of Rama. He still
could not get over the experience he had when Rama shot an arrow that hurled him far into the sea.
This happened in Vashishtha's hermitage. Maricha tried to persuade Ravana to stay away from Rama
but Ravana was determined.

"Maricha!" shouted Ravana, "You have only two choices, help me to carry out my plan or prepare for
death." Maricha preferred to die in Rama's hand than be killed by Ravana. So he agreed to help
Ravana in the abduction of Sita.

Maricha took the form of a beautiful golden deer and began to graze near Rama's cottage in
Panchavati. Sita was attracted towards the golden deer and requested Rama to get the golden deer
for her. Lakshmana warned that the golden deer may be a demon in disguise. By then Rama already
started to chase the deer. He hurriedly instructed Lakshmana to look after Sita and ran after the deer.
Very soon Rama realized that the deer is not a real one. He shot an arrow which hit the deer and
Maricha was exposed.

Before dying, Maricha imitated Ram's voice and shouted, "Oh Lakshmana! Oh Sita,! Help! Help!"

Sita heard the voice and asked Lakshmana to run and rescue Rama. Lakshmana was hesitant. He
was confident that Rama is invincible and the voice was only a fake. He tried to convince Sita but she
insisted. Finally Lakshmana agreed. Before his departure, he drew a magic circle, with the tip of his
arrow, around the cottage and asked her not to cross the line.

"As long as you stay within the circle you will be safe with the grace of God" said Lakshmana and
hurriedly left in search of Rama.

From his hiding place Ravana was watching all that was happening. He was glad that his trick
worked. As soon as he found Sita alone, he disguised himself as a hermit and came near Sita's
cottage. He stood beyond the protection line of Lakshmana, and asked for alms (bhiksha). Sita came
out with a bowl full of rice to offer to the holy man, while staying within the protection line drawn by
Lakshmana. The hermit asked her to come near and offer. Sita was unwilling to cross the line when
Ravana pretended to leave the place without alms. As Sita did not want to annoy the sage, she
crossed the line to offer the alms.

Ravana did not lose the opportunity. He quickly pounced on Sita and seized her hands, declaring, "I
am Ravana, the king of Lanka. Come with me and be my queen." Very soon Ravana's chariot left the
ground and flew over the clouds on way to Lanka.

Rama felt distressed when he saw Lakshmana. "Why did you leave Sita alone? The golden deer was
Maricha in disguise. "

Lakshman tried to explain the situation when both the brothers suspected a foul play and ran towards
the cottage. The cottage was empty, as they feared. They searched, and called out her name but all
in vain. Finally they were exhausted. Lakshmana tried to console Rama as best as he could.
Suddenly they heard a cry. They ran towards the source and found a wounded eagle lying at the
floor. It was Jatayu, the king of eagles and a friend of Dasharatha.

Jatayu narrated with great pain, "I saw Ravana abducting Sita. I attacked him when Ravana cut my
wing and made me helpless. Then he flew towards the south." After saying this, Jatayu died on the
lap of Rama. Rama and Lakshmana burried Jatayu and then moved towards the south.

On their way, Rama and Lakshmana met a ferocious demon, called Kabandha. Kabandha attacked
Rama and Lakshmana. When he was about to devour them, Rama struck Kabandha with a fatal
arrow. Before his death, Kabandh disclosed his identity. He had a beautiful form which was changed
by a curse to the form of a monster. Kabandha requested Rama and Lakshmana to burn him into
ashes and that will bring him back to the old form. He also advised Rama to go to the monkey king
Sugrive, who lived in the Rishyamukha mountain, to get help in regaining Sita.

On his way to meet Sugriva, Rama visited the hermitage of an old pious woman, Shabari. She was
waiting for Rama for a long time before she could give up her body. When Rama and Lakshmana
made their appearance, Shabari's dream was fulfilled. She washed their feet, offered them the best
nuts and fruits that she collected for years. Then she took Rama's blessings and departed for the
heaven.

After a long walk, Rama and Lakshmana reached the Rishyamukha mountain to meet Sugriva.
Sugriva had a brother Vali, the king of Kishkindha. They were once good friends. This changed when
they went to fight with a giant. The giant ran into a cave and Vali followed him, asking Sugriva to wait
outside. Sugriva waited for a long time and then returned to the palace in grief, thinking that Vali was
killed. He then became the king upon the request of the minister.

After some time, Vali suddenly appeared. He was mad with Sugriva and blamed him to be a cheater.
Vali was strong. He drove Sugriva out of his kingdom and took away his wife. Ever since, Sugriva had
been living in the Rishyamukha mountain, which was out of bound for Vali because of a Rishi's curse.

On seeing Rama and Lakshmana from a distance, and not knowing the purpose of their visit, Sugriva
sent his close friend Hanuman to find out their identity. Hanuman, disguised as an ascetic, came to
Rama and Lakshmana.

The brothers told Hanuman of their intention to meet Sugriva because they wanted his help to find
Sita. Hanuman was impressed by their courteous behavior and removed his garb. Then he carried
the princes on his shoulder to Sugriva. There Hanuman introduced the brothers and narrated their
story. He then told Sugriva of their intention to come to him.

In return, Sugriva told his story and sought help from Rama to kill Vali, otherwise, he could not help
even if he wanted to. Rama agreed. Hanuman then kindled a fire to bear witness to the alliance
made.

In due course, Vali was killed and Sugriva became the king of Kishkindha. Soon after Sugriva took
over the kingdom of Vali, he ordered his army to proceed in the search of Sita.

Rama specially called Hanuman and gave his ring saying, "If any one finds Sita, it will be you
Hanuman. Keep this ring to prove your identity as my messenger. Give it to Sita when you meet her."
Hanuman most respectfully tied up the ring to his waist and joined the search party.
As Sita flew, she dropped her ornaments on the ground. These were traced by the monkey army and
it was concluded that Sita was carried southwards. When the monkey (Vanara) army reached the
Mahendra Hill, located on the south shore of India, they met Sampati, the brother of Jatayu. Sampati
confirmed that Ravana took Sita to Lanka. The monkeys were perplexed , how to cross the huge sea
that stretched in front of them.

Angada, the son of Sugriva, asked, "Who can cross the ocean?" silence prevailed, until Hanuman
came up to give a try.

Hanuman was the son of Pavana, the wind god. He had a secret gift from his father. He could fly.
Hanuman enlarged himself to a huge size and took a jump to cross the ocean. After overcoming
many obstacles, at last Hanuman reached Lanka. He soon contracted his body and alighted as a tiny
insignificant creature. He soon passed through the city unnoticed and managed to enter the palace
quietly. He went through every chamber but could not see Sita.

Finally, Hanuman located Sita in one of the gardens of Ravana, called Ashoka grove (Vana). She
was surrounded by the Rakshashis who were guarding her. Hanuman hid on a tree and watched Sita
from a distance. She was in deep distress, crying and praying to God for her relief. Hanuman's heart
melted in pity. He took Sita as his mother.

Just then Ravana entered the garden and approached Sita. "I have waited enough. Be sensible and
become my queen. Rama can not cross the ocean and come through this impregnable city. You
better forget about him."

Sita sternly replied, "I have repeatedly told you to return me to Lord Rama before his wrath falls upon
you."

Ravana got furious, "You have gone beyond the limits of my patience. You give me no choice than to
kill you unless you change your mind. Within a few days I shall be back."

As soon as Ravana left, other Rakshashis, who were attending Sita, came back and suggested her to
marry Ravana and enjoy the enviable wealth of Lanka." Sita kept quiet.

Slowly the Rakshashis wandered away, Hanuman came down from his hiding place and gave
Rama's ring to Sita. Sita was thrilled. She wanted to hear about Rama and Lakshmana. After
conversing for a while Hanuman asked Sita to take a ride on her back to return to Rama. Sita did not
agree.

"I do not want to return home secretly" said Sita, "I want Rama to defeat Ravana and take me back
with honor."

Hanuman agreed. Then Sita gave her necklace to Hanuman as an evidence confirming their meeting.

Slaying of Ravana
Before departing from the Ashoka grove (Vana), Hanuman wanted Ravana to have a lesson for his
misconduct. So he began to destroy the Ashoka grove by uprooting the trees. Soon the Rakshasa
warriors came running to catch the monkey but were beaten up. The message reached Ravana. He
was enraged. He asked Indrajeet, his able son, to capture Hanuman.
A fierce battle ensued and Hanuman was finally captured when Indrajeet used the most powerful
weapon, the Brahmastra missile. Hanuman was taken to Ravana's court and the captive stood in
front of the king.

Hanuman introduced himself as the messenger of Rama. "You have abducted the wife of my all
powerful master, Lord Rama. If you want peace, return her with honor to my master or else, you and
your kingdom will be destroyed."

Ravana was wild with rage. He ordered to kill Hanuman instantly when his younger brother
Vibhishana objected. "You can not kill a king's envoy" said Vibhishana. Then Ravana ordered
Hanuman's tail to be set on fire.

The Rakshasa army took Hanuman outside the hall, while Hanuman increased his size and
lengthened his tail. It was wrapped with rags and ropes and soaked in oil. He was then paraded
through the streets of Lanka and a big mob followed to have fun. The tail was set on fire but because
of his divine blessing Hanuman did not feel the heat.

He soon shrank his size and shook off the ropes that bound him and escaped. Then, with the torch of
his burning tail, he jumped from roof to roof to set the city of Lanka on fire. People began to run,
creating chaos and hideous cries. Finally, Hanuman went to the sea shore and put off the fire in the
sea water. The he began his homeward flight.

When Hanuman joined the monkey army and narrated his experience, they all laughed. Soon the
army returned to Kishkindha.

Then Hanuman quickly went to Rama to give his first-hand account. He took out the jewel that Sita
gave and placed it in Rama's hands. Rama burst into tears when he saw the jewel.

He addressed Hanuman and said, "Hanuman! You have achieved what none else could. What can I
do for you?" Hanuman prostrated before Rama and sought his divine blessing.

Sugriva then discussed in detail with Rama their next course of action. On an auspicious hour the
entire monkey army set out from Kishkindha towards Mahendra Hill, located on the opposite side of
Lanka. Upon reaching Mahendra Hill, Rama faced the same problem, how to cross the ocean with
the army. He called for a meeting of all the monkey chiefs, and sought their suggestions for a
solution.

When Ravana heard from his messengers that Rama had already arrived at Mahendra Hill, and was
preparing to cross the ocean to Lanka, he summoned his ministers for advice. They unanimously
decided to fight Rama to his death. To them, Ravana was indestructible and they, undefeatable. Only
Vibhishana, the younger brother of Ravana, was cautious and opposed to this.

Vibhishana said, "Brother Ravana, you must return the chaste woman, Sita, to her husband, Rama,
seek his forgiveness and restore peace."

Ravana became upset with Vibhishana and told him to leave the kingdom of Lanka.

Vibhishana, through his magical power, reached Mahendra Hill and sought permission to meet Rama.
The monkeys were suspicious but took him to Rama as a captive. Vibhishana explained to Rama all
that happened in Ravana's court and sought his asylum. Rama gave him sanctuary and Vibhishana
became the closest adviser to Rama in the war against Ravana. Rama promised Vibhishana to make
him the future king of Lanka.
To reach Lanka, Rama decided to build a bridge with the help of the monkey engineer Nala. He also
summoned Varuna, the God of the Ocean, to cooperate by staying calm while the bridge was in the
making. Immediately thousands of monkeys set about the task of gathering the materials to build the
bridge. When the materials were piled up in heaps, Nala, the great architect, started to build the
bridge. It was a stupendous undertaking. But the entire monkey army worked hard and completed the
bridge in just five days. The army crossed over to Lanka.

After crossing the ocean, Rama sent Angada, the son of Sugrive, to Ravana as a messenger.
Angada went to Ravana's court and delivered Rama's message, "Return Sita with honor or face
destruction." Ravana became enraged and ordered him out of the court immediately.

Angada returned with Ravanas message and preparation for the war began. The next morning Rama
ordered the monkey army to attack. The monkeys rushed forward and hurled huge boulders against
the city walls and gates. The battle continued for a long time. Thousands were dead on each side and
the ground soaked in blood.

When Ravana's army was losing, Indrajeet, Ravana's son, took the command. He had the ability to
fight while staying invisible. His arrows tied up Rama and Lakshmana with serpents. The monkeys
began to run with the fall of their leaders. Suddenly, Garuda, the king of the birds, and the sworn
enemy of the serpents, came to their rescue. All of the snakes slithered away leaving the two brave
brothers, Rama and Lakshmana, free.

Hearing this, Ravana himself came forward. He hurled the powerful missile, Shakti, at Lakshmana. It
descended like a fierce thunderbolt and hit hard at Lakshmana's chest. Lakshmana fell down
senseless.

Rama wasted no time to come forward and challenged Ravana himself. Following a fierce fight
Ravana's chariot was smashed and Ravana was sorely wounded. Ravana stood helpless before
Rama whereupon Rama took pity on him and said, "Go and rest now. Return tomorrow to resume our
fight." In the mean time Lakshmana recovered.

Ravana was shamed and called upon his brother, Kumbhakarna for assistance. Kumbhakarna had
the habit of sleeping for six months at a time. Ravana ordered him to be awakened. Kumbhakarna
was in a deep sleep and it took the beating of drums, piercing of sharp instruments and elephants
walking on him to awaken him.

He was informed of Rama's invasion and Ravana's orders. After eating a mountain of food,
Kumbhakarna appeared in the battlefield. He was huge and strong. When he approached the monkey
army, like a walking tower, the monkeys took to their heels in terror. Hanuman called them back and
challenged Kumbhakarna. A great fight ensued until Hanuman was wounded.

Kumbhakarna headed towards Rama, ignoring the attack of Lakshmana and others. Even Rama
found Kumbhakarna difficult to kill. Rama finally discharged the powerful weapon that he obtained
from the wind God, Pavana. Kumbhakarna fell dead.

Hearing the news of his brother's death, Ravana swooned away. After he recovered, he lamented for
a long time and then called Indrajeet. Indrajeet consoled him and promised to defeat the enemy
quickly.

Indrajeet began to engage in the battle safely hidden behind the clouds and invisible to Rama. Rama
and Lakshmana seemed to be helpless to kill him, as he could not be located. Arrows came from all
directions and finally one of the powerful arrows hit Lakshmana.
Everyone thought this time Lakshmana was dead and Sushena, the physician of the Vanara army,
was called. He declared that Lakshmana was only in a deep coma and instructed Hanuman to leave
immediately for Gandhamadhana Hill, located near the Himalayas. Gandhamadhana Hill grew the
special medicine, called Sanjibani, that was needed to revive Lakshmana. Hanuman lifted himself in
the air and traveled the entire distance from Lanka to Himalaya and reached the Gandhamadhana
Hill.

As he was unable to locate the herb, he lifted the entire mountain and carried it to Lanka. Sushena
immediately applied the herb and Lakshmana regained consciousness. Rama was relieved and the
battle resumed.

This time Indrajeet played a trick on Rama and his army. He rushed forward in his chariot and created
an image of Sita through his magic. Catching the image of Sita by the hair, Indrajeet beheaded Sita in
front of the entire army of the Vanaras. Rama collapsed. Vibhishana came to his rescue. When Rama
came to senses Vibhishana explained that it was only a trick played by Indrajeet and that Ravana
would never allow Sita to be killed.

Vibhishana further explained to Rama that Indrajeet was realizing his limitations to kill Rama. Hence
he would soon perform a special sacrificial ceremony in order to acquire that power. If successful, he
would become invincible. Vibhishana suggested Lakshmana should go immediately to obstruct that
ceremony and slay Indrajeet before he became invisible again.

Rama accordingly sent Lakshmana, accompanied by Vibhishana and Hanuman. They soon reached
the spot where Indrajeet was engaged in performing the sacrifice. But before the Rakshasa prince
could complete it, Lakshmana attacked him. The battle was fierce and finally Lakshmana severed
Indrajeet's head from his body. Indrajeet fell dead.

With the fall of Indrajeet, Ravanas spirit was in complete despair. He wailed most piteously but sorrow
soon gave way to anger. He furiously rushed to the battlefield to conclude the long drawn fight
against Rama and his army. Forcing his way, past Lakshmana, Ravana came face to face with
Rama. The fight was intense.

Finally Rama used his Brahmastra, repeated the mantras as taught by Vashishtha, and hurled it with
all his might towards Ravana. The Brahmastra whizzed through the air emitting scorching flames and
then pierced the heart of Ravana. Ravana fell dead from his chariot. The Rakshasas stood silent in
amazement. They could scarcely believe their eyes. The end was so sudden and final.

The Coronation of Rama

After Ravana's death, Vibhishana was duly crowned as king of Lanka. The message of Rama's
victory was sent to Sita. Happily she bathed and came to Rama in a palanquin. Hanuman and all
other monkeys came to pay their respect. Meeting Rama, Sita was overcome by her joyous emotion.
Rama, however, seemed to be far away in thought.

At length Rama spoke, "I am happy to rescue you from the hands of Ravana but you have lived a
year in enemy's abode. It is not proper that I should take you back now."

Sita could not believe what Rama said. Bursting in tears Sita asked, "Was that my fault? The monster
carried me away against my wishes. While in his residence, my mind and my heart were fixed on my
Lord, Rama, alone."
Sita felt deeply grieved and decided to end her life in the fire.

She turned to Lakshmana and with tearful eyes she implored him to prepare the fire. Lakshmana
looked at his elder brother, hoping for some type of reprieve, but there was no sign of emotion on
Ramas face and no words came from his mouth. As instructed, Lakshmana built a large fire. Sita
reverently walked around her husband and approached the blazing fire. Joining her palms in
salutation, she addressed Agni, the God of fire, "If I am pure, O fire, protect me." With these words
Sita stepped into the flames, to the horror of the spectators.

Then Agni, whom Sita invoked, arose from the flames and gently lifted Sita unharmed, and presented
her to Rama.

"Rama!" addressed Agni, "Sita is spotless and pure at heart. Take her to Ayodhya. People are waiting
there for you." Rama delightfully received her. "Don't I know she is pure? I had to test her for the sake
of the world so that the truth may be known to all."

Rama and Sita were now reunited and ascended on a air chariot (Pushpaka Viman), along with
Lakshmana to return to Ayodhya. Hanuman went ahead to apprise Bharata of their arrival.

When the party reached Ayodhya, the entire city was waiting to receive them. Rama was coronated
and he took up the reins of government much to the great joy of his subjects.

This epic poem was highly influential on many Indian poets and writers of all ages and languages.
Although it had existed in Sanskrit for centuries, The Ramayana was first introduced to the West in
1843 in Italian by Gaspare Gorresio.